User manual | Appendix A: Miller Indices 5.2.1 Surface Structure of Metals

Appendix A:
Miller Indices
(Nix, 2002)
5.2.1 Surface Structure of Metals
In most technological applications, metals are used either in a finely divided form (e.g. supported
metal catalysts) or in a massive, polycrystalline form (e .g. electrodes, mechanical fabrications) .
At the microscopic level, most materials, with the notable exception of a few truly amorphous
specimens, can be considered as a collection or aggregate of single crystal crystallites. The
surface chemistry of the material as a whole is therefore crucially dependent upon the nature and
type of surfaces exposed on these crystallites. In principle, therefore, the surface properties of
any material may be understood if
1.
2.
the amount of each type of surface exposed is known, and
detailed knowledge of the properties of each and every type of surface plane is available.
(This approach assumes that the possible influence of crystal defects and solid state interfaces on
the surface chemistry may be neglected)
It is therefore vitally important to study different, well-defined surfaces independently. The most
commonly employed technique is to prepare macroscopic (i.e. size ~ cm) single crystals of
metals and then to deliberately cut them in a way which exposes a large area of the specific
surface of interest.
Most metals only exist_in one bulk structural form - the most common metallic crystal structures
being:
bcc
fcc
hcp
Body-centred cubic
Face-centred cubic
Hexagonal close packed
- - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - -- For each of these crystal systems, there are in principle an infinite number of possible surfaces
which can be exposed. In practice, however, only a limited number of planes (predominantly the
so-called "low-index" surfaces) are found to exist in any significant amount and attention is thus
focussed on these surfaces. Furthermore, it is possible to predict the ideal atomic arrangement at
a given surface of a particular metal by considering how the bulk structure is intersected by the
surface. Firstly, however, look in detail at the bulk crystal structures.
105
I. The hcp and fcc structures The hcp andfcc structures are closely related: they are both based upon stacking layers of atoms, where the atoms are arranged in a close-packed hexagonal manner within the individual layer. Figure AI. First layer of hcp and fcc structures
The atoms of the next layer of the structure will preferentially sit in some of the hollows in the
first layer - this gives the closest approach of atoms in the two layers.
--Figure A2. Second layer atoms of hcp and fcc structures
When it comes to deciding where the next layer of atoms should be positioned there are two
choices - these differ only in the relative positions of atoms in the 1st and 3rd layers.
106
In the structure on the left the atoms of the 3rd layer sit directly above those in the 1st layer - this gives rise to the characteristic. ABABA. packing sequence of the hcp structure. In the structure on the right of the last figure on the previous page the atoms of the 3rd layer are laterally offset from those in both the 1st and 2nd layers, and it is not until the 4th layer that the sequence begins to repeat. This is the ..ABCABC .. packing sequence of the fcc structure. Because of their common origin, both of these structures share common features: 1. The atoms are close packed
2. Each atom has 12 nearest neighbours ( i.e. CN = 12 )
(a) fcc structure
Although it is not immediately obvious, the .. ABCABC.. packing sequence of the fcc structure
gives rise to a three-dimensional structure with cubic symmetry ( hence the name! ).
fCY S I J"IJ (' t U re
Figure A3. The fcc structure
It is the cubic unit cell that is commonly used to illustrate this structure - but the fact that the
origin of the structure lies in the packing_of layers of hexagonal symmetry should not be
forgotten .
Figure A4. Different layers hexagonally close packed
The above diagram shows the atoms of one of the hexagonal close-packed layers highlighted in
shades of grey (except for the top right corner atom), and the atoms of another highlighted in
black.
107
(b) hcp structure
The ..ABABA.. packing sequence of the hep structure gives rise to a three-dimensional unit cell
structure whose symmetry is more immediately related to that of the hexagonally-close packed
layers from which it is built, as illustrated in the diagram below.
Figure AS. The hcp structure
II. The bee structure
The bee structure has very little in common with the fcc structure - except the cubic nature of the
unit. cell. Most importantly, it differs from the hep andfee structures in that it is not a close­
packed structure .
bee structure
Figure A6. The bcc structure
The bulk co-ordination number of atoms in the bcc structure is 8
Rationale
Consider the atom at the centre of the unit cell as it is conventionally drawn. The nearest
neighbours of this atom are those at the corners of the cube which are all equidistant from the
central atom . There are eight such corner atoms so the CN of the central atom (and all atoms in
the structure) is eight.
Whereto from here?
An ordered surface may be obtained by cutting the three-dimensional bulk structure of a solid
along a particular plane to expose the underlying array of atoms. The way in which this plane
intersects the three-dimensional structure is very important and is defined by using Miller Indices
this notation is commonly used by both surface scientists and crystallographers since an ideal
108
surface of a particular orientation is nothing more than a lattice plane running through the 3D
crystal with all the atoms removed from one side of the plane.
In order to see what surface atomic structures are formed on the various Miller index surfaces for
each of the different crystal systems consider how the lattice planes bisect the three-dimensional
atomic structure of the solid. As it might be expected, however, the various surfaces exhibit a
wide range of:
1. Surface symmetry
2. Surface atom co-ordination, and most importantly this results in substantial differences
in : 3) and 4)
3. Physical properties ( electronic characteristics etc. ), and
4. Surface chemical reactivity (catalytic activity, oxidation resistance etc.)
5.2.2 Surface Structure of fcc Metals
Many of the technologically most important metals possess the fcc structure : for example the
catalytically important precious metals ( Pt, Rh, Pd ) all exhibit an fcc structure.
The low index faces of this system are the most commonly studied of surfaces: they exhibit a
range of
1. Surface symmetry
2. Surface atom co-ordination
3. Surface reactivity
I. The fcc (100) surface
The (100) surface is that obtained by cutting the fcc metal parallel to the front surface of the fcc
cubic unit cell - this exposes a surface (the atoms in the darkest colour) with an atomic
arrangement of 4-fold symmetry
._..
-­
Figure A7. The fcc (100) surface
The diagram in figure A8 shows the conventional birds-eye view of the (100) surface - this is
obtained by rotating the preceding diagram through 45° to give a view which emphasises the 4­
fold symmetry of the surface layer atoms.
109
Figure A8. Birds-eye view of the fcc(lOO) surface
The tops of the second layer of atoms are just visible through the holes in the first layer, but
would not be accessible to molecules arriving from the gas phase. The co-ordination number of
the atoms on the surface is 8.
There are several other points worthy of note:
1. All the surface atoms are equivalent
2. The surface is relatively smooth at the atomic scale
3. The surface offers various adsorption sites for molecules which have different local
symmetries and lead to different co-ordination numbers:
• On-top sites ( CN=1 )
• Bridging sites, between two atoms ( CN=2 )
• Hollow sites, between four atoms ( CN=4 )
(In the above context, the CN is taken to be the number of surface metal atoms to which the
adsorbed species would be directly bonded)
II. The fcc(llO) surface
fcc unit cell
(110) face
Figure A9. The fcc (110) surface
The (110) surface is obtained by cutting the fcc unit cell in a manner that intersects the x and y
axes but not the z-axis - this exposes a surface with an atomic arrangement of 2-fold symmetry.
The next diagram shows the conventional birds-eye view of the (110) surface - emphasising the
rectangular symmetry of the surface layer atoms. The diagram has been rotated such that the
rows of atoms in the first atomic layer now run vertically, rather than horizontally as in the
previous diagram.
110
Figure AIO. Atoms in topmost layer
It is clear from this view that the atoms of the topmost layer are much less closely packed than
on the (100) surface - in one direction (along the rows) the atoms are in contact i.e. the distance
between atoms is equal to twice the metallic (atomic) radius, but in the orthogonal direction there
is a substantial gap between the rows.
This means that the atoms in the underlying second layer are also , to some extent, exposed at the
surface
(110) surface plane
e.g. Cu(110)
Figure All. The fcc (110) surface plane
The preceding diagram illustrates some of those second layer atoms, exposed at the bottom of the
troughs.
In this case, the determination of co-ordination numbers requires a little more careful thought:
one way to double-check the answer is to remember that the eN of atoms in the bulk of the fcc
structure is 12, and then to subtract those which have been removed from above in forming the
surface plane.
If one compares this co-ordination number (eN = 7) with that obtained for the (100) surface, it is
worth noting that the surface atoms on a more open ("rougher") surface have a lower eN - this
has important implications when it comes to the chemical reactivity of surfaces.
The fact that they are clearly exposed (visible) at the surface implies that they have a lower eN
than they would in the bulk.
11 1
In summary, we can note that
1. All first layer surface atoms are equivalent, but second layer atoms are also exposed
2. The surface is atomically rough, and highly anisotropic
3. The surface offers a wide variety of possible adsorption sites, including:
• On-top sites ( CN=l )
• Short bridging sites between two atoms in a single row ( CN=2 )
• Long bridging sites between two atoms in adjacent rows ( CN=2 )
• Higher CN sites ( in the troughs)
III. The fcc (111) surface
The (111) surface is obtained by cutting the fcc metal in such a way that the surface plane
intersects the X-, y- and z- axes at the same value - this exposes a surface with an atomic
arrangement of 3 -fold ( apparently 6-fold, hexagonal) symmetry. This layer of surface atoms
actually corresponds to one of the close-packed layers on which the fcc structure is based.
fcc unit cell
(111) face
Figure A12. The fcc unit cell (111) face
The diagram below shows the conventional birds-eye view of the (111) surface - emphasising the
hexagonal packing of the surface layer atoms. Since this is the most efficient way of packing
atoms within a single layer, they are said to be "close-packed".
