User manual | The Free High School Science Texts: Textbooks for High School Students Chemistry

FHSST Authors
The Free High School Science Texts:
Textbooks for High School Students
Studying the Sciences
Chemistry
Grades 10 - 12
Version 0
November 9, 2008
ii
Copyright 2007 “Free High School Science Texts”
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iii
iv
Contents
I
II
Introduction
1
Matter and Materials
3
1 Classification of Matter - Grade 10
1.1
1.2
5
Mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5
1.1.1
Heterogeneous mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6
1.1.2
Homogeneous mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6
1.1.3
Separating mixtures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7
Pure Substances: Elements and Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9
1.2.1
Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9
1.2.2
Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9
1.3
Giving names and formulae to substances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.4
Metals, Semi-metals and Non-metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.4.1
Metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.4.2
Non-metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.4.3
Semi-metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.5
Electrical conductors, semi-conductors and insulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.6
Thermal Conductors and Insulators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.7
Magnetic and Non-magnetic Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.8
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2 What are the objects around us made of? - Grade 10
21
2.1
Introduction: The atom as the building block of matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.2
Molecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.2.1
Representing molecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.3
Intramolecular and intermolecular forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.4
The Kinetic Theory of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.5
The Properties of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.6
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3 The Atom - Grade 10
3.1
35
Models of the Atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.1.1
The Plum Pudding Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.1.2
Rutherford’s model of the atom
v
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
CONTENTS
3.1.3
3.2
3.3
CONTENTS
The Bohr Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
How big is an atom? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.2.1
How heavy is an atom? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.2.2
How big is an atom? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Atomic structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.3.1
The Electron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.3.2
The Nucleus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.4
Atomic number and atomic mass number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.5
Isotopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
3.5.1
What is an isotope? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.5.2
Relative atomic mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Energy quantisation and electron configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.6.1
The energy of electrons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.6.2
Energy quantisation and line emission spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.6.3
Electron configuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.6.4
Core and valence electrons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.6.5
The importance of understanding electron configuration . . . . . . . . . 51
Ionisation Energy and the Periodic Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.7.1
Ions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.7.2
Ionisation Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
The Arrangement of Atoms in the Periodic Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.8.1
Groups in the periodic table
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.8.2
Periods in the periodic table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4 Atomic Combinations - Grade 11
63
4.1
Why do atoms bond? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.2
Energy and bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.3
What happens when atoms bond? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.4
Covalent Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.4.1
The nature of the covalent bond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
4.5
Lewis notation and molecular structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
4.6
Electronegativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.7
4.8
4.6.1
Non-polar and polar covalent bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.6.2
Polar molecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Ionic Bonding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.7.1
The nature of the ionic bond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
4.7.2
The crystal lattice structure of ionic compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.7.3
Properties of Ionic Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Metallic bonds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.8.1
The nature of the metallic bond . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
4.8.2
The properties of metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
vi
CONTENTS
4.9
CONTENTS
Writing chemical formulae
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.9.1
The formulae of covalent compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
4.9.2
The formulae of ionic compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
4.10 The Shape of Molecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.10.1 Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) theory . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.10.2 Determining the shape of a molecule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
4.11 Oxidation numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
4.12 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
5 Intermolecular Forces - Grade 11
91
5.1
Types of Intermolecular Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
5.2
Understanding intermolecular forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
5.3
Intermolecular forces in liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
5.4
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
6 Solutions and solubility - Grade 11
101
6.1
Types of solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
6.2
Forces and solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
6.3
Solubility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
6.4
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
7 Atomic Nuclei - Grade 11
107
7.1
Nuclear structure and stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
7.2
The Discovery of Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
7.3
Radioactivity and Types of Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
7.4
7.3.1
Alpha (α) particles and alpha decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
7.3.2
Beta (β) particles and beta decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
7.3.3
Gamma (γ) rays and gamma decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Sources of radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
7.4.1
Natural background radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
7.4.2
Man-made sources of radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
7.5
The ’half-life’ of an element . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
7.6
The Dangers of Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
7.7
The Uses of Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
7.8
Nuclear Fission
7.9
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
7.8.1
The Atomic bomb - an abuse of nuclear fission . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
7.8.2
