POLICY OPTIONS IN THE DEMOCRATIC
REPUBLIC OF THE CONGO (DRC):
AN OVERVIEW FROM 1960 to 2006
By
Amb. Jeremiah Nyamane Mamabolo
Submitted in fulfilment of the Degree
Magister Administrationis
Master of Administration (M.Admin – Public Administration)
In the Faculty of Economic and Management Sciences
School of Public Management and Administration
University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
Supervisor: Professor Dr. Jerry O. Kuye
© 2008
© University of Pretoria
Table of Contents
Contents
Page
Abstract
5
Acronyms
6
Figures 1.1, 1.2,
8
Figure 1.3
9
Figure 1.4
40
Table 1
29
Chapter One: Introduction and Historiography
10
Historical Review
12
An Overview of Africa’s Anti-Colonial Struggle
12
An Overview of the History of the Congo–Kinshasa (DRC)
16
King Leopold II
17
Patrice Lumumba
18
Mobutu Sese Seko
19
Ethnic Dvisions : A Source of Conflict
20
Laurent-Désiré Kabila
22
Evolution of the Conflict in the DRC
22
Negotiations for a Peaceful Settlement of the Conflict
24
Case Study One: The Lusaka Cease-Fire Agreement
24
Cessation of hostilities
25
Joint Military Commission
25
Deployment of peacekeeping force
26
Disarmament of militia groups
26
National reconciliation
26
Conclusion
27
Methodology Approaches
28
Research Methodology
28
Purpose of Research
30
Exploratory Research
34
Descriptive Research
30
Types of Research Design
31
Experimental Design
31
Survey Research
31
Qualitative Research
31
Quantitative Research
31
Participatory Action Research
32
Evaluation Research
32
2
Un-obstructive Research
32
Data Collection and Analysis
32
Research Question
33
Limitation
33
Chapter Two: Review of Relevant Literature
34
The Policy Formation Agenda
34
Policy-Analytic Methods
35
Policy Inquiry
36
Policy Implications
37
Public Policy
37
Policy Making and Policy Analysis
38
Policy–Relevant Information
39
Forms of Policy Analysis
41
Integrated Analysis
41
Public Policy and the Policymakers
41
Power Approaches to Decision-Making
42
Decision Analysis
43
The Bureaucracy
45
Chapter Three: Post Conflict Reconstruction and
Development Strategy in the DRC
47
Challenges facing the New State
49
Building a Congolese State
50
Setting Priorities
51
The Democratic Republic of the Congo – Areas Requiring
Attention
51
Humanitarian Situation
52
Security Sector Reform
52
Core Objectives of the SSR Process in the DRC
53
Regional Dynamics in Reconstruction and Socioeconomic
Development
54
The Regional Pact on Security, Stability and Development
55
Poverty Reduction
56
Policy Harmonisation
56
Policy Framework
57
Case Study Two: The African Union’s Post Conflict
Reconstruction and Development (PCRD) Framework-Analysis
57
Definitions
58
Elements of the Policy Framework
59
3
Benchmarks and Standards
60
Security Sector
60
Humanitarian/Emergency Assistance
61
Socio-Economic Reconstruction and Development
61
Human Rights, Justice and Reconciliation
61
Women and Gender
61
Principles and Values
62
Resource Mobilisation
62
Case Study Three: An Overview of South Africa’s
Post-Conflict Engagement in the DRC
63
The Context
63
South Africa’s Contribution
65
Bi-National Commission between South Africa and the
Democratic Republic of the Congo
66
Government Priorities for Post-Conflict Reconstruction
67
Health
67
Challenges
68
Energy (Electricity)
69
Education
71
Possibly Areas for Cooperation in the Education Sector
71
Economy Finance and Infrastructure
72
Trade and Industry
72
The Bi-National Commission and the Spatial Development
Initiatives (SDI)
73
Spatial Development Initiatives: A Priority of Post Conflict
Reconstruction and Development
73
Establishment of a Gender Sub-commission
74
Cooperation in the Reform of the security Sector
75
Chapter Four: Conclusion and Recommendations
80
References and Sources Consulted
87
Books
87
Documents
88
Internet Search
89
Other Sources Consulted
90
Dictionaries
91
Annexure
92
4
Abstract
This dissertation entitled: “Policy Options in The Democratic Republic
of the Congo (DRC): An Overview from 1960 to 2006” entails to
develop an analytical framework with the intention of looking at
various policy options that could guide the leadership in mapping out
a roadmap for sustainable development in the reconstruction of the
Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). The research recognises that
suitable policies which can provide solutions for the political and
socio-economic problems of the DRC must be sought within the
geographic, demographic, religious and ethnic context of that country.
Hence, the dissertation departs from the premises that the diagnosis
of the solution needed to remedy problems afflicting many African
nations such as the Democratic Republic of the Congo begins with the
inherent problem of governance. Consequently, the study investigates
sources of bad governance and factors which have led to the collapse
of a state beginning with the historical consequence of colonialism
and the mismanagement by successive regimes. These factors are
largely responsible for the decimation of potentially, Africa’s wealthiest
nations, reducing them to being amongst the poorest in the world.