(111) surface plane
e.g. Pt(l11)
Figure A13. The fcc (111) surface plane
The following features are worth noting;
1. All surface atoms are equivalent and have a relatively high eN
2. The surface is almost smooth at the atomic scale
112
3. The surface offers the following adsorption:
• On-top sites ( CN=l )
• Bridging sites, between two atoms ( CN=2 )
• Hollow sites, between three atoms ( CN=3 )
IV. How do these surfaces intersect in irregular-shaped samples?
Flat surfaces of single crystal samples correspond to a single Miller Index plane and it was seen
that, each individual surface has a well-defined atomic structure. It is these flat surfaces that are
used in most surface science investigations, but it is worth a brief aside to consider what type of
surfaces exist for an irregular shaped sample (but one that is still based on a single crystal). Such
samples can exhibit facets corresponding to a range of different Miller Index planes.
SUMMARY
Depending upon how an fcc single crystal is cleaved or cut, flat surfaces of macroscopic
dimensions which exhibit a wide range of structural characteristics may be produced.
The single crystal surfaces discussed here ( (100), (110) & (Ill) ) represent only the most
frequently studied surface planes of the fcc system - however, they are also the most commonly
occurring surfaces on such metals and the knowledge gained from studies on this limited
selection of surfaces goes a long way in propagating the development ofour understanding of the
surface chemistry of these metals.
5.2.3 Surface Structure of hcp Metals
This important class of metallic structures includes metals such as Co, Zn, Ti & Ru.
The Miller Index notation used to describe the orientation of surface planes for all
crystallographic systems is slightly more complex in this case since the crystal structure does not
lend itself to description using a standard Cartesian set of axes- instead the notation is based
upon three axes at 120 degrees in the close-packed plane, and one axis (the c-axis) perpendicular
to these planes. This leads to a four-digit index structure; however, since the third of these is
redundant it is sometimes left out!
I. The hcp (0001) surface
This is the most straightforward of the hcp surfaces since it corresponds to a surface plane which
intersects only the c-axis, being coplanar with the other 3 axes i.e. it corresponds to the close
packed planes of hexagonally arranged atoms that form the basis of the structure. It is also
sometimes referred to as the (001) surface.
113
(0001) surface plane
e.g. Ru(OOOl)
Figure A14.The hcp (0001) surface plane
This conventional plan view of the (000 1) surface shows the hexagonal packing of the surface
layer atoms. This is very similar to the fcc(1II) surface.
We can summarise the characteristics of this surface by noting that:
1. All the surface atoms are equivalent and have CN=9
2. The surface is almost smooth at the atomic scale
3. The surface presents adsorption sites which are locally:
• On-top sites ( CN=I )
• Bridging sites, between two atoms ( CN=2 )
• Hollow sites, between three atoms ( CN=3 )
5.2.4 Surface Structure of bcc Metals
A number of important metals ( e.g. Fe, W, Mo ) have the bcc structure. As a result of the low
packing density of the bulk structure, the surfaces also tend to be of a rather open nature with
surface atoms often exhibiting rather low co-ordination numbers.
I. The bcc (100) surface
Figure A1S. The bcc unit cell (100) face
bcc unit cell
(100) face
The (100) surface is obtained by cutting the metal parallel to the front surface of the bcc cubic
unit cell - this exposes a relatively open surface with an atomic arrangement of 4-fold symmetry.
The diagram below shows a plan view of this (100) surface - the atoms of the second layer
(shown on left) are clearly visible, although probably inaccessible to any gas phase molecules
other than smaller atoms or molecules like N 2, H2 or ions that result during cutting.
114
bcc (100) surface
plane
e.g. Fe(lOO)
I~
Figure A16. The bcc(lOO) surface plane
The co-ordination number for the surface atoms is 4. The nearest neighbours are at a distance of
0.87a.
The eN of metal atoms in the bulk of the solid is 8 for a bee metal and the second layer of atoms
clearly have 4 nearest neighbours in the 1st layer and another 4 in the 3rd layer.
II. The bcc (110) surface
The (110) surface is obtained by cutting the metal in a manner that intersects the x and y axes but
creates a surface parallel to the z-axis - this exposes a surface that has a higher atom density than
the (100) surface.
bcc unit cell
(110) face
Figure A17. The bcc unit cell (110) face
Figure A 18 shows a plan view of the (110) surface - the atoms in the surface layer strictly form
an array of rectangular symmetry, but the surface layer co-ordination of an individual atom is
quite close to hexagonal.
...
... ... ... ... ...
... ... ...
... ...
...
bcc(110) surface plane
e.g. Fe(110)
Figure A18. The bcc(110) surface plane
115
The co-ordination number of the surface layer of atoms is 6. Think in 3 dimensions. Rationale Each surface atom has four nearest neighbours in the 1st layer ( the remaining two "near­
neighbours" in this surface layer being at a slightly greater distance ), but there are also two nearest neighbours in the layer immediately below. III. The bcc (111) surface
The (111) surface of bcc metals is similar to the (111) face of fcc metals only in that it exhibits a
surface atomic arrangement exhibiting 3-fold symmetry - in other respects it is very different.
Top View: bcc(111) surface plane e.g. Fe(111)
Figure A19. Top view of the bcc(111) surface plane
In particular it is a very much more open surface with atoms in both the second and third layers
clearly visible when the surface is viewed from above. This open structure is also clearly evident
when the surface is viewed in cross-section as shown in figure A20 in which atoms of the
various layers have been armotated.
Fifwre A20. Side View: bcc(111) surface DIane e.!!. Fe(111)
116
Appendix B:
The aluminium alloys are given a letter designation to indicate the processes that they have been through prior to resulting in the plate, sheet or extrusion. The designations are as follows: (Follette, 1980) o - annealed wrought aluminium F - as cast or as fabricated H - cold worked T - heat treated The T group indicates heat treated aluminium alloys and the Table A2.1 indicates the
type of heat treatment.
Annealed for ductility and dimensional stability (Cast only)
T2
Heat treated and cold worked . (Wrought only)
T3
Heat treated and naturally aged to stability. (Wrought or cast)
T4
Artificially aged. (Wrought or cast)
T5
Heat treated and artificially aged. (Wrought or cast)
T6
Heat treated and stabilised. (Cast only)
T7
Heat treated, cold worked, and artificially aged. (Wrought only)
T8
Heat treated, artificially aged, and cold worked. (Wrought only)
T9
Artificially aged, and cold worked. (Wrought only)
TI0
Table A2.1 Type of heat treatments for aluminium alloys.
As the number increases the hardness increases.
. 117 Ar-Si-Mg
Heat-Treata ble 6082
Wrought Alloy
ChemIcal Composition LimIts (In %)
Cu
Mg
Si
Fe
Mn
Zn
Ti
Cr
Other tllements
Total
Each
0,1 0,6
0,7
1,3
0,5
0,4
1,0
0:'2
0,1
0,25
0,05
, ,2
0,15
Outstanding Characteristics:
Medium ~trength alloy with good corrosion resislance.
Standard Commodities:
Plate; sheel; extrusion.;.
Typical Uses;
For stressed structural applications, such as bridges, cranes, rool trusses, transport applications. Beer barrels: milk churns. Bridie plates forman cages and ore skips, Other Characteristics
typical Physical Properties Density
Modulus 01 Elasticity
Modulus of Rigidity
Melting Range
Specific heat between 0--1 OO·C (273-373 K)
CoeHicient of linear expansion between 2c}-200·C
(293-473 K)
Thermal Conductivity at 100'C (373 K)
Resistivity at 20·C (293 K)
g/Cm3
2,70
70
GPa
GPa
26,5
555-650
'C
J/gK
0,88
24 x 10- 6
IK
18c}-189
0.038 x 10- 9
!lm
Corrosion Resistance
Weld ability
Formability
Machinability
Anodizing
Brazeability
: Good
: Good
Good
Good
Good
Good
W/mK
Mechanical Properties
Commodity
and Temper
0.2 % Proof
Stress
MPa
Uilimate
Tensile
Strength
MPa
0,2-3.0
0,2-3.0
0,2-3,0
(60)
120 (200)
255(305)
(125)155
200(250)
295 (330)
16 (30)
15 (18)
8 (13)
(32)
- "-{7O)
(100)
uplo25
upto25
115 (185)
240(290)
200(230)
295 (325)
15(22)
8 (10)
(60)
(95)
120 (190)
(170)
110
190(275)
295 (330)
310(345)
14 12 14(18) 7 (10) . 7 (12) 12 14 Gauge
mm
Elongation
A.
%
Brinell
Hardness
Ultimate
Shear
Strength
MPa
HB
Sheet
0
T4
T6
120 (155)
175 (205) .
Plete
T4 • .:!!..
120 (160)
175(205)
Extrusions
0
F
T4
TS
T6
T3
T3
T8
upto130
up to 75
upto 75
upt020
2c}-75
upto6
6--10
upt06
255 (315)
270 (320)
115
. 115
255
215
215
310
7
Heat Treatment
Solution HeatTre3tment
Ageing
Temper
Temperature 'C
T6
520±3 Timah
Quenching
Temperature'C
Timeh
Inwaler
175 ±3
10
Annealing
Temperature ·C Timeh
340-360
2
2"
3AO-360
To soften partially. To soften fully. "Cool not faster than 15 ·Clhour to 250'C and withdraw from furnace. 118
Appendix C:
Experiment 1: Relationship between metal deformation and e.m.f.