Nuclear power - harnessing energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Nuclear Fusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
7.10 Nucleosynthesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
7.10.1 Age of Nucleosynthesis (225 s - 103 s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
7.10.2 Age of Ions (103 s - 1013 s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
7.10.3 Age of Atoms (1013 s - 1015 s) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
7.10.4 Age of Stars and Galaxies (the universe today) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
7.11 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
vii
CONTENTS
CONTENTS
8 Thermal Properties and Ideal Gases - Grade 11
125
8.1
A review of the kinetic theory of matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
8.2
Boyle’s Law: Pressure and volume of an enclosed gas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
8.3
Charles’s Law: Volume and Temperature of an enclosed gas . . . . . . . . . . . 132
8.4
The relationship between temperature and pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
8.5
The general gas equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
8.6
The ideal gas equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
8.7
Molar volume of gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
8.8
Ideal gases and non-ideal gas behaviour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
8.9
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
9 Organic Molecules - Grade 12
151
9.1
What is organic chemistry? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
9.2
Sources of carbon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
9.3
Unique properties of carbon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
9.4
Representing organic compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
9.4.1
Molecular formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
9.4.2
Structural formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
9.4.3
Condensed structural formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
9.5
Isomerism in organic compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
9.6
Functional groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
9.7
The Hydrocarbons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
9.7.1
The Alkanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
9.7.2
Naming the alkanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
9.7.3
Properties of the alkanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
9.7.4
Reactions of the alkanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
9.7.5
The alkenes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
9.7.6
Naming the alkenes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
9.7.7
The properties of the alkenes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
9.7.8
Reactions of the alkenes
9.7.9
The Alkynes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
9.7.10 Naming the alkynes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
9.8
9.9
The Alcohols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
9.8.1
Naming the alcohols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
9.8.2
Physical and chemical properties of the alcohols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Carboxylic Acids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
9.9.1
Physical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
9.9.2
Derivatives of carboxylic acids: The esters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
9.10 The Amino Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
9.11 The Carbonyl Group . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
9.12 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
viii
CONTENTS
CONTENTS
10 Organic Macromolecules - Grade 12
185
10.1 Polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
10.2 How do polymers form? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
10.2.1 Addition polymerisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
10.2.2 Condensation polymerisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
10.3 The chemical properties of polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
10.4 Types of polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
10.5 Plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
10.5.1 The uses of plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
10.5.2 Thermoplastics and thermosetting plastics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
10.5.3 Plastics and the environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
10.6 Biological Macromolecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
10.6.1 Carbohydrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
10.6.2 Proteins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
10.6.3 Nucleic Acids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
10.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
III
Chemical Change
209
11 Physical and Chemical Change - Grade 10
211
11.1 Physical changes in matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
11.2 Chemical Changes in Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
11.2.1 Decomposition reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
11.2.2 Synthesis reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
11.3 Energy changes in chemical reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
11.4 Conservation of atoms and mass in reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
11.5 Law of constant composition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
11.6 Volume relationships in gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
11.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
12 Representing Chemical Change - Grade 10
223
12.1 Chemical symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
12.2 Writing chemical formulae
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
12.3 Balancing chemical equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
12.3.1 The law of conservation of mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
12.3.2 Steps to balance a chemical equation
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
12.4 State symbols and other information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
12.5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
13 Quantitative Aspects of Chemical Change - Grade 11
233
13.1 The Mole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
13.2 Molar Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
13.3 An equation to calculate moles and mass in chemical reactions . . . . . . . . . . 237
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CONTENTS
13.4 Molecules and compounds
CONTENTS
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
13.5 The Composition of Substances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
13.6 Molar Volumes of Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
13.7 Molar concentrations in liquids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
13.8 Stoichiometric calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
13.9 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
14 Energy Changes In Chemical Reactions - Grade 11
255
14.1 What causes the energy changes in chemical reactions? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
14.2 Exothermic and endothermic reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
14.3 The heat of reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
14.4 Examples of endothermic and exothermic reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
14.5 Spontaneous and non-spontaneous reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
14.6 Activation energy and the activated complex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
14.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
15 Types of Reactions - Grade 11
267
15.1 Acid-base reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
15.1.1 What are acids and bases? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
15.1.2 Defining acids and bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
15.1.3 Conjugate acid-base pairs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
15.1.4 Acid-base reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