Beyond the context of the continental policies, the dissertation
examines the Democratic Republic of the Congo’s own Post Conflict
and Reconstruction policy. Also for consideration is the areas of
priority that needs focussing on if a post conflict and reconstruction
policy is to be successful. This includes ensuring that peace and
security prevails by stabilising the country through the reform of the
security sector. Security in this context must be understood in its
broad format which includes human security. On the other hand, the
study also presents the argument that policies alone are not sufficient
to create a functioning state that is of service to its people. For the
future and prosperity of the Congo, it is essential not only to have the
correct policies only, but also a leadership, at all levels, that will
embrace and implement them.
5
Acronyms
ACSA
Airport Companies of South Africa
AFDL
Alliance des Forces Démocratiques pour la Libération
AU
African Union
BNC
Bi-National Commission
CMT
Crowd Management Technique Training
DBSA
Development Bank of Southern Africa
DRC
Democratic Republic of the Congo
ENA
Ecole Nationale D’Administration (National School of
Administration)
EU
European Union
FDD
Forces de Défense pour la Démocratie
FUNA
Former Ugandan National Army
HSGIC
Heads of State and Government of the Implementing
Committee
ICTR
International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda
JMC
Joint Military Commission
LRA
Lord Resistance Army
MDG
Millennium Development Goals
MLC
Mouvement de Libération du Congo (Movement for thé
Libération of Congo)
MONUC
Mission de l’Organisation des Nations Unies pour le
Congo (United Nations Peacekeeping Mission in the DRC)
MOU
Memorandum of Understanding
NEPAD
New Partnership for Development
PCRD
Post Conflict Reconstruction and Development
RCD
Rassemblement Congolais pour la Démocratie
REC
Regional Economic Community
RSA
Republic of South Africa
SACAA
South African Civil Aviation Agency
SADB
South African Diamond Bond
SADC
Southern African Development Community
6
SDI
Spatial Development Initiative
SSR
Security Sector Review
WTO
World Trade Organization
UNITA
Union Nacional dela Independancia Total de Angola
UNRF
Uganda National Rescue Front
WNBF
West Nile Bank Front
7
Figures
Figure 1.1: Maps
Figure 1.2: DRC’s Administrative Boundaries
8
Figure 1.3: Africa’s Map
Source: www.worldatlas.com/webimage/countrys/africa/africaa.htm
9
Chapter One:
Introduction and Historiography
The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC)’s area covers a total of two
thousand three hundred and forty two (2 342) million square Kilometres. It is
the second largest country (landmass) in the African continent surpassed only
by the Republic of the Sudan. (Arnold, 2005).
www.worldatlas.com/webimage/countrys/africa/africaa.htm
The challenge facing the elected government of the Democratic Republic of
the Congo is to strengthen the fragile peace existing in the country, deliver a
strategy for sustainable growth, end poverty and produce a plan for economic
recovery. Major General, Joseph Kabila, outlined some of the challenges in his
speech delivered at his inauguration as the elected President of the DRC, and
predicting a brighter prospect for his country he stated the following: “I see a
Congo where, every day, the people are returning to work, transforming the
parameters of poverty into a building site for prosperity. We must, in
particular, start rehabilitating the infrastructure of communication such as
roads, railways, waterways, ports, airports, we must undertake extensive
agricultural projects, reform the education system, provide access to safe
water and electricity, build health facilities and housing” (President Joseph
Kabila, 2005).
Africa’s development can only be realised in an environment of peace and
stability. African leaders in their quest to unify the continent have recognised
that the political and economic integration of the continent must begin with
the strengthening of Regional Economic Communities (REC). The leaders also
recognise the central to Africa’s success is the trilogy: Peace, Security and
Development. Without peace there can be no development and without
development there can be no human rights.
10
President Kabila made the same observation when he stated in his speech
that I have also asserted that there is a dialectical unity between good
governance, democracy and the state of law (Joseph Kabila, 2005).
The Congolese leadership is faced with the challenge of developing a policy
framework within the context of the African agenda as set out by the
continental organisation, the African Union (AU) and its developmental
programme the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD). The
policy framework must take into account the specific conditions pertaining to
the Democratic Republic of the Congo and the regional dynamics.
In a meeting of the Heads of State and Government of the implementing
Committee (HSGIC) of NEPAD, held in Abuja - Nigeria in 2004, the leaders
made the observation that NEPAD recognises that peace, security,
democracy,
good
governance,
human
rights
and
sound
economic
management are conditions for sustainable development (NEPAD, Secretariat
Report 2004).
Policy formulation in DRC is faced with the challenges in the following areas
governance,
security
sector
reform,
humanitarian
crisis,
economic
management and sustainable development. Cutting across all these sectors
the biggest challenge are, personnel and institutional capacity building.
Nevertheless, the DRC together with other African giants such as Angola,
Sudan, which are largely endowed with huge deposits of natural and mineral
resources have the potential of becoming the pulling locomotives in the battle
for Africa’s ‘renaissance’. To win half the battle in the struggle for the renewal
of the African continent, Africa’s leaders are faced with the challenge of
transforming these countries into stable and prosperous democracies to
enable them to assume leadership roles.
11
Historical Overview
Historical background and realities inform the current situation and helps to
put into perspective the present difficulties confronting the DRC. It is
imperative to go back in history and analyse conditions that were created
over a period of time and which, to a large extent, accounts for the current
state of affairs. Understanding these historical conditions enable analysts to
be better able to get to the root causes of the problems and to have
appreciation of the remedy that is required to formulate correct policies. The
history of the Congo is characterised by slavery, brutal exploitation,
dictatorship and ethnic conflicts. All these factors combined, contributed to
the reversal of development in the Democratic Republic of the Congo.