Aim: To see whether an e.m.f. will be generated merely by the deformation of the metal
crystal structure
Action: The shaper was set up to confirm whether there is a significant e.m.f. change in
the e.m.f. signal that is observed when the tool work-piece junction is stressed:
The tool is brought into contact with the work-piece so that it gently touches
The computer data sampling is started and the load on the tool is gradually increased
by manually feeding the work-piece against the tool. By doing this the tool-work­
piece junction is stressed and the metal at the junction is gradually deformed.
The sampled data is then analysecl rlfte:r the experiment is complete by checking ifthc
e.m.f. changed when the junction was loaded.
Experiment 2: Calibration of thermocouple
Aim: To obtain data to calibrate the tool/workpiece thermocouple. This gives an
indication of the temperatures that are attained when the aluminium is being cut.
The temperature is measured by using the dissimilar metal junction formed by the tool '
and the workpiece as a thermocouple. The e.m.f. that is generated at this junction is an
indication of the temperature at the j unction, i.e. the temperature is a function of the
e.m.f.
Action:
The workpiece is cast in light weight concrete
The cast with the workpiece in it is clamped in the chuck on the shaper.
A hole is drilled at both ends of the workpiece
The tool is manually fed into the workpiece
An RTD (resistance temperature device) is inserted in the hole closest to the point
where the tool/workpiece junction is and an aluminium lead into the other. The RTD
was very close to the junction i.e. Smm.
The cold j unctions are kept at 23 0c.
The data sampling program on the computer is started and the workpiece is heated
gradually with a blow torch.
The computer writes both the RTD measured temperature and the e.m.f. that is
generated at the junction on a file for later use for tool/workpiece thermocouple
calibration.
The blow torch is never closer than 40mm to the junction and the RTD.
When the workpiece starts to melt heating is stopped and the workpiece is left to cool
down.
Plot the e.m.f. vs. temperature data and obtain the appropriate polynomial by
regression by which the two variables are related.
119
Experiment 3: Calibration of strain gauge Aim: To obtain data to calibrate the strain gauge. Action: Clamp the tool on a robust flat metal surface so that the distance between the cutting
edge and the last point of support of the tool is the same as it will be when cutting
metal on the shaper.
Tune the trimpot on the strain amplifier/signal amplifier so that the output is O.OOOY
for ON load.
Use a specially adapted hanger of known mass and hang it on the tool tip.
Measure the voltage after it has been amplified by the signal amplifier and write
down the load on the tool and the corresponding voltage.
Repeat increasing the load and writing down the load and the corresponding voltage
until five data points have been accumulated .
The relationshi p between the load and the voltages observed is linear. Do linear
regression and find it.
Use the mathematical relationships determined in experiments 2 and 3 in the
computer program to output the temperature and cutting force data directly to screen
and to file.
Experiment 4: Cut characterisation Aim: To obtain cutting force and temperature data for cutting metal when various cutting fluids are used. Action: Mark the workpiece at the quarter-, half- and three quarter- way mark with permanent
marking ink of different colours.
Know the length of the cut that will be made and the rake face angle.
Remember to check the reference points
Keep all cutting parameters constant
Use bi-directional restraint of chip flow, i.e. choose a feed on the shaper such that the
material flow during chip formation is restrained from both sides and so that no cut
will overlap with a previous cut.
Change only the type of cutting fluid used in each experiment
Make sure that the cutting fluid applicator applies cutting fluid to the tool before the
tool is engaged into the workpiece.
Make sure that the cutting fluid used is the cutting fluid used and does not have
residual cutting fluid or cleaning solvent from the previous test in it. This may be
ensured by letting the applicator spray for a while after changing cutting fluids.
Make sure that the tool is clean, i.e. that it has no residual metal left on it or cutting
fluid from a previous test.
Set the tool on the shaper so that it has some time to travel freely before it starts
cutting the metal.
Activate the computer program for data sampling
Switch on the lubricant applicator if cutting fluid is used.
Switch on the shaper and once the cut is complete switch it and the lubricant
applicator off again.
120 _~
Perform the dry cuts first. Then do the cuts for the different cutting fluids. Ten per
cutting fluid should suffice.
Do one cut at a time so that the chip can be collected without confusion between
chips from different cuts.
Store each chip with a reference to the file on which the cut data appears.
Check that the chip masses are more or less the same, say 200mg. This way it is
ensured that the depth of cut is constant.
Plot the cutting force and temperature data from the tests and check for repeatability·
Next measure the length of the first quarter of the chip. The ratio of the original one
quarter length to this quarter length is the mean chip thickness ratio
Calculate and tabulate the shear plane angle and the chip strain
Photograph the chips as a group for the different cutting fluids used.
Visually inspect the underside of the chips and note the smooth fraction of the chip
i.e. where no marked scratching or dulling of the underside surface appears.
Do this for each chip series in each cutting fluid
Calculate the average smooth fraction from this for each cutting fluid
Tabulate the data
Similarly as for the smooth fraction determine the average fraction to first break for
the chips and compute the average distance to first break from this.
Tabulate the data
Choose a representative chip from each group and make SEM micrographs
Observe and tabulate the deformation / flow-zone thickness
Choose a chip from each group and mount it in thermoset resin
Sand the mount down until the longitudinal lateral mid cross-section of the chip is
exposed and polish this section to a high fineness.
View the cross section under an optical microscope
If nothing is observed in terms of metal deformation etch the chip with 0,5% HF in
distilled water for 30 seconds
Immediately after that flush the chip with alcohol and blow it dry
View it again under the optical microscope and if still nothing is seen etch again for
ten seconds
Repeat the previous step until the metal deformation becomes clear.
Make micrographs of the metal deformation in the chip.
Compare the deformation with that observed on the SEM micrographs.
Make micro-hardness measurements on the mounted chips close to the one quarter
mark and set up chip hardness profiles for each mounted chip.
Plot the hardness profiles and tabulate the flow-zone thickness that may be
determined from these profiles and compare this to the results obtained from the
micrographs
Tabulate the average chip hardness, as calculated from the last three hardness
measurements furthest away from the flow-zone.
Compare all the accumulated data for all the cutting fluids.
121
Experiment 5: Surface roughness determination Aim: To obtain surface roughness data for the different cutting fluids that were used. Action: Be sure that the cutting fluid that is to be used is uncontaminated
Make sure the tool is clean
Use a fine feed
Switch on the cutting fluid applicator and the shaper
Perform metal cutting until a 15 mm width has been cut off the surface of the
workpiece
Mark this width on the work piece
Bleed the cutting fluid applicator and change the cutting fluid and repeat the above
exercise for each cutting fluid that is to be tested.
Use a profilometer and determine the surface roughness at the beginning middle and
end of each surface produced for the different cutting fluids that were used.
Do these surface roughness measurements longitudinally and transversely
When doing the longitudinal measurements be careful not to cross over ridges on the
machined surface. These ridges can be avoided by taking many measurements. The
lowest of these can be taken as measurements where no ridge was crossed.
Tabulate the data and compare it for the different cutting fluids that were used.
Experiment 6: Micrographic observation and micro-hardness determination
It is suspected that the BUE phenomenon is present and therefore a lateral cross-section
of the tool chip interface should be made. This should be etched with an appropriate
solution such as hydrofluoric acid until the metal deformation can be seen clearly when it
is examined under the optical microscope. This cross-section could also be examined
under the scanning electron microscope (SEM ). Micro-hardness tests should also be
done on this chip to see what the effect of the built-up edge is on the hardness profile of
the chip.
A non-etched chip sample can be analysed by SEM and/or MS for type of atoms that are
present on the underside of the chip surface and in the chip after cutting when good
cutting results are obtained. For an analysis in the chip a longitudinal cross section should
be used.
Likewise examining the tool cutting edge and rake face by SEM, or mass ion
spectroscopy (MIS) could give an indication of which atoms are present. This could give
an indication of which atoms are desired when this examination occurs after pleasing
results from a mechanical parameter investigation are obtained. If more detail is required
FTIR (Fourier transform infrared) spectroscopy can be used for identification of the metal
compounds that do form.
122
Experiment 7: Effect of cutting speed on built-up edge
Aim: To see whether the built-up edge forms later, i.e. at a greater length of cut when the
cutting speed is increased and to see the effect of this on the cutting temperature and the
cutting forces.
Action:
Perform cuts and increase the cutting speed for each cut that is made Keep all other parameters constant Present the results graphically Results and Discussion of Experiments for Preparation of Equipment
The main results for the cutting process investigation were presented in chapter 8 and are
the results of experiments 4 -7.
As regards experiment 1 that was used to show the effect of stressing the tool on the
e.m.f. that is generated it was found that the e.m.f. is unaffected . The tool was gradually
statically loaded and no change in the e.m.f. was seen.
In experiment 2 that was done to calibrate the tool workpiece thermocouple the following
was found: (see figure C.l). The lower of the two curves in figure C.1(b) is the same as
the curve in figure C.1(a). The hysteresis that resulted is interesting. It is due to the
temperature sensor being imbedded in the aluminium workpiece cooling at a slightly
slower rate than the tool/workpiece junction that is situated on the surface of the
workpiece. The actual temperature of the top curve should thus have been lower and the
top curve would have been very much closer to the bottom curve .