15.1.5 Acid-carbonate reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
15.2 Redox reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
15.2.1 Oxidation and reduction
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
15.2.2 Redox reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
15.3 Addition, substitution and elimination reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
15.3.1 Addition reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
15.3.2 Elimination reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
15.3.3 Substitution reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
15.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
16 Reaction Rates - Grade 12
287
16.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
16.2 Factors affecting reaction rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
16.3 Reaction rates and collision theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
16.4 Measuring Rates of Reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
16.5 Mechanism of reaction and catalysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
16.6 Chemical equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
16.6.1 Open and closed systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
16.6.2 Reversible reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
16.6.3 Chemical equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
16.7 The equilibrium constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
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CONTENTS
16.7.1 Calculating the equilibrium constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
16.7.2 The meaning of kc values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
16.8 Le Chatelier’s principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
16.8.1 The effect of concentration on equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
16.8.2 The effect of temperature on equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
16.8.3 The effect of pressure on equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
16.9 Industrial applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
16.10Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
17 Electrochemical Reactions - Grade 12
319
17.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
17.2 The Galvanic Cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
17.2.1 Half-cell reactions in the Zn-Cu cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
17.2.2 Components of the Zn-Cu cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
17.2.3 The Galvanic cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
17.2.4 Uses and applications of the galvanic cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
17.3 The Electrolytic cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
17.3.1 The electrolysis of copper sulphate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
17.3.2 The electrolysis of water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
17.3.3 A comparison of galvanic and electrolytic cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
17.4 Standard Electrode Potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
17.4.1 The different reactivities of metals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
17.4.2 Equilibrium reactions in half cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
17.4.3 Measuring electrode potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
17.4.4 The standard hydrogen electrode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
17.4.5 Standard electrode potentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
17.4.6 Combining half cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
17.4.7 Uses of standard electrode potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
17.5 Balancing redox reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
17.6 Applications of electrochemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
17.6.1 Electroplating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
17.6.2 The production of chlorine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
17.6.3 Extraction of aluminium
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
17.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
IV
Chemical Systems
353
18 The Water Cycle - Grade 10
355
18.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
18.2 The importance of water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
18.3 The movement of water through the water cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
18.4 The microscopic structure of water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
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18.4.1 The polar nature of water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
18.4.2 Hydrogen bonding in water molecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
18.5 The unique properties of water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
18.6 Water conservation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
18.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
19 Global Cycles: The Nitrogen Cycle - Grade 10
369
19.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
19.2 Nitrogen fixation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
19.3 Nitrification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
19.4 Denitrification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
19.5 Human Influences on the Nitrogen Cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
19.6 The industrial fixation of nitrogen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
19.7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
20 The Hydrosphere - Grade 10
377
20.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
20.2 Interactions of the hydrosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
20.3 Exploring the Hydrosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
20.4 The Importance of the Hydrosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
20.5 Ions in aqueous solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
20.5.1 Dissociation in water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
20.5.2 Ions and water hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
20.5.3 The pH scale . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
20.5.4 Acid rain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
20.6 Electrolytes, ionisation and conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
20.6.1 Electrolytes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
20.6.2 Non-electrolytes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
20.6.3 Factors that affect the conductivity of water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
20.7 Precipitation reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
20.8 Testing for common anions in solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
20.8.1 Test for a chloride . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
20.8.2 Test for a sulphate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
20.8.3 Test for a carbonate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
20.8.4 Test for bromides and iodides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
20.9 Threats to the Hydrosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
20.10Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
21 The Lithosphere - Grade 11
397
21.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
21.2 The chemistry of the earth’s crust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
21.3 A brief history of mineral use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
21.4 Energy resources and their uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 400
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CONTENTS
21.5 Mining and Mineral Processing: Gold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
21.5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
21.5.2 Mining the Gold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
21.5.3 Processing the gold ore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
21.5.4 Characteristics and uses of gold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