An Overview of Africa’s Anti-Colonial Struggle
Congolese independence in 1960 was primarily an expression of the anticolonial struggle that saw the emergence of new independent nations
worldwide. Since World War II, millions of people had struggled to rid
themselves of the yoke of colonialism through civil strikes, civil disobedience
movements and full-scale wars. When Belgium officially granted the Congo
(Kinshasa) its independence, already a number of former colonies had been
freed. India gained its independence in 1947, China followed in 1949,
Vietnam in 1954. Since 1954 a war of liberation had been raging in Algeria,
the second war in Indochina broke out in 1957, and the Cuban people
overthrew Batista’s semi – colonial rule in 1959.
In Africa as well, the anti-colonial struggle was gaining momentum. In 1953
four African states namely Egypt, Ethiopia, Liberia and South Africa were
members of the United Nations. And by the end of 1960 there were twentysix African countries that became members of the United Nations. In 1960
sixteen more African countries gained their independence, most of these were
12
from francophone Africa. These countries are: Cameroon, Central African
Republic, Chad, Congo (Brazzaville), Dahomey (Benin), Gabon, Ivory Coast
(Côte d’ Ivoire), Madagascar, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Sénégal, Togo, Upper
Volta (Burkina Faso) and Nigeria. Also during the same period British
Somaliland joined the former Italian Somaliland to form the Independent
Republic of Somaliland. According to Arnold (2005), and from a historical
point of view, The Congo, which is Africa’s largest and potentially the richest
country gained independence from Belgium in 1961 (Arnold, 2005).
It is clear, judging form the performance of these countries today, that when
they gained independence they had fragile infrastructure and miniscule
economies. The legacy they inherited indicate that on granting independence
most colonial powers had clearly not focussed on developing infrastructure.
The newly independent countries require, even today, political stability and
economic growth. Most of these former colonial countries were starting from
tiny under-developed economic bases. The independence of these emerging
countries was as a result hollow and could therefore not secure sustainable
development.
This desperate situation forced the leaders of these emerging states to seek
compromises with their former colonial masters. The fragile so called
independence demanded that for their own survival these countries must
continue to be dependent on their former colonial masters. This has created
an unequal relationship in which the former colonial masters continue to
benefit from the beneficiation of the raw materials produced by the colonies
simply by monopolising the capacity to develop expertise that adds value. In
turn the colonies, having produced the raw material become dependent on
the value added products sold back to them as finished goods.
In the same vein, Arnold (2005) argues that the policies of government,
which were based on compromise was influenced largely by the state of
poverty and underdevelopment and that this scenario made it possible for the
13
former colonial masters to pursue neo-colonial policies that enabled the
transfer of political power while maintaining economic control of the emerging
states. Arnold (2005) further stated that during the decade that followed the
euphoria of 1960, two parallel searches took place. The first was for political
stability, the best system to encompass the needs of the new societies; and
the second was for economic growth and development, in most cases starting
from tiny under–developed bases. The political leaders had, at once, to learn
the art of compromise, both with the
various forces that had been released
in their new states and with the departing colonial powers (Arnold, 2005).
Another view on the art of compromise comes from Fanon (1993) who stated
“that this idea of compromise is very important in the phenomenon of
decolonization. For it is very far from being a simple one. Compromise
involves the colonial system and the young nationalist bourgeoisie at one and
the same time. The partisan of the colonial system discover that the masses
may destroy everything. Blown up bridges, ravaged farms, repressions and
fighting harshly disrupt the economy…” Compromise is equally attractive to
the national bourgeoisie, who since they are not clearly of the possible
consequence of the rising storm are genuinely afraid of being swept away by
this huge hurricane and never stop saying to the settler. Fanon further
reiterated that “we are still capable of stopping the slaughter; the masses still
have confidence in us; act quickly if you do not want to put everything in
jeopardy” (Fanon, 1993).
This view of Fanon on compromise is particularly instructive as it focuses on
the collaboration of what he refers to as a ‘national bourgeoisie’ in the
pacification of the masses. The arrangement hastily made between the
colonisers and certain elements of the colonised societies who stood to
benefit at the expense of the overwhelming majority created the foundation
for the status core in many a developing country. This relationship is a
precursor of the unjust, unfair and unacceptable world order in which the
benefits of the process of globalisation is accrued largely by the developed
14
countries. The tendency to seek out collaborators capable of protecting one’s
interest is old and can be traced as far back as the period of slavery, where
some chiefs sold their subjects in return of personal benefits.
Today, different researched statistical data demonstrates that the African
continent has been increasingly marginalised since the end of the Cold War.
Despite having gained political independence there are a lot of tell-tale signs
that are indicative of problems afflicting Africa. Problems such as political
failure, lack of good governance, civil unrest, feminine and the AIDS
pandemic constitute serious challenge to the leadership of the continent.
(Data Resources Online http://www.data.org).