.
_..
-"
Curve fitting on the data points resulted in a fourth order polynomial of very good fit over
the temperature range 30°C to 523°C, i.e. 0.4 to 2.0Y. The regression coefficient was
0.9903. For temperatures above 520°C the slope of the line between 1.5Y and 1.9Y was
used to extrapolate the temperature for the measured e.m.f.
The alloy melts at 565±5°C as measured by the RTD.
In experiment 3 the relationship (eqn. C.1) between the cutting force and the microvolt
signal was found as:
Cutting
Force
232 .2/ 1000000 . X Eqn.C.l
Where X is the microvolt signal. For the method used see Appendix C, experiment 3. Both the results of experiments 2 and 3 were applied to get results in experiment 4 and satisfactory results were obtained as is evident from the results presented for experiment 4. (See chapter 8)
123
Tem perature vs . Emffor Tool workpiece TC
600 Y=263.29i - 1381.5X' + 2505,(2 - 1472.2x + 297.96
=tJ.9903
500 U 400
0
~
Q) '­
::J
a)
10 300 <u
a.
E 200 Q)
f­
100 O·
0
0.5
1.5
2
2.5
2
2.5
Emf(V)
Temperature vs. Emffor Tool workpiece TC
600
500
U 400 0
~
Q)
'­
2
b)
~
300 Q)
a.
E 200 Q)
f­
100
0
0
1.5
0.5
Emf (V)
-' - ­
Figure C.I Tool/workpiece thermocouple e.m.f. vs. Temperature response.
124
Cutting Force and Temperature:
raw data
C. force and Temperature for Test 1 of Carbon Tetra
chloride 197mg o
Compare C.forces CCI 4 T1 197
350 -r--.-.-----c:-- -..- ....- .......- .. -..- - .....- ....- .- --
..., 700 280 -b----~---:-.~~
-+600 z
0.
'.
140 -
. " • .
70
"
o
-- .
-
.,
E
~
.'
ID
~
- 500
-
210
-!
· -~--l--l
~
200
300
400
500
Sample number at 200 Hz
I
r
"
70
O ~
l . -~-~----~-~-,....~--~
200+\-~-~-.----.-~---r--....L-~
600
.,
'
~ 140 I
E
'LI'I'ftI
'
~~
CIl
g> 300 +------I
::;
o 250 -1---1 ! 200
300
400
500
Sample number at 200 Hz
ID
-··-- - -·....·;··.. - - " ' j
-~
G280 ~
o
.2
350 .J--J.-.--f'.'
~
=~OO
I
200
··-· - -- - -·--··1
LL
g>
400
'f
o
mg
350 ·r- - -·- --·..·- ·······- ---·------··- ··--·-
---,
~ ~ ------uM\iI~InI,r.
Z 400
Compare Temperature CCI 4 T1 197 vs DRY3 197
DRY3 197 mg
450 ''---'''- -
i· ~
---~ .
I·
~
J (3~
.210 -
VS.
600
400
500
300
Sample number at 200 Hz
200
600
-----------.~
450 0
350 Z
- 600 ~
--- -------_ ..
~
o
350
~ 210 ·1
ro
g> 300
:::J
- 400 ":B
8
- 300 0
11~:
250
I­
-
-
350
~
200
----(r----- --
~ 210 -ID~ 0. ~ 140 E
300 ::;
o
o
300 . 200
400
500
600
Sample number at 200 Hz
______.___
700
-.~.,.-=
' .'. .'.
!
~ 350
g> 300
I ;3
250
I
200
.
I
___ -L.- - -
I •. I
.t-~
J
300
400
500
Sample number at 200 Hz
- - - - -- .- - --
600
I
---. --~- ---. .:s
600
300
400
500
Sample number at 200 Hz
9"
.. -
280 . --- ,
I "'C» I
210 "'C
Cl)
---"-'j
:::l
~
70 ..- - - - j
0
,I
X
I-
~ 140
-'1V'J'JJIII'rp'1'JIlIu'iIm'","
~~L....~__,-~~-~---~~~J....-~
200
.
350 -
~
"It1liW'~NWM'I&IIIi1IIIaI
. · ~.
.r
--­
Compare Temperature CCI 4 T3 197 vs DRY3 197
.......--~---.-------...-- .- --"
iIM\lul' ~
c
~
70 . r'-.
- ----I--
ID
500 ~
~
400 OJ
-
ID
I-
___
ID
:::J ro
z :::
. 600 ~
t1
200
600
Compare C-forces CCI 4 T3 197 vs DRY3 197 mg
CCI 4 T3 C. force and Temperature 197 mg
·--·--- - -- - -·_--·_-- ---· - - - -- · --··- - -700
280 -
300
400
500
Sample number at 200 Hz
- -- - -.- - - -- -
- ' -- -
Oll---L---.----.--~~,_-----~
200+1-~--.__~--~-~~_,~~L....~
200
300
400
500
Sample number at 200 Hz
- - - -- - - - -- - - --
-.-----. ~
E 280
LL
"'I.!, - - -
_._ _._ __.JIl.9__ _. - ---...
-1
.----..~.~ ---l
350
400 ~~.lli
' !.mill~,,--.---~----~---~
ID
_ - - . 500 LL
g>iO
~
280 Compare Temperature CCI 4 T2 197 vs DRY3 197
Compare C-forces CCI 4 T2 197 vs DRY3 197 mg CCI4 T2 C. force and Temperature 197 mg
200
300
400
500
Sample number at 200 Hz
600
- - - -- - ---L-- - - -- ­
125
a.
o
350
I
~a. o~210
f!!
<ll
E
280
7 .
~
.-:r
~ 140
0
~
Compare C.forces CCI. T4 197
eel. T4 C. foree and Temperature 197 mg __________- . 700 ~
' - .w't~
·
..
~
<ll
<)
8
~280
~~
~
.3 210
~
.... 140 200
~
70 o
g
...
300
400
Sampf~
'1 1 -
I
Ol
300 300:§
0
'5
0
250
I
280 I
~
~
..
'"'....... : - - --
•
600 ~ 01
300
500 0~
lJ..
400 cOl
300 ':§
0
70 •
400
500
600
Sam~l e number at 200 Hz r~~ 1
200 300
400
500
Sample number at 200 Hz
200 700 VS .
600
200
DRYS 197 mg 350
~ 400
~
Q)
~ 350
lJ..
~ Ol
600 300
400
500
Sample number at 200 Hz ~
r
.?Sd 600 300
400
500
Sample number at 200 Hz I
mg ~ 210 300 2i
140 E
8 250
~
200 300
I
I--j
280 . <ll
:§
"
Compare Temperature,CCI. 197 T6 vs DRYS 197 450 Q)
~G'210
E
140
0. CI
~ 280 1
Compare C.forces CCI. T6 197
--+
J'rC\v''Iun .
ow.
Compare Temperature CCI. 197 T5 vs DRY3 197 350
200
350 r---------~------------------~ 700 f!!
200
DRY3 197 mg ~ 350 eCI. T6 C. force and Temperature 197 mg
::>
VS .
Q)
c
-,."
210
600 ~ 400 ·
lJ..
200 700 500
600
number at 200 Hz
Compare C.forces CC I. T5 197
c
'"
300
400
500
Sample number at 200 Hz 450 WO~
400
E
250 200 eel. T5 C. fO'ce and Tem perature 197 mg 350 r---------------~----------------_, 700 600 z
..-.. ."\%"'\' ........... ~~
i':: F1 ~
E
200 700 400
500
600
Sampl:! number at 200 Hz ~
g> 300 5
300
2i
~ 350 3000 o •
3 50 ~ 280 0
lJ.. OlZ
400 . ~ ~
70 Compare Temperature CCI. 197 T4 vs DRY3 197
<ll
lJ.. ~
... .
DRY3 197 mg ~ 400 600
I 500
0
"
VS .
450 ~--~----~~----
70 -"i- - l
o
400
500
600
Sample number at 200 Hz
700 ,
300
400
500
600 Sample number at 200 Hz
700
126
Cutting Force and Temperature:
raw data
__ ...... _ _ .. _ _ • I
I
i
350 -
.G
700
~' ••~"'
-
280 -
­
- 600 Z
•
~
~ 210
500 ~
,;
~
rn
0
~
Q; 140
400
Q
E
ID
r
70 -
o
I
200
300
•'
" 'f! I '
''' .'',
H' ' '
' -11
'
300
400
500
Sample number at 200 Hz
ID
0>
£
~
~
U
~
ID
~ 350
0>
- 600
- 500
~
~
0
u..
- 400
0.
g>
300 -S
~
::: 5~· ------
~
300 ~"----'--'---I
U
~ 250 ~-'-- I
300
400
500
Sample number at 200 Hz
200
600
--
350
- - -- -
-
--
I
~
~
500
~0~
• 210
'-
400
3
300 U
o,
300
- , 200
400
500
600
Sample number at 200 Hz
- ---- ---
o 280
E
~
400
500
300
Sample number at 200 Hz
~ 400 -1
~ 350
l­
70 ~----~----~---------
200
I
600
300
400
500
Sample number at 200 Hz
~ 210 -- .- .' ".v-r-----,.;-· --~-----v'_''''''
·!-----'f-ilL.:..:
~
rn
. l!