21.5.5 Environmental impacts of gold mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404
21.6 Mining and mineral processing: Iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
21.6.1 Iron mining and iron ore processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
21.6.2 Types of iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
21.6.3 Iron in South Africa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408
21.7 Mining and mineral processing: Phosphates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
21.7.1 Mining phosphates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
21.7.2 Uses of phosphates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
21.8 Energy resources and their uses: Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
21.8.1 The formation of coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
21.8.2 How coal is removed from the ground . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
21.8.3 The uses of coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
21.8.4 Coal and the South African economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
21.8.5 The environmental impacts of coal mining . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
21.9 Energy resources and their uses: Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
21.9.1 How oil is formed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
21.9.2 Extracting oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
21.9.3 Other oil products . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
21.9.4 The environmental impacts of oil extraction and use . . . . . . . . . . . 415
21.10Alternative energy resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
21.11Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
22 The Atmosphere - Grade 11
421
22.1 The composition of the atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
22.2 The structure of the atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
22.2.1 The troposphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
22.2.2 The stratosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
22.2.3 The mesosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
22.2.4 The thermosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
22.3 Greenhouse gases and global warming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
22.3.1 The heating of the atmosphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
22.3.2 The greenhouse gases and global warming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
22.3.3 The consequences of global warming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
22.3.4 Taking action to combat global warming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
22.4 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
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CONTENTS
23 The Chemical Industry - Grade 12
435
23.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
23.2 Sasol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
23.2.1 Sasol today: Technology and production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
23.2.2 Sasol and the environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
23.3 The Chloralkali Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
23.3.1 The Industrial Production of Chlorine and Sodium Hydroxide . . . . . . . 442
23.3.2 Soaps and Detergents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
23.4 The Fertiliser Industry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
23.4.1 The value of nutrients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
23.4.2 The Role of fertilisers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
23.4.3 The Industrial Production of Fertilisers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
23.4.4 Fertilisers and the Environment: Eutrophication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
23.5 Electrochemistry and batteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
23.5.1 How batteries work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
23.5.2 Battery capacity and energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
23.5.3 Lead-acid batteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
23.5.4 The zinc-carbon dry cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
23.5.5 Environmental considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
23.6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
A GNU Free Documentation License
467
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Chapter 6
Solutions and solubility - Grade 11
We are surrounded by different types of solutions in our daily lives. Any solution is made up of
a solute and a solvent. A solute is a substance that dissolves in a solvent. In the case of a salt
(NaCl) solution, the salt crystals are the solute. A solvent is the substance in which the solute
dissolves. In the case of the NaCl solution, the solvent would be the water. In most cases, there
is always more of the solvent than there is of the solute in a solution.
Definition: Solutes and solvents
A solute is a substance that is dissolved in another substance. A solute can be a solid,
liquid or gas. A solvent is the liquid that dissolves a solid, liquid, or gaseous solute.
6.1
Types of solutions
When a solute is mixed with a solvent, a mixture is formed, and this may be either heterogeneous or homogeneous. If you mix sand and water for example, the sand does not dissolve in the
water. This is a heterogeneous mixture. When you mix salt and water, the resulting mixture
is homogeneous because the solute has dissolved in the solvent.
Definition: Solution
In chemistry, a solution is a homogeneous mixture that consists of a solute that has been
dissolved in a solvent.
A solution then is a homogeneous mixture of a solute and a solvent. Examples of solutions are:
• A solid solute dissolved in a liquid solvent e.g. sodium chloride dissolved in water.
• A gas solute dissolved in a liquid solvent e.g. carbon dioxide dissolved in water (fizzy
drinks) or oxygen dissolved in water (aquatic ecosystems).
• A liquid solute dissolved in a liquid solvent e.g. ethanol in water.
• A solid solute in a solid solvent e.g. metal alloys.
• A gas solute in a gas solvent e.g. the homogeneous mixture of gases in the air that we
breathe.
While there are many different types of solutions, most of those we will be discussing are liquids.
101
6.2
CHAPTER 6. SOLUTIONS AND SOLUBILITY - GRADE 11
6.2
Forces and solutions
An important question to ask is why some solutes dissolve in certain solvents and not in others.
The answer lies in understanding the interaction between the intramolecular and intermolecular
forces between the solute and solvent particles.
Activity :: Experiment : Solubility
Aim:
To investigate the solubility of solutes in different solvents.
Apparatus:
Salt, vinegar, iodine, ethanol
Method:
1. Mix half a teaspoon of salt in 100cm3 of water
2. Mix half a teaspoon of vinegar (acetic acid) in 100cm3 of water
3. Mix a few grains of iodine in ethanol
4. Mix a few grains of iodine in 100cm3 of water
Results:
Record your observations in the table below:
Solute
Iodine
Iodine
Vinegar
Salt
Polar, non-polar or
ionic solute
Solvent
Polar, non-polar or
ionic solvent
Does solute dissolve?
Ethanol
Water
Water
Water
You should have noticed that in some cases, the solute dissolves in the solvent,
while in other cases it does not.
Conclusions:
In general, polar and ionic solutes dissolve well in polar solvents, while non-polar
solutes dissolve well in non-polar solvents. An easy way to remember this is that ’like
dissolves like’, in other words, if the solute and the solvent have similar intermolecular
forces, there is a high possibility that dissolution will occur. This will be explained
in more detail below.
• Non-polar solutes and non-polar solvents (e.g. iodine and ether)
Iodine molecules are non-polar, and the forces between the molecules are weak van der
Waals forces. There are also weak van der Waals forces between ether molecules. Because the intermolecular forces in both the solute and the solvent are similar, it is easy for
these to be broken in the solute, allowing the solute to move into the spaces between the
molecules of the solvent. The solute dissolves in the solvent.