Africa’s biggest challenge, however, has been and remains the lack of total
independence both politically and economically. The consequence of the
compromise solution described in the above mentioned paragraphs has meant
that Africa was never really given the opportunity to determine its own
destiny. Despite Africa’s natural and mineral wealth it continues to have little
control over the pricing of its own products. Developed countries therefore
continue to accrue more benefits out Africa’s natural and mineral resources,
much more than Africa itself.
Sub-Saharan Africa still remains one of the poorest regions in the world.
During the 1990 it accounted for less than one per cent of world trade with
approximately 12 per cent of the world’s population. Moreover, even though
sub-Saharan Africa remains mired in chronic poverty, the continent still
experiences a net outflow of capital to its creditors. At present this deficit
amounts to approximately two billion US dollars as Africa spends fourteen
point five billion dollars ($ 14.5 billion dollars) each year repaying debts and
only receives $ 12.7 billion in official aid. In essence the poorest region of the
world is subsidising the nations of the developed world (Data Resources
Online http://www.data.org).
15
Given the state of affairs Africa now need to rehabilitate and to work for
genuine transformation if it is to avoid further marginalisation. The relative
peace and stability that exists is testimony of Africa’s determination to find
solutions to the numerous problems that confronts her. Through continental
institutions such as the African Union (AU), Regional Economic Communities
(REC) and through developmental programmes such as the New Economic
Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD), a solid foundation for Africa’s
recovery has been laid. Africa needs to review its policies continuously with a
view to determine whether they are useful and to ensure that the strategies
deployed deliver to bring about the desired changes in the fortunes of millions
of Africa’s inhabitants.
An Overview of the History of the Congo–Kinshasa (DRC)
The early inhabitants of the Congo are said to be the pygmies who lived in
small numbers in the equatorial forest of the north and east. Increasingly a
number of Bantu speaking people began occupying the region from the
North- West (present day Nigeria and Cameroon) and settled in the Savannah
region of the South. The Bantus were armed with their vast knowledge of iron
technology and agriculture. They soon started trading the copper deposits of
South Katanga. (Hochschild, 2002).
The Bantu increased considerably in numbers and began occupying larger
areas of the Congo region, thus reducing the area occupied by the pigmies,
they coalesced into states some of which governed large areas and had
complex administrative structures. Monarchs, whose authority although
considerable, was checked by a council of high civil servants and elders, ruled
most areas.
16
The notable Kingdoms during this period was the Kingdom of the Kongo
founded in the 14th century what would be today modern Northern Angola but
including areas of western Congo, and a Luba empire (founded in the early
16th century) and centred on Lakes Kirale and Upemba in central Katanga
(Hochschild, 2002).
King Leopold II
In the late 1870, the territory was colonised by King Leopold II (Who reigned
from 1865 to 1909). Today the Democratic Republic of the Congo owes its
present boundaries to the imperial aspirations of King Leopold II who
obtained much of this vast territory in 1885. King Leopold set up his own
colonial empire after realising that Belgium, as a country will not support his
ventures. The King believed strongly that Belgium needed colonies to ensure
its prosperity. (Hochschild, 2002).
In his book, entitled King Leopold’s ghost the author Adam Hoschild writes:
From the colonial era, the major legacy Europe left for Africa was not
democracy as it is practised today in countries like England, France and
Belgium; it was authoritarian rule and plunder. On the African
continent, perhaps no nation has had a harder time than the Congo in
emerging from the shadow of the past (Hoschild, 2002).
Massive campaigns against the slavery practised in the Congo by the King,
forced the Belgium government to step in and buy the Congo from Leopold in
1908. Belgian’s take – over from the King was followed by the establishment
of Private companies to exploit the mineral wealth of the Katanga and Kasai
regions. A notable example was the ‘Union Miniere du Haut Katanga’
chartered in 1905.” In the same text, Hochschild (2002) also observes that:
“when independence came, the country fared badly…Some Africans were
being trained for that distant day; but when pressure grew and independence
came in 1960, in the entire territory there were fewer than 30 African
17
university graduates”. Meredith (2006) noted that there were no Congolese
army
officers,
engineers,
agronomists
or
physicians.
The
colony
administration had made few other steps toward a Congo run by its own
people; of some 5,000 management-level positions in the civil service,
Africans filled only three (Meredith, 2006).
Patrice Lumumba
On the 30th June 1960, the independence day of the Congo, a representative
of Belgium, King Baudouin – the firstborn son of King Leopold 11- extolled the
role played by his father in the development of the Congo. He called on the
Congolese to, as they begin to rule themselves, seek advice and not to
venture into major changes without consulting Belgium, considering “their
lack of skills and expertise” (Hoschild, 2002).
The elected Prime Minister Mr Patrice Lumumba, although not scheduled to
speak asked for the floor to respond. He rose to deliver a tirade against
Belgium. Patrice Lumumba denounced Belgium’s colonialism and slavery and
spoke of the historic struggle for liberation of the Congolese people.
Lumumba’s speech made it very clear that what Baudouin sought to glorify
was nothing more than humiliating slavery that was imposed on the
Congolese by force. Patrice Lumumba did not last long. In Belgium and the
West, he was considered a dangerous extremist who threatened the interest
of the Western civilisation. Lumumba was killed in January 1961. His death
marked the end of the first phase of the Congo crisis. (Meredith, 2006).
The death of Lumumba demonstrates the extent to which the countries of the
West were ready to go in maintaining control of the newly independent
former colonies. Western countries employed any means within their disposal.