250 +----l-
Il-c---:-l
200-rl--I--~----r----.--~-~
300
"""'" '"
0-280
~
~
') tJ'JI
.
M, I..
g> 300 -1----411'
"
Compare Temperature Pfin3 196 & Dry 1 194 mg
350 -,-, --~--,---­
ID
o
"
I
o
600
Compare C.forces Pfin3 196 vs. Dry 1 194 mg
450 , - , - - ­
700
600 ~
280
70
Compare Temperature Pfin2 193 & 013 191 mg
350 - . - - - ­
+I-~--~----'r----~-~~~
200
Paraffin T3 C. force and Temperature 196 mg
-
' n- - 1
600
400
500
300
Sample number at 200 Hz
200
~::J 210 -j
iii
~ 140 ­
~ 350 ~--j-)lJ-l--"-'IWM
~
§
70
o
600
ID
, 200
200
~
;
300
400
~O
Sample number at 200 Hz
'.0:;
70
0
o
E
,I
200 !
ID
Q; 140
r
~ 210
~ 140 -I-F--'--~--,-'-
300
:§
~ 250 -I
200
280
. ~'<A.
0280
Compare C,torces Pfin2 193 vs, Dry13 191 mg
~ 210
ID
Compare Temperature Pfin1 193 & Dry16 191 mg
350 -,----­
ro
o
I, 200
- 700
rn
E
.- J ~
Paraffin T2 C. force and Temperature 193 mg
~
:::r'" :.\:.~,
600
350
.
-
Compare C.forces Pfin1 193 vs , Dry13 191 mg
Paraffin T1 C. force and Temperature 193 mg
400
500
600
Sample number at 200 Hz
700
Q; 140 0.
E
ID
70.
----~
_r----~~-•
·
.0­
~
-"
•
&'
'ri
o +---~----.----~~-------__--------~
300
700
400
500
600
Sample number at 200 Hz
.. - 11-'
------------­
-­
127
Paraffin T4 C. force and Temperature 201 mg
E
~
:J
iii
Cii
D­
E
Q)
I-
350
700
280 .
600 ~
210
500 ~
Q)
0
LL
. 400
140
0
0
300
OJ
.§
. 300 :5
70 .
~ 450
Q)
~ 400 ~-+illRl'Hi\'At:,r_rt_·
LL
g> 350
+--~+I~....!!!IUdI...lTIl.:
~ 300
- ' • ••.•"
250 I
700
- -- -- - -
E 280
~
:J
iii
Cii
D­
E
Q)
I­
_.
· 700
. 600~
- 500
~
0
LL
400 OJ
140
c
:;:;
- 300:5
70
0
300
0
.'
400
500
600
Sample number at 200 Hz
280
J
~
210
I
200
700
~
-!~•
.
I
400
500
600
Sample number at 200 Hz
o ~I~--~~r-~~~~~----_.------~
-I
300
700
+---~~
- --------~------~------~
350
~
o
280
w
:; 210
E 140
J •
Q)
300
I-
70
700
..,.
-
o
I
I
,_
I
II
.
I
-------1
.
~
LL
:;:;
c
/-'
co
~ 400
o
400
500
600
Sample number at 200 Hz
700
400
500
600
Sample number at 200 Hz
Compare Temperature Pfin5 197 & Dry 1 194 mg
r -­
300
~
• f\J\l<\.~---,----:-:-;~
,"" "
. ."~
I­
500
250
__._._­
- : - , -.
D­
Q)
o:5
r.JI.
.
-
Q)
450
g> 350
.~
E
Compare C.forces Pfin5 197 vs. Dry 1 194 mg
Q)
210
II
300
0-
Cii 1 4 0 .
:;:;
Paraffin T5 C. force and Temperature 197 mg
350
350T-------~-----------
~
iii
o
· 200
400
500
600
Sample number at 200 Hz
Compare Temperature Pfin4 201 & Dry 2 198 mg
Compare C.forces Pfin4 201 vs . Dry 2 198 mg
500 .--------------------~-~~
I'
I
:'.
I
·11 ----~_.~------~--~---.------~
300
700
400
500
600
Sample number at 200 Hz
128
*
Cutting Temperature:
Sample and D
Cutting Force and Temperature:
raw data
SC T1 C. force and Temperature 206 mg
-- --.--.------ -
350 - - --.-....-- -- --
~
OJ
_ 500 0
o
rn
_ 400 c
0280
o
OJ
~
::; 210 --
~
E
E 140
~
___ 300
70
~
SC T2 C. force and Temperature 205 mg
350
I
i::
.-.-----
I·· • .
70
o
-
~ 300 -1
<3
··u·
f~
.1
""
'r
11.-
300
400
500
Sample number at 200 Hz
o
280
::; 210 -
500
0
~
~
140
400
.~ ~
70
300
8
E
~
o
I
300
....-.-..._ .
----I
~---.
210
-
- 1
140
--~
i
I
I
70
Ii
o 280 OJ
300
400
500
Sample number at 200 Hz
o
(; 350 ~ 300 +----lJ---------~~".Li
E
::J
o 250 I
i
:.
E
_ __,----.----._-L-~
~
I
- I
~ 140 OJ
OJ
. --·-··---l
'§
I-
Z 400'
··--..,.~---
OJ 210 --Jr- - IJIlf
+-~
600 300
400
500
Sample number at 200 Hz Compare Temperature C2 205 and D33 202 mg
350 , . - - -..-.~---..- - - -..- ---..----....-._ .-..- .._..-.-:
033 202 mg
-~I
70 t
0
600 200
300
400
500
Sample number at 200 Hz
600 Compare Temperature C3 200 and Ory2 198 mg
. --.-.- - -----.-..--]
OJ
0
._
200
Compare C.forces C3 200 VS. Dry2 198 mg
450 T-----·------~---
- 600 Z
~
VS.
.--l1ilIIaiIlt..-
200
700 280
o
600 250 200
~
•. 300
400
500
Sample number at 200 Hz
.~ 300 -t--:--V­' - - -- - -''1'11
600 OJ
-. .
~ 350 -j-­
SC T3 C. force and Temperature 200 mg
oo
1-------1
~
!- 200 "1 I I
~
--..- -----.- ----- - -'-1
OJ
::J
- - ..----·-- --- -·--·-----·1
~
'
450
Z 400 300 0
--~'-"'---'--"--'---'-----'- '--'--'--------"''''''''
350
250 -1---. - 1--­
Compare C.forces C2 205
f:: I
-----.1-------1
~
200
700 .•
350 --'-"
C\J
200 I
T Ih~.'.~.....,.. · ·h .;'~·. i·~·. l--. -
I
200
---;-
t---~J.llr.~.
350
~
600
300
400
500 Sample number at 200 Hz
~
~
Z4001~
._ 200 o200
I-
0
Compare Temperature C1 206 and 027 204 mg
Compare C.forces C1 206 VS. 027 204 mg
450 l---··---------------·--,--.-.- ..------.- --,
700 Z
600
-~-
.
350
o
, - - -- --0.-
280 +----~
·... ·--- . ----·..--....-1
._
..c ......___ ...._._.
_
_
,j
I~::70J
r-{! -.·- ·'~ .~
~·-~1~~
>-
', ··In 'II I I'" 11- f'-o., pi
" 200 200 +!-'-....L....~-..__-'-~-_'_r-=--~"-"-..__-..I.I.--'_{
_I-I_L-_-,_ _ _ _~~--_,---~
400
500
600
700 300
400
500
600
700 300
400
500
600
700 Sample number at 200 Hz
Sample number at 200 Hz
Sample number at 200 Hz
- - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - L '___
L-..
_ _ _ _____.
I
I
I
o
129
SC T4 C. force and Temperature 201mg
350 - - -- ~
600
280 ­
Q)
500
:::J
~ 140 ­
E
I­
· 400
--
70 -
300
o
0
§
;3
U
-1-- '
250
I
~
l-----i
I
f
~"""''~"-
'-----------j
~
70 ­.
o +I-i--~----.~~~-r_--~
.,.
600
z
ZQ)
u
Q)
Q)
210 .
500
~ 140 -
· 400
E
u
o
0
u..
§
u
· 3000
0
400
500
600
Sample number at 200 Hz
~ 210 I
r.
F-
ro
~
"1/14
140 +------11'- - - - ­
E
OJ
I-
400
500
600
Sample number at 200 Hz
-f.- -I
70
'i
o +I_L-_~---_.---~r_----
I ·
\I
300
700
280
OJ
250
200 1 . •
200
300
350
u
!Ill. I
,
.
u..
g' 300 +----~J
:;::;
:;
"5
70 -
U'
400
700
Compare Tempera ture C5 200 and Dry2 198 mg
350 -- -- -- - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - . -- -­
Compare C .forces C5 200 vs . Dry2 198 mg
450 , . . . - - - - ­
700
~ 280
Q)
210
J-I!!-
E
200 I
SC T5 C. force and Temperature 200mg
350 .
I­
·1
~140~1
• .~'
:;::;
"5
~
280
600
700
700
400
500
400
500
600
300
400
500
600
300
Sample number at 200 Hz
Sample number at 200 Hz
________________~-----------------------------------~--------------~
s~am
~e
PI~~
numberat200Hz
300
:J
1§
-I---U~
350
u..
g' 300 -I----....U
u..