• Polar solutes and polar solvents (e.g. salt and water)
There are strong electrostatic forces between the ions of a salt such as sodium chloride.
There are also strong hydrogen bonds between water molecules. Because the strength of
the intermolecular forces in the solute and solvent are similar, the solute will dissolve in
the solvent.
102
CHAPTER 6. SOLUTIONS AND SOLUBILITY - GRADE 11
6.3
6.3
Solubility
You may have noticed sometimes that, if you try to dissolve salt (or some other solute) in a
small amount of water, it will initially dissolve, but then appears not to be able to dissolve any
further when you keep adding more solute to the solvent. This is called the solubility of the
solution. Solubility refers to the maximum amount of solute that will dissolve in a solvent under
certain conditions.
Definition: Solubility
Solubility is the ability of a given substance, the solute, to dissolve in a solvent. If a substance
has a high solubility, it means that lots of the solute is able to dissolve in the solvent.
So what factors affect solubility? Below are some of the factors that affect solubility:
• the quantity of solute and solvent in the solution
• the temperature of the solution
• other compounds in the solvent affect solubility because they take up some of the spaces
between molecules of the solvent, that could otherwise be taken by the solute itself
• the strength of the forces between particles of the solute, and the strength of forces between
particles of the solvent
Activity :: Experiment : Factors affecting solubility
Aim:
To determine the effect of temperature on solubility
Method:
1. Measure 100cm3 of water into a beaker
2. Measure 100 g of salt and place into another beaker
3. Slowly pour the salt into the beaker with the water, stirring it as you add. Keep
adding salt until you notice that the salt is not dissolving anymore.
4. Record the amount of salt that has been added to the water and the temperature of the solution.
5. Now increase the temperature of the water by heating it over a bunsen burner.
6. Repeat the steps above so that you obtain the solubility limit of salt at this
higher temperature. You will need to start again with new salt and water!
7. Continue to increase the temperature as many times as possible and record
your results.
Results:
Record your results in the table below:
Temp (0 C)
Amount of solute that dissolves
in 100 cm3 of water (g)
103
6.3
CHAPTER 6. SOLUTIONS AND SOLUBILITY - GRADE 11
As you increase the temperature of the water, are you able to dissolve more or
less salt?
Conclusions:
As the temperature of the solution increases, so does the amount of salt that will
dissolve. The solubility of sodium chloride increases as the temperature increases.
Exercise: Investigating the solubility of salts
The data table below gives the solubility (measured in grams of salt per 100 g
water) of a number of different salts at various temperatures. Look at the data and
then answer the questions that follow.
Temp (0 C)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
KNO3
13.9
21.2
31.6
45.3
61.4
83.5
106.0
Solubility (g salt per 100 g H2 O)
K2 SO4
NaCl
7.4
35.7
9.3
35.8
11.1
36.0
13.0
36.2
14.8
36.5
16.5
36.8
18.2
37.3
1. On the same set of axes, draw line graphs to show how the solubility of the
three salts changes with an increase in temperature.
2. Describe what happens to salt solubility as temperature increases. Suggest a
reason why this happens.
3. Write an equation to show how each of the following salts ionises in water:
(a) KNO3
(b) K2 SO4
4. You are given three beakers, each containing the same amount of water. 5 g
KNO3 is added to beaker 1, 5 g K2 SO4 is added to beaker 2 and 5 g NaCl
is added to beaker 3. The beakers are heated over a bunsen burner until the
temperature of their solutions is 600 C.
(a) Which salt solution will have the highest conductivity under these conditions?
(b) Explain your answer.
Exercise: Experiments and solubility
Two grade 10 learners, Siphiwe and Ann, wish to separately investigate the solubility of potassium chloride at room temperature. They follow the list of instructions
shown below, using the apparatus that has been given to them:
Method:
1. Determine the mass of an empty, dry evaporating basin using an electronic
balance and record the mass.
2. Pour 50 ml water into a 250 ml beaker.
104
CHAPTER 6. SOLUTIONS AND SOLUBILITY - GRADE 11
6.3
3. Add potassium chloride crystals to the water in the beaker in small portions.
4. Stir the solution until the salt dissolves.
5. Repeat the addition of potassium chloride (steps a and b) until no more salt
dissolves and some salt remains undissolved.