They manipulated the United Nations, facilitated the deployment of
mercenaries, and by threats bribes and overt political pressure they made
18
sure that a puppet system accountable to the West rather than any fully
independent political leadership came to power.
Describing the behaviour of the western countries during this crisis ridden
period in the Congo, Guy Arnold states that there were a number of excuses
given to justify the behaviour of the west, the cold war was one – preventing
the spread of Soviet or communist influence in the region; greed was another
– the Congo was too rich to be allowed to escape from Western corporate
controls; and deep resentment on the part of the Belgians at loss of control of
their colonial in Africa was the third (Arnold, 2005).
Given the different and opposing perspective of Baoudouin and Lumumba, it
becomes imperative to make an analysis of the policies pursued during
Belgium’s colonial rule in order to determine whether in fact the Congo did
benefit during this period. The analysis should answer the question, should
the Congo be grateful to colonialism? Considering that historical records
indicate that the colonialism of the Congolese is almost comparable to
slavery, it is safe to assume that Congo did not benefit during this period.
In the same token it becomes important to analyse Lumumba’s response,
which refers to the great movement for liberation of the Congolese people.
What happened to this great movement for liberation during the crisis ridden
period of the more than forty years that ensued following Lumumba’s death?
Mobutu Sese Seko
After the death of Lumumba the period of dictatorship of the Joseph-Desire
Mobutu (Who later renamed himself as Mobutu Sese Seko kuku Ngbendu wa
za Banga) era, appear to confirm the theory postulated by Franz Fanon and
quoted above in relation to the collaboration of the colonialists and certain
national elements.
19
The prolonged life span of this dictatorship underscores the power and
strength of the collaboration. During this period for over forty years,
Congolese never held democratic elections, Multi party democracy was not
allowed. Joseph Mobutu, recorded by historians as one of the richest leaders
of the world reigned over one of the poorest country. According to
Transparency International, Mobutu embezzled over five billion USD from his
country, ranking him as the third-most corrupt leaders in world history and
most corrupt African leader ever.
Mobutu’s rule earned a reputation as one of the world’s foremost examples of
kleptocracy and nepotism. Close relatives and fellow members of the Ngbandi
tribe were awarded with high positions in the military and government, and
he groomed his eldest son, Nyiwa, to one day succeed him as President.
Despite his dictatorship and corruption, Mobutu successfully capitalised on
cold war tensions and gained significant support from Western countries like
the United States, Belgium, France and others and international organisations
such as the International Monetary Fund. For the most part, Mobutu’s Zaire
enjoyed warm relations with the United States of America (USA) The USA was
the third largest donor of aid to Zaire (After Belgium and France), and Mobutu
befriended several U.S presidents, including Nixon, Reagan and George H.W.
Bush (http:// bookrags.com/Mobutu Sese Seko quoting Young and Turner ).
A logical conclusion that has to be reached is that the Mobutu regime, known
to be one of the most corrupt and violator of human rights and operating
completely against all norms of democracy and good governance, could not
have survived this long without the support and backing of the Western
democracies. Franz Fanon’s theory makes this point.
Ethnic divisions: A source of conflict
Historically, disputes over land tenure and ownership lie at the heart of most
ethnic clashes in particular between the Banyarwanda and the indigenous
20
Hunde. Colonial powers settled Banyarwada on vacant land, which belonged
to the indigenous customary Hunde chiefs.
In 1981 The Zairian parliament passed decree law no 81-002, amending law
no 71-020 of 26 March 1971, which had granted nationality on a collective
basis to the Banyarwanda. The new law retroactively deprived many
Banyarwanda of their Zairian nationality and hence property rights by
conferring nationality only to those who could prove that their ancestors had
lived in Zaire since 1885 (Arnold, 2005), (http:// bookrags.com/Mobutu Sese
Seko quoting Young and Turner ).
Following this decision, which is reflection of the historical dispute over
territory along the Rwanda and Congo boarder: The Hunde, later aided by the
presence of unpaid units of Zairian Soldiers, tried to drive the Hutu and Tutsi
out of the region. Ethnic conflict between the Banyarwanda and Hunde
peoples erupted repeatedly in the North Kivu/Masisi region from March to
June 1993 and again in 1996.
The arrival, in 1994, of some 1,5 million Hutu refugees from neighbouring
Rwanda, transformed an essentially local conflict into an international cross
border war. Rwanda, which has had its own dynamics of ethnic conflict
between the Hutu and Tutsi, accused the Zaire government of aiding the exFAR and Interhamwe militia to establish military basis of operations in the
Masisi area, assisting them in the procurement of arms and the execution of
cross-border attacks on targets in Rwanda (Arnold, 2005).
The genocide in Rwanda in 1994 led to a mass exodus of Tutsis into the
Congo territory. The genocide itself was the culmination of bitter rivalry
between the ethnic groups, but particularly between the Hutus and the
Tutsis, that has embroiled the entire region in conflict and instability.
21
Laurent-Désiré Kabila
It was at about this time that Laurent Desire Kabila, a non –Tutsi Zairian,
emerged as the acclaimed leader of what he called the alliance of Democratic
Forces for the Liberation of Congo-Zaire (AFDL). Kabila’s forces, most of
which were trained in the United Republic of Tanzania, aided by allied forces
from the neighbouring countries, soon overcame the ill- equipped and
indiscipline Zairian soldiers. Shortly thereafter, civil order was restored in the
Kivus, with ADFL troops demonstrating a discipline not seen amongst Zairian
soldiers. Civil servants’ salary arrears were paid and commercial life resumed.