200
0
~
u
~400'r-~ '
z
U
1§
-~
450
700
-------~----
~
Q)
Compare Temperature C4 201 and Dry2 198 mg
350 -...- - - ­
Compare C.forces C4 201 vs . Dry2 198 mg
700!
700
40D
50 0
600
Sample number at 200 Hz
300
I
I
[:0
1
SC T6 C. force and Temperature 178 mg
I
o
0
--------
280·
:J
1§
- - 600 z
Q)
Q)
-
210 ·
u
- - -- - - · 500 0
E
u..
400 g'
E
I­
- 3000
-
~ 140
Q)
o,
300
L.
, 200
~OO
500
600
ample number at 200 Hz
700
Compare C .forces C6 178 vs. Dry27 204 mg
I,
· 700
450
~
TI ­- - ­
-1--c--t1l1~".lMIr.II.,. -,----"----
8o
350
+---1--'--,lttr.---'-III·.,.-----~ II__-
.~
300
-.I---J~~J(~~:~~~~~~~~~~~~_4
8250 L-~
.~
400
500
600
Sample number at 200 Hz
~
210
0.
140 - -­
roQ;
OJ
700
#.:.
-------""']
I
I
~-.,\c - - - - - - - j
1/
E
I-
200 tl~----~----~----~~--~__4
300
~
·f
.;r,;::r
Z 400
u..
Compare Temperature C6 178 and Dry27 204 mg
350 -r-.­- - -- - - - .
280
70
O !
300
/
40D
500
600
Sample number at 200 Hz
:--------------------.--_~
I ________
700
130
Cutting Force and Temperature:
raw data
SO T1 C. force and Temperature 190mg
350 ,- .
o
~
2
700
280
' . 600
~"
210
: ...
ro
" 500
'.
~
~ 140 r
z
B
0
~
rn
~- 400 c
E
~
". 300 0
E
ID
450 .,.-
70
~
. .
o
I
200
! t
"1 "11',"1111.'
1
~ III
•
300
400
500 Sample number at 200 Hz ~ 400
.j---f\Ji.Y.-tn..;
I ::: 1=J.f-,--'---'-'--·!~~
200
(j)
B 210 .
500
~
~
~
~ 140
- 400 g'
""
"5
E
70
3000
o"
Z
300
400
500
Sample number at 200 Hz
,
--------------
,
~ 350
~
(j)
- 500
r
0
0
~
140
400
1
70 ·
- . 3000
0·,
300
i
,· 200
400
500
600
Sample number at 200 Hz
700
W
!"X..
U
.
'~
~ "'~...
~ 140 +'--4!
rn 300
:§
'
I
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0
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200
600z
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O-·~I~--~~--~--~--~~-r----~~
200
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600
(j)
300
400
500
Sample number at 200 Hz
600
Compare Temperature D3 196 and Dry 1 194 mg
450
350
400
~280
(j)
- - - -­
-l
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ID
~ 350
:; 210
"§
g' 300
~ 140
1/
E
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r 70 +-----If
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0"5 250
200
oI
400
500
600
Sample number at 200 Hz
700
300
....
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-\I"""=O\o,...-"-~-
,F,f.
0
~
300
600
300
400
500
Sample number at 200 Hz
200
Compare C.forces D3 196 vs . Dry 1 194 mg
~ 280
:; 210 (.) 280
0
700
i
300
400
500
Sample number at 200 Hz
200
Compare Temperature D2 201 and Dry 2198 mg
~
600
- -­ --------."--­
iii I
o
350 -
400 ·
SO T3 C. force and Temperature 196mg
350
~ 70
600
(j)
200
-
~ 140
Compare C.forces D2 201 vs. Dry 2 198 mg 600 Z
-
E
450 ­
r 700
-..­
200
300
400
500
Sample number at 200 Hz
-.­
~
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200
2;!
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I J '"
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600
~ 280
ID
"---....­
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SO T2 C. force and Temperature 201 mg
350
350
ID
200
\.
Compare Temperature D1 190 and Dry 4 187 mg
Compare C.forces D1 190 vs. Dry 4 187 mg
- _."- ~--.---.--------,
.
700
400
500
600
Sample number at 200 Hz
131
SO T4 C. Force and Temperature 200 mg P
350
T-
280
-1,..-=-'-'
-
- -,--
- --
- - --
- --
. ~".,~-~~7.C'------+
450
600 z
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400
500
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~ 400
P
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~ 350
0
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300
~
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300
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- 500
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700
280
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200
200
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700
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700
P
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.. I
400
500
600
Sample number at 200 Hz
Compare Temperature 05200 and Ory 3197 mg
350 -,-------...,.....----.
----------- 1
I
I
300
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300
400
500
600
Sample number at 200 Hz
-------
~ 400 -
70
300
400
500
600
Sample number at 200 Hz
Compare C.forces 05200 vs. Ory 3 197 mg
450
600 z
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70 200
700 If'-
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SO T5 C. force and Temperature 198 mg <l.J
210 I
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:;::;
200
280
<l.J
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700
350
00
Compare Temperature 04 201 and Ory 2 198 mg
350 -,--•., _
. - - - - -..- --. -- - - - ­
Compare C.forces 04201 vs . Ory 2 198 mg
700 - - -- ,
E
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400
500
600
Sample number at 200 Hz
700
01
300
.. "
.. .- ... ,
700
400
500
600
Sample number at 200 Hz
132
Cutting Force and Temperature:
raw data
~
350
700
280
600 Z
.2ro
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500 <5
210
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300
400
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'';:;
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280 ~ .
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co
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- ---- - ---- --.-
200
1
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500
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200
700
300
400
500
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~ 350
o
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~
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350
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300
400
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Sample number at 200 Hz
200
Compare Temperature P8 3 202 vs Dry 5 200 mg
w
~
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I
~ 400
8
. . . . .
+----/r_~---' ___~ ___._'-__;: I
Compare C.forces P8 3202 vs. Dry 5 200 mg
450 - r - -- ....,-­
------,- 700 70
O J.
200
600 Z
.
(:.
:5 250
u
SP8 T3 C. force and Temperature 202 mg 350
:. . . .
.
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600
~~~
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200
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70
350~~---.--~
.
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600
400
500
Sample number at 200 Hz
Compare Temperature P8 2 199 vs Dry 2 197 mg
o
. 400 g>
E
. 300
140
300
200
600
~ 400
- 500 <5
200
300
400
500
Sample number at 200 Hz
600 Z
w
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70 . 0 ·~1~i--~~~--~~--~~-~-4
450
700
~ 280
w
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t-
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v
Compare C.forces P8 2 199 vs . Dry 2 197 mg
SP8 T2 C. force and Temperature 199 mg
350
~
~140
~.!.....ll~
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200
. .~
:;210 I-
200
-
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·1 200
--
co "":5
600
300
400
500
Sample number at 200 Hz
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350
g> 300 -i-'---c-I-J
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300
0::: C-'·~ · ----- .:=1
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·
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400
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70
Compare Temperature P8 1 201 vs Dry 2198 mg
Compare C.forces P8 1 201 vs . Dry 2 198 mg
450 ,....------.- - - .- - - ­
SP8 T1 C. force and Temperature 201 mg
400
500
600
Sample number at 200 Hz
700
I
300
400
600
500
Sample number at 200 Hz
700
.
133
SP8 T4 C. force and Temperature 203 mg
~
280·
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~ 210
1§
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350·CC
j j , " J~
$300
250
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8
C, force and Temperature 200 mg
280
· 600 z
450
OJ
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8.
140
. 400
'.§
70
300
3
0
200
LL
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500
600
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,
400
500
600
Sample number at 200 Hz
700
o
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I:::
I
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~--'-U
3 +----,
250
•. • . "
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400
500
600
Sample number at 200 Hz
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: : : . -, .- .- -.
-
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..
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70
400
300
700
500
600
Sample number at 200 Hz
Compare Temperature P8 5 200 vs Dry 2 198 mg
350
·--·--· ---·--- --------- -~---·---·---:---,·--- -··- · ·-·'-:i
280
J--.'--.-~
210
I
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700
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300
.
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350
03
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140 · :
700
Compare CJorces P8 5 200 vs. Dry 2 198 mg
· 700
1§
"'
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300
350
300
~
~
- --1
200
~ 210
OJ
400
700
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40~
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0
70
300
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400 g'
B
300
140
r-;:-:
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450
600 z
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Compare Temperature P8 4 203 vs Dry 5 200 mg
Compare CJorces P8 4 203 vs. Dry 5 200 mg
700
·_ __ __
1
~-,,--i
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70
I
01
.- ----ri
300
400
700
500
600
Sample number at 200 Hz
134
Cutting Force and Temperature: raw data o
SA T1 C . force and Temperature 199
350
Compare C.force SA1 199
700 ~ 280
w
~
u
0
B 210
500
~
E
140
400 g'
70
3008
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~
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B
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200
200
300
400
500
Sample number at 200 Hz
600
z
350
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400 +----.i ~
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200
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200
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300
400
500
Sample number at 200 Hz
600
I
350
700
280
600
I
140
400
~
70
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200
Z
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8
200
300
400
500
Sample number at 200 Hz
c.-..
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70 -1-1
10\
600
300
400
500
Sample number at 200 Hz
200
---
-----
Compare Temperature SA3 195 & Dry 20 193
- - -- - I
350
r----------------------------,
~ 280
~~----------J
<IJ
~ 210
1§
'.'''~..,}
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300
400
500
Sample number at 200 Hz
~~~-.------------~
J
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600
450 , - - - - -- -- - - - - - ,
~
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300
400
500
Sample number at 200 Hz
200
~
500 0
210
all.