6. Record the temperature of the potassium chloride solution.
7. Filter the solution into the evaporating basin.
8. Determine the mass of the evaporating basin containing the solution that has
passed through the filter (the filtrate) on the electronic balance and record the
mass.
9. Ignite the Bunsen burner.
10. Carefully heat the filtrate in the evaporating basin until the salt is dry.
11. Place the evaporating basin in the desiccator (a large glass container in which
there is a dehydrating agent like calcium sulphate that absorbs water) until it
reaches room temperature.
12. Determine the mass of the evaporating basin containing the dry cool salt on
the electronic balance and record the mass.
On completion of the experiment, their results were as follows:
Siphiwe’s
results
Temperature (0 C)
15
Mass of evaporating basin (g)
65.32
Mass of evaporating basin + salt solution (g) 125.32
Mass of evaporating basin + salt (g)
81.32
Ann’s
results
26
67.55
137.55
85.75
1. Calculate the solubility of potassium chloride, using the data recorded by
(a) Siphiwe
(b) Ann
A reference book lists the solubility of potassium chloride as 35.0 g per
100 ml of water at 250 C.
(c) Give a reason why you think each obtained results different from each other
and the value in the reference book.
2. Siphiwe and Ann now expand their investigation and work together. They
investigate the solubility of potassium chloride at different temperatures but
also the solubility of copper (II) sulphate at these same temperatures. They
collect and write up their results as follows:
In each experiment we used 50 ml of water in the beaker. We found the
following masses of substance dissolved in the 50 ml of water. At 00 C, mass
of potassium chloride is 14.0 g and copper sulphate is 14.3 g. At 100 C, 15.6
g and 17.4 g respectively. At 200 C, 17.3 g and 20.7 g respectively. At 400 C,
potassium chloride mass is 20.2 g and copper sulphate is 28.5 g, at 600 C, 23.1
g and 40.0 g and lastly at 800 C, the masses were 26.4 g and 55.0 g respectively.
(a) From the record of data provided above, draw up a neat table to record
Siphiwe and Ann’s results.
(b) Identify the dependent and independent variables in their investigation.
(c) Choose an appropriate scale and plot a graph of these results.
(d) From the graph, determine:
i. the temperature at which the solubility of copper sulphate is 50 g per
50 ml of water.
ii. the maximum number of grams of potassium chloride which will dissolve in 100 ml of water at 700 C.
(IEB Exemplar Paper 2, 2006)
105
6.4
CHAPTER 6. SOLUTIONS AND SOLUBILITY - GRADE 11
6.4
Summary
• In chemistry, a solution is a homogenous mixture of a solute in a solvent.
• A solute is a substance that dissolves in a solute. A solute can be a solid, liquid or gas.
• A solvent is a substance in which a solute dissolves. A solvent can also be a solid, liquid
or gas.
• Examples of solutions include salt solutions, metal alloys, the air we breathe and gases
such as oxygen and carbon dioxide dissolved in water.
• Not all solutes will dissolve in all solvents. A general rule is the like dissolves like. Solutes
and solvents that have similar intermolecular forces are more likely to dissolve.
• Polar and ionic solutes will be more likely to dissolve in polar solvents, while non-polar
solutes will be more likely to dissolve in polar solvents.
• Solubility is the extent to which a solute is able to dissolve in a solvent under certain
conditions.
• Factors that affect solubility are the quantity of solute and solvent, temperature, the
intermolecular forces in the solute and solvent and other substances that may be in
the solvent.
Exercise: Summary Exercise
1. Give one word or term for each of the following descriptions:
(a) A type of mixture where the solute has completely dissolved in the solvent.
(b) A measure of how much solute is dissolved in a solution.
(c) Forces between the molecules in a substance.
2. For each of the following questions, choose the one correct answer from the
list provided.
A Which one of the following will readily dissolve in water?
i. I2 (s)
ii. NaI(s)
iii. CCl4 (l)
iv. BaSO4 (s)
(IEB Paper 2, 2005)
b In which of the following pairs of substances will the dissolving process
happen most readily?
Solute Solvent
A
S8
H2 O
B
KCl
CCl4
C KNO3
H2 O
D NH4 Cl
CCl4
(IEB Paper 2, 2004)
3. Which one of the following three substances is the most soluble in pure water
at room temperature?
Hydrogen sulphide, ammonia and hydrogen fluoride
4. Briefly explain in terms of intermolecular forces why solid iodine does not dissolve in pure water, yet it dissolves in xylene, an organic liquid at room temperature.
(IEB Paper 2, 2002)
106
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