By May 1997 Kabila succeeded in driving out the Zairian dictator, Joseph
Mobutu from Kinshasa, and took power as the new President of the
Democratic Republic of the Congo. In the ensuing months, Kabila’s promise to
his allies, who helped him to gain power, namely Uganda, Rwanda and
Burundi, to address the ‘Banyamulenge – issue’ as well as the Hutu militia
problem on his eastern Border had come to nothing. Continued pressure from
inside his alliance government, and a total lack of co-operation on Kabila's
part, led to a renewed rebellion sponsored by his former allies – Uganda and
Rwanda – in an attempt to remove him from power.
Evolution of the Conflict in the DRC
On the 2nd August 1998 the Banyamulenge (ethnic Congolese Tutsi) troops
along with the Rwanda’s soldiers in military camps in Kinshasa clashed with
DRC soldiers. Indications were that the attacks were a result of President
Kabila ordering Rwanda soldiers to leave DRC territory. Rwanda and Uganda
accused President Kabila of being unable to control and administer the
Eastern DRC, the two countries complained about the continued attacks by
various rebel groups such as the ex Rwandese Army (FAR) troops, and
Interhamwe/Hutu groups, and Ugandan armed groups such as the Lord’s
22
Resistance Army, Tabliq and the Nile West Bank front. (Human Rights Watch,
2004).
The dynamics of the conflict in the DRC was complicated by the military
involvement of several other African states on both the side of the conflicting
parties. Rwanda and Uganda are most of the time implicated. At some stage
a number of African States namely, Uganda, Rwanda, Zimbabwe, Namibia
and Angola were all engaged in intense conflict supporting one group or the
other, and thus making the conflict, the first international war in Africa since
decolonisation.
Rwanda and Uganda claim that their involvement in the DRC is motivated
purely in the interest of their own national security as rebel movements use
DRC territory as spring boards to launch attacks on their countries.
Zimbabwe, Angola and Namibia justify their involvement in the DRC from the
premises that they were acting in aid of a legitimate government that is
defending its’ sovereignty and territorial integrity.
This may be the case, there are however many who believe that these states
are also acting out of economic self-interest and that their military
involvement in DRC territory was in part an endeavour to exploit the mineral
wealth of the DRC. There is not enough evidence to substantiate this claim.
There is however documented evidence that certain individuals and big
corporations in some of the neighbouring states, benefit from exploiting the
mineral wealth in the embattled areas of the Congo. Some of these elements
operate in the conflict ridden areas of the Congo under protection, at a fee,
from the rebel groups in captured territories. (Human Rights Watch, 2004).
The Human Rights Watch investigating the conflict in the northeast corner of
the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), one of Africa’s richest
goldfields, made the following observation in its report: “In 2003, an
23
estimated $60 million worth of Congolese gold was exported from Uganda,
much of it destined for Switzerland. One of the companies buying gold from
Uganda is Metalor Technologies, a leading Swiss refinery. The chain of
Congolese middlemen, Ugandan traders, and multinational corporations form
an important funding network for armed groups operating in north-eastern
Congo. Metalor knew, or should have known, that gold bought from its
suppliers in Uganda came from a conflict zone in north-eastern DRC where
human rights were abused on a systematic basis” (Human Rights Watch,
2004).
Negotiations for a Peaceful Settlement of the
Conflict
Several SADC summits and many ministerial consultations followed the
outbreak of conflict in the DRC. One of the most important summits was the
Pretoria Summit held on 23 August 1998. The then Chairperson of the SADC,
President Nelson Mandela, convened an Extraordinary Summit of the SADC
Heads of State to deliberate the situation in the DRC. The Summit called for a
cease-fire, troop standstill and the initiation of a peaceful process of political
dialogue. These aspects formed the framework within which the Lusaka
Cease-fire Agreement was drafted and approved.
Case Study One: The Lusaka Cease-Fire Agreement
The parties to the conflict signed the Lusaka Cease-fire Agreement on 10 July
1999 after extensive negotiations between all the belligerents with mediation
by Zambia, South Africa and numerous other countries, which even included
Libya. The RCD-rebel group did not sign the agreement on 10 July 1999. This
resulted in the MLC being hesitant to sign immediately.
24
The MLC led by Jean P. Bemba signed on 1 August 1999 after being
prompted by Uganda and South Africa.
The August 1999 SADC Summit
proposed that all founding members of the RCD be persuaded to sign the
cease-fire.
This eventually took place on 31 August 1999 in Lusaka after
extensive mediation by the South African Minister of Foreign Affairs.
The most important aspects of the Lusaka Cease-fire Agreement can be
summarised as follows:
Cessation of hostilities
That ensured that hostilities come to an end. All parties to the conflict were
ordered to cease hostilities within 24 hours of the signing of the Lusaka
agreement. All air, land and sea attacks were to cease and the military forces
were to disengage. All acts of violence against the civilian population were
also to cease, while the parties were to facilitate the delivery of humanitarian
assistance through the opening of aid corridors” (The Lusaka Ceasefire
Agreement, 1999).