600
300
400
500
Sample number at 200 Hz
200
Compare C.force SA3 195 VS . Dry 20 193
2l
E
O~I--------r---------------~------~
I 200
SA T3 C. force and Temperature 195
~
E
Compare Temperature SA2 196 & Dry 1 194
350 ,----------------------- -- - - -- ------,
F~I ~r~~l !~f: 1 r~
400
,
~ 70
600
300
400
500
Sample number at 200 Hz
.
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~ 140
Compare C.force SA2 196 vs . Dry 1 194 450 <.)
~210
~
700 Z
/-\~
1
<IJ
SA T2 C. force and Temperature 196
350
Compare Temperature SA1 199 & Dry 3 197
Dry 3197 450 ~--------~---------------------,
600 Z ~
VS .
=:J
600
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140
~
70
II
....
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200
600
300
400
500
Sample number at 200 Hz
___________
135
Compare C.force SA4 195
SA T4 C. force and Temperature 195
700
350
o 280
~
co:;
~
210 ­
~
140
~
70
500 (;
u..
400 g>
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300
0 200
8
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200
300
400
500
Sample number at 200 Hz
600
300
280
600 Z
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500 ~
tf
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E
~
400
300
o­
300
g>
:z
70 ­
400
500
600
Sample number at 200 Hz
400
500
600
Sample number at 200 Hz
200
700
8
Z
J~r,
~i\.#". .,------~
II
210
~ 140 -I
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70 -t--f-­
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700
300
700
400
500
600
Sample number at 200 Hz Compare Temperature SA5 198 & Dry 3197 350
450 . , - - - - - - -- - - - - -- - - - - - ,
700
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~
~
Compare C_force SA5 198 vs _Dry 3 197
350
:; 210
~ 280
+--J~-~----_---r_-L-~
200
SA T5 C. force and Temperature 198
o
Compare Temperature SA4 195 & Dry 20 193
350 . , - - - - - - - - -- - -- - - - - . . . ,
20 193
~
450
600 Z
VS _ Dry
~ 280
400
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8 250
200
300
210 -1---.1#'--- - - - - - - "
~
400
500
600
Sample number at 200 Hz
700
,
'"....'
70
0 --1--------.----------,,--------- - -------'
300
700
400
500
600
Sample number at 200 Hz
----
136
Cutting Force and Temperature:
raw data
SE T1 C. force and Temperature 206 mg
350 ~----------------------------------~. 700
~280
~ . J'f' - "\:
~210 I
A_.
:Ii... .
Z
400
~0
~0
350
LL
Cii
Qj 140
400 g'
0.
'';::;
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~ 70
oI
l-­
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500
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Compare C.forces E1 206 vs . Dry26 204 mg 'l"'I~II"llrr""I'IIIIIP
i
200
"11'1""1'111'11"1'\
300
400
500
Sample number at 200 Hz -- - - --
350
~280 t----~~~~~~-----~--J
~ 210
u..
g' 300
Cii
'';::;
~ 70 r---t-~--~--~------------~\--J
~ 140 -t----t----------------------~~~----J
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300B
r
200
600 o .LI-------r---------r---------r--------~
200
200
- - - - - \ - - - - - -- ­
350
700
u280
600
Compare C.forces E2 188 vs. dry 4 187 mg
~210
500 0
~140
0.
400
~
~ 400 tl----:-i~--------~-~----l
j
LL
.~
~ 70
~
G
300
f-
200
600
300
400
500
Sample number at 200 Hz
350
en 300
~
l"IjjjL~
-I
250
.
'"" - "
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~210 I
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~~~~- - 1I
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~
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300
400
500
Sample number at 200 Hz
140
'
.
'
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200 ~1--L---~----_.----._-~-~
200
~~
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Z
0.
H'·~'·-l ·
Compare Temperatu re E2 188 and Dry4 187 mg
- ---,
350
450 T-----------------------~---~
Z
~
o
200
600
300
400
500
Sample number at 200 Hz
200
600
300
400
500
Sample number at 200 Hz
SE T2 C. fo rce and Temperature 188 mg o
Compare Temperature E1 206 and Dry26 204 mg
450 200
600
600
300
400
500
Sample number at 200 Hz
I
SE T3 C. force and Temperature 204 mg
350 r'----------------~~~~~~
~
C1J
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280 1
f
210
-----\-'''''Ut-------l
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70
o,
300
~
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400 g'
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~
450
600 Z
~ 140
fl' "O!
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-
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Compare Temperature E3 204 and Dry33 202 mg
350 , - - - - - - - - - - - - - - ---------------­
Compare C.forces E3 204 vs. D33 202 mg
700 8
~ 400
t: 280
~0 ~ 210
350
~
LL en 300
.~
0.
E
G 250
200 200
~
300
400
500
Sample number at 200 Hz
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i
140
"
+---#
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- ~-----l
70 +I---i'f----------­
0~1---------------~---~
600
300
400
500
200
Sample number at 200 Hz
137
--
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~
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-----
-----
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SE T4 C. force and Temperature 203 mg
350
I
I
,
.
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i
Compare C.forces E4 203 vs . dry 5 200 mg
. 700
~ 280 .
~
.3 210
500
~
I E~
ID
I f-
450 . B
Z 400 -; lJ....
~
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0
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300
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~ 210
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0
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70
. 300 0
o
300
200
400
500
600
Sample number at 200 Hz
~ 140
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~
70
0
400
500
600
Sample number at 200 Hz
700
300
700
Z
700
350
0
280
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0
I
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~ 70
~
400
500
600
Sample number at 200 Hz
Compare Temperature E6 191 and Dry14 189 mg
450
~
E
~
280
Compare C.forces E6 191 vs. Dry14 189 mg
280
~ 140
U
350
300
Q)
700
200 700
400
500
600
Sample number at 200 Hz
Compare Temperature E5 195 and Dry 1 194 mg
400 700
350 -
'-
I ­
ID 200
B
210
ro
300
350
SE T6 C. force and Temperature 191 mg
o
700
450
0>
400
500
600
Sample number at 200 Hz
0
400
500
600
Sample number at 200 Hz
- - - ----
- 500
300 70
ID
Compare C.forces E5 195 vs. Dry 1 194 mg
~ 140
~
140
~
E
f-
300
ID
E
~ID
U
700
ro'-
280
~ 210
Ol 300 c
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-
250 700
350
, ':i 210
G
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SE T5 CMC C. force and Temperature 195
~ 280 -
350
~ 350
200
400
500
600
Sample number at 200 Hz
----".­
Compare Temperature E4 203 and Dry 5 200 mg
400 0
~ 350 ~
g' 300 -= U 250
200
300
400
500
600
Sample number at 200 Hz
.
.,
700
I
~
210
ro
~ 140
E
0
300
400
500
600
Sample number at 200 Hz
700
I
138
Cutting Force and Temperature:
raw data
S8 T1 C. force a nd Temperature 197mg r----~-----------__.
350
°
o
ID
280
- 600 z
g
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ID
ID
03 210
- 5000
l140
400~
ro
70
o
200
400
300
500
Sample number at 200 Hz
400
....
~
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8
200
600
I
~ 140
........
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250
' •
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70
o JI------.------r---------'
200 ~I--~----r--------r--------,_---L--~
200
300
400
500
600
Sample number at 200 Hz
- -- - - -
I
~
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}:~~ - ~~ :::j u 280
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200
• " ,'"
300
400
500
Sample number at 200 Hz
,.""-,
'·,.~,..11I1!111'1'"
350
400
.. 111. .
ID
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350
,
r
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r.- . . , - - - ­
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-­
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-
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1 200
---
Compare Temperature for 8 2 197 & Dry 2 195 mg
450
g
600
300
400
500
Sample number at 200 Hz
200
Compare C.forces 8 2 197 vs. Dry 2 195 mg
700 -j
03 210
S8 T2 C. force and Temperature 197mg 350
~~...
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~
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280
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~
- 3000
mil
350 •
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350
o
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Compare Temperature for 81 197 &ND1, Dry 1 195
Compare C.forces 91 197 vs. Dry 1 195 mg
450 r-------------------~----~--~
700 ~
YI.'\k..~
'
I
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200 ·~I--~---4-------~------,_---L--~
300
400
500
200
600
Sample number at 200 Hz
70 I
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I
I
300
400
500
Sample number at 200 Hz
200
600
l-
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S8 T3 C. force and Temperature 195mg 350
o 280
~
03 210
600
g
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~
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70
o
550
650
750
850
Sample number at 200 Hz
300
200
950
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350
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.2~
210
O
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140
8 250
200
I
300
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400
500
600
Sample number at 200 Hz
--­ ---­
'
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7~'l
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~
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400
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~
450 r----------------~
- 500 0
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Compare Temperature for 83 195 & Dry 5 194 mg
Compare C.forces 83 195 vs . NDry 1 194 mg
700 r
'
~_
..
Y'C....
"....,~""-­
~ I
0 ~1------~------,_------~-----4
300
400
500
600
Sample number at 200 Hz
700
--­ - -
139
-,
S B T4 C. force and Temperature 193mg ~o
U~
~
~ 210
ro
500 0 21.140
400 g>
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350 o
300
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400
500
600
Sample number at 200 Hz +--,1-------4
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, 3000 o,
200 700 .... ,' .