Joint Military Commission
A Joint Military Commission (JMC) – composed of two representatives from
each belligerent party under a neutral chairman appointed by the OAU – was
established within one week of the signing of the agreement to oversee its
implementation until the deployment of a UN peacekeeping force. The duties
of the JMC, which operated under the responsibility of a separate ministeriallevel political committee, was to include, among other things, investigating
reported cease-fire violations, working out mechanisms to disarm militia
groups, verifying the disarmament of Congolese civilians, and monitoring the
withdrawal of foreign forces” (The Lusaka Ceasefire Agreement, 1999).
25
Deployment of peacekeeping force
An “appropriate” force was subsequently deployed by the UN to ensure
implementation of the agreement. The force was inter alia to take all
necessary measures to ensure compliance, collect weapons from civilians, and
schedule and supervise the withdrawal of all foreign forces, in collaboration
with the JMC and the OAU. It was also tasked with providing humanitarian
assistance to displaced persons, refugees and other affected persons and
ensuring their protection.
Disarmament of militia groups
The Agreement envisaged the tracking down and disarming of armed groups,
the screening of mass killers and war criminals, and the handing over of
suspected ‘genocidaires’ to the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda
(ICTR) in Arusha, Tanzania. The countries of origin of members of armed
groups were to take all necessary measures to facilitate their repatriation,
which could include the granting of amnesty to non-genocidaires.
The “armed groups” are identified as the Rwandan ex-FAR and Interahamwe
(Genociders), the Rebel Ugandan Allied Democratic Forces (ADF), Lord’s
Resistance Army (LRA) and West Nile Bank Front (WNBF), the Uganda
National Rescue Front I (UNRF II), the Former Ugandan National Army
(FUNA), the Burundian Forces de defence pour la democratie (FDD) and
Angola’s ‘Union Nacional de la Independecia Total de Angola “UNITA” (The
Lusaka Ceasefire Agreement, 1999).
National reconciliation
Forty-five days after the signing of the Lusaka agreement, the DRC
government, the Rassemblement Congolais pour la Democratie (RCD), the
Movement de Liberation Congolais (MLC), unarmed opposition groups and
26
Congolese civil society began political negotiations culminating in the setting
up of a new political dispensation in the DRC.
The negotiations were held under the authority of a neutral facilitator
acceptable to all Congolese parties, chosen within 15 days of the signing of
the Lusaka agreement. The agenda for the dialogue included the organization
of democratic elections. Following the negotiations, a restructured national
army is to be formed, which would integrate the forces of the Congolese
army, the RCD and the MLC.
Other provisions of the agreement included: the release of hostages and
exchange of prisoner of war; the re-establishment of state administration over
DRC territory; and the need to protect the rights of ethnic groups and to
address the security concerns of the DRC and its neighbours.
The implementation of the Cease-fire has proved to be an arduous task, and
it has constantly been on the brink of collapse. The Congolese Government
and its allies as well as the rebel forces have made repeated allegations of
cease-fire violations. None of the provisions of the Cease-fire have been
implemented on schedule. Although the JMC has been established, it has
struggled to perform its’ tasks mainly due to a lack of funds. A facilitator to
the internal dialogue in the DRC, Sir Ketumile Masire, former President of
Botswana, was appointed on 15 December 1999, four months after the
deadline set by the cease-fire agreement.
Conclusion
The History of the Congo is a history of a people denied. This is a country
that is blessed with abundant natural and mineral resources and yet it is
today amongst the poorest in the world. History gives an account of the
Congo’s tragedy, what should now be a preoccupation, should be whether
this can be reversed. The concern should to determine whether the present
27
efforts suffice to ensure that the Congo is well on its way towards recovery.
Can the Congo now explore its full potential? What standard should be set to
ensure that in the post-conflict, reconstruction and development era, the
Congo does not slide back to anarchy and lawlessness?
Despite prolonged periods of disorder Congolese have continued to fight for
peace and stability, assisted by the International community, their efforts
produced a ceasefire agreement and a transitional government of one
President and four deputies. The transition and the successful democratic
elections have finally brought stability. The stage is now set for through going
policies that should assist in Post Conflict Reconstruction and Development.
South Africa that has so far played a leading role in the transitional period has
to continue in the pursued of the best strategies and way forward.
Methodology Approaches
The study utilises both quantitative and qualitative methods of analysis but
relying more on the later. The study will utilize a critical approach, interpretive
and explanatory methodology subsumed as the triangulation approach which
compares and contrasts different experiences in order to provide varied
clarifications of events
Research methodology
The purpose of this section is to describe the research methodology used in
this study. Bailey (1982: 32) described research methodology as the
philosophy of the research process. This includes the assumptions and values
that serve as a rationale for research and the standards or criteria the
researcher uses for interpreting data and reaching conclusion. Mouton (1998:
39-40) makes it clear that the choice of methodology depends on the
research problem and research objectives. Mouton (1998: 37) distinguishes
between three levels of the methodological dimension of research, namely:
28
methodological paradigms, the most abstract level which include the
distinction between qualitative and quantitative research. Secondly, research
methods, which are those that are used in certain stages of the research
process, for example sampling, data collection and data analysis. Thirdly,
research techniques, which represent the most concrete level of the
methodological dimension and include specific techniques related to sampling,
data collection and data analysis. This distinction between paradigms,
methods and techniques is helpful in forming a better understanding of the
concept research methodology and thereby represented by a table below.