U
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700 280 '
600 z
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~
21.140 .
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3
n
~"1
,
400
500
600
Sample number at 200 Hz
~
o
350 ~
g' 300 I 1/1 .
300 0
8 250
200
700 '"
.ao·.....
200
.,
T "'1
!l'l'lJ'r
400
_ _- - ;
~_
I
. ~ -----l
!
-1­ --,-.,.---700 400
500
600
Sample number at 200 Hz
300
350 .....
, - - - - - - - -- - - -- - - - - - - - - ­
~
280 w
co:; 2101
E
"1(1'1 -·~IL'------~------_,--------._~----_4
300
~
~
h
'.'>\:;.'!'M .",
' ~IA"'"-¥l~
"""
..
~ 140
1-----V---·-- -- - : - - - - - -·
:;=;
! 1
.•
Compare Temperature for BS 190 & ND4 187 mg ~ 400 ~:-:-----------------------...:.-.___I w
loJ!\'I'\
.
o , ...
700 450 400 g'
B~
.. ··'."oni 'V'" """ m'!I!!
400
500
600
Sample number at 200 Hz .
Compare C.forces 85 190 vs. ND4 187 mg 350
210
If
200 +-~----~------~--~--~--~--~
300
.....
_
n
I
21.140 I
E
~ 70 I
.~
o'5 250
SB T5 C. force and Tem perature 190mg ~
ro~;:10
o
~
~
::-.-:.....-------- ---1
::50
0;:80 -1-­
. :Wi
W
~
E
~
~ 400 ~z
~
Compare Temperature for 84 193 & Dry13 191 mg
Compare C.forces B4 193 vs. Dry13 191 mg
450 r-------------------------------,
700 500
600
Sample number at 200 Hz
__________________·_
.. n_ ... _
~
70
700 ,--.L-
I'
"t O '·~----~--~--~--~--------~
300
_
_
_
400
500
600
Sample number at 200 Hz
700 i
I
140
Appendix E:
The output code from the AD/DA card is binary. Direct memory access (D.M.A) is used
to transfer data direct from the AID-byte to memory. Sampling can be done in polled
mode or in interrupt mode. For the former the PC is tied up until sampling is completed.
For the latter the PC is configured to sample the selected channels independent of direct
program control using hardware interrupts and timers. If this mode is used the PC is free
for other uses. For the case that the PC exercises control it is tied up anyway because it
must continuously output control signals and consequently all operations are performed
in polled mode. All the background information for the development of the software for
this may be found in the books by Tinker. (Tinker 1996 & 1990)
The binary data are converted to numeric format and the sampled temperature and cutting
force data are continuously displayed on screen and dumped to file for later graphical
presentation.
To be able to write the software for this case specific operation it is necessary that the
EDR software developers kit for Eagle Technology boards be read. Chapter 2 states that
EDR60.TPU from c:\EDR\TPAS must be copied to the units directory ' as
EDR.TPU.EDR60 for Turbo Pascal 6.0. The uses EDR statement must then be included
in the uses clause in the program for the programmer to have access to the pre-developed
software functions , constants and procedures. Similar instructions follow for other
programming languages. P3 of the developers kit manual should also be read when taking
Eagle cards into use. The newer Eagle cards have different installation instructions than
PC30 to PC30D. These are added from the control panel in windows at the applet for add
new hardware.
Once this is done programming can start. Follow chapter 3 of the user manual and the
EDR_InitBoard procedure description. In summary what is needed to take the board into
use is the following: - Call these procedures with their relevant parameters.
1)EDR AllocBoardHandle(bh); in 7.1 in the manual
2)EDR InitBoard(bh,baseaddr); in 7.19 in the manual or
2)EDR_InitBoardType(bh,baseaddr,boardtype);
7.20
3)EDR_ Set ADInConfig(bh,chan,range,adtype,gain) ; 7.25
4)EDR_ SetDAOutConfig(bh,chan,range,gain);
7.30
5)EDR_ GetBoardType(bh,boardtype);
If board type in this statement does not reflect your board type you must use the second
procedure in 2) above. Consult also appendix A4 in the user manual.
For some cards it is necessary that the jumpers on the board be physically set to
correspond to the configuration information specified in 3) and 4) above for the program
to function correctly. The user manuals for the relevant cards must be consulted for these
settings. When all of the above has been done then program communication between the
141
process hardware and the PC is open and the other procedures in the manual can be called
whenever needed and programming can continue as required.
142
11. References:
1. E., Henshall J.L, Hooper R.M., 1
"The influence
fluid
composition on
wear high
steel
in
cutting", World
Tribology
Mechanical
Publications limited P599
2. Boston,
ASME Research Committee, (1952) "Manual on
single-point tools" Second
published by ASME, P 143-150
3. Brown, A. (2002) "Developments in (10),
control
Douglas M., (Editor); (1
McGraw-Hill;
Edition; (P2.23-2.34)
metals with
SA Mechanical
Instruments &
Handbook;
5. Chiffre
and Belluco W.,(2002) "Investigations cutting fluid performance
different machining
Lubrication Engineering
(10),
6. du
E. (2001)
development of limited
operations in South Africa" Seventh International
African
of Tribology.
7. Follette, Daniel, (1980) "Machining
Society
manufacturing
:A
approach to metal cutting"
P46-55
8. Hill, R., (1950) "Plasticity",
(1
"An introduction to measurements Alsbach, Federal
Germany, Hottinger Baldwin Messtechnik GmbH 9. Hoffmann
Drach
LM, (1992) "Tribology - Friction
of Arnold a
of Hodder
Stoughton P 116, 1 \.Hv"H"I",'"
friction and Wear
Volume 1 tenth
Akademie Esslingen., P40-45
12.Kelly J.F.,
Cotterell M.G., (2002), "Minimal lubrication
aluminium
120 (1
Mechanical
, Journal
Materials
and Manufacturing Engineering Department, Cork Institute of Technology,
Bishopstown, Cork, Ireland
13
Grand
(1971), "Manufacturing McGraw-Hill, (P254-255)
143
14.Liew W.Y.H., Hutching I.M., Williams J.A, (1997) "Friction and lubrication effects
in the machining of aluminium alloys", World Tribology Congress, Mechanical
Engineering Publications limited, P337
15.Montgomery, R.S. (1965), "The effect of alcohols and ethers on the wear behaviour of
aluminium." Wear 8, P466-473.
16.Mori S., (1995), "Tribochemical activity of nascent metal surfaces ", proceedings lTC,
Yokohama, Satellite forum on Tribochemistry, Tokyo, October 28, 1995, P37-42.
17. Mortier R.M and Orszulik S.T., (1992) "Chemistry and Technology of Lubricants"
Blackie Academic and Professional an imprint of Chapman and Hall P45, 217-219
18. Rank Taylor Hobson limited "Surtronic 3 User Manual" Rank Taylor Hobson P5-9
19. Rollason E.C. , (1973) " Metallurgy for Engineers" Edward Arnold (P337-340)
20. Rowe, C.N. and Murphy, W.R., (1974), In: Proc. Tribology Workshop. Ling, F.F.
(ed.) National Science Foundation, Washington D.C.
21.Tinker, D (1996) "EDR Software developers kit for Eagle Technology boards User
manual" Eagle teclmology
(1990) " User Manual for PC30B/C/D" Eagle Teclmology
22. Trent E.M., (1977) "Metal Cutting" Butterworths
23. Van der Voort, George F., (1999), "Metallography, principles and practice." Mc
Graw-Hill PI96-198, 350-353
24 . Van der Waal, G, (1985) "The relationship between chemical structure of ester base
fluids and their influence on elastomer seals and wear characteristics" Journal of
synthetic lubrication 1 (4) P281
25. Varadarajan AS., Philip P.K. and Ramamoorthy B., (2001), "Investigations on hard
turning with minimal cutting fluid application (HTMF) and its comparison with dry
and wet turning", International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture 42 (2),
January 2002, P 193-200, Manufacturing Engineering Section, Department of
Mechanical Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology, Madras, Chennai, 600036,
India
26. Vieira 1.M., Machado AR., and Ezugwu E.O., (2001) "Performance of cutting
fluids during face milling of steels' Journal of Materials Processing Technology
116 (2-3), P 244-251
144
27. Xuegang M., Yangshan S., Feng X., Wenwen D. and Wu D., (2002) "Analysis of
valence electron structure (VES) of intermetallic compounds containing Mg-Al-based
alloys" Materials,Chemistry and Physics 78 (1) P88-93
Department of Material Science and Engineering, South E. University, Nanjing,
China, 210096
28. Zorev N.N, Massey H.S.H.and Shaw M.C,. (1966) "Metal Cutting Mechanics"
Pergamon Press London, P273
Web site references :
29. ARTX, (2002) V011ex tube coolers, http://vlww.artxltd.com, [2002, April 4]
30. Capgo, (2002) Software reference compensation, www.capgo.com. [2002, October 9]
31. Clark, J. (2002) Chemguide helping you to understand chemistry,
http ://www.chemguide.co.uk/atoms/bonding/metallic.html, [2002 October 29]
32. Nix, Roger (2002) An introduction to surface chemistry,
http://www.chem.qmw.ac.uk/surfaces/scc. [2002 May 5]
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145

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