Table 1 Three levels in the methodological dimension
LEVEL
EXAMPLE
Methodological paradigms
Qualitative and quantitative research.
Research methods
Sampling, data collection, data
analysis.
Research techniques
Sampling technique, data collection
technique, data analysis technique.
Adapted from Babbie and Mouton (1998).
Other terms related to research methodology are “research strategy” and
“research design”. Research strategy guides the research effort by defining
the context within which it will be conducted. It also provides a link between
research objectives and research activities. Research strategy is partly derived
from the methodological paradigm-qualitative and quantitative-that fits a
particular research problem. Research design, on the other hand, is defined
as a plan of how a research project will be conducted, specifying who or what
is involved and where and when it will take place (Du Ploy, 2001: 81). In
other words research strategy indicates which “direction” will be taken, while
research design indicates what needs to be done while heading in that
specific direction.
29
Purposes of research
Babbie (1998:79) distinguishes three most common and useful purposes of
research, namely: exploration, description and explanation.
Exploratory research
Exploratory research could be regarded as a first stage in a sequence of study
because a researcher may need to conduct an exploratory study to explore a
new topic or issues in which a little is known about it. In this case, the
researcher’s goal is to formulate more precise question that future research
could answer. The exploratory research addresses the “what” question and as
result exploratory researchers find it difficult to conduct because there are no
or few guidelines to follow (Babbie, 1998:79).
Descriptive research
Descriptive research presents a picture of the specific details of a situation. In
this case, a researcher begins with a well-defined subject and conducts
research to describe it accurately. This research will to some an extent use a
descriptive study to describe it accurately because there are highly developed
ideas
about
transformation
and
service
delivery
in
the
public
service.
Transformation as a subject will be accurately defined, presenting basic
background information so as to get a detailed picture of the subject. This will
enable a researcher to measure the subject and provide an accurate profile of
it (Babbie, 1998: 80).
Explanatory research
The third general purpose of a research is to explain things. The aim of
explanatory is to indicate causality between variables or events (Babbie,
1998:81). Going beyond the agenda of political transformation as a subject, it
is also useful to engage into explanatory research to explain the need for
30
transformation in the DRC. This will advance a knowledge about an
underlying processes suggested to transform the state of affairs in the DRC
therein.
Types of research design
Babbie (1998) classified research designs into: experiments, surveys,
qualitative studies, participatory actions research, evaluation research and
unobstructive research.
Experimental design
The experimental design is mostly associated with structured science in
general. It involves taking action and observing the consequences of that
action (Babbie, 1998: 208). Experimental design is especially appropriate for
hypothesis testing and also best suited to explanatory than descriptive
purpose.
Survey research
Survey research may be used for descriptive, explanatory and exploratory
purpose. They are highly used in studies that have individual people as the
unit of analysis. Survey research, a popular social research method, is the
administration of questionnaires to a sample of respondents selected from
some population (Babbie, 1998: 232).
Qualitative studies
The primary goal of studies using qualitative is defined as describing and
understanding rather than explaining. The main concern is to understand
social action in terms of its specific context rather than attempting to
generalize to some theoretical population (Babbie, 1998: 270).
31
Participatory action research
This type of research is commonly used to “grassroots development”
interventions and encountered especially in the so-called underprivileged rural
setting in the so called Third World countries. Participatory action research
can be used as a search to render development assistance more responsive to
the needs and opinions of people. The researcher can be referred to as a
change agent (Babbie, 1998: 314).
Evaluation research
Evaluation research can be used to assess the implementation and usefulness
of social interventions, for an example, the Reconstruction and Development
Programme which will be explained in the following chapters. Evaluation
research aims to test interventions to see how effective they are. This
research may be used to identify neglected areas of need, target groups and
problems within organizations and programmes. It can also be used to
compare a programme’s progress wit its original aims (Bless & Smith, 2000:
49).
Un-obstructive research
Un-obstructive research is a way of studying social behaviour without
affecting it in the process.
This method of research does not establish a
direct relationship or interaction with the research subject. Therefore, the
subject cannot react to the fact that he or she is being investigated (Babbie,
1998: 374).
Data collection and analysis
Multiple data collection strategies will be used in this research. This includes
the literature review, interviews, observations, analysis of statistics already
32
produced by others, official publications and correspondence, discussion
documents official papers presented at workshops and conferences, speeches
and debates, newsletters and pamphlets, newspaper surveys, theses and
dissertations as well as material from the internet. These qualitative
methodologies will allow the researcher an opportunity to gain an in-depth
understanding of transformation in the public service specifically looking at
the case of service delivery.
Evaluative research will be used to measure and identify as to policy issues
have been adhered to and the level at which they remained constant.
According to Bless and Smith (2000: 49), evaluative research, which is a form
of applied research, aims to evaluate the effectiveness of programmes and
determine the extent to which they have met their aims and objectives. The
study may be typified as being qualitative in character and also being
longitudinal in nature.
Research Question:
From a plethora of triangulated research approaches as identified in the study
and from a series of problem issues, this study is guided by the research
question:
To what extent can diverse policies of post and present conflict
resolutions address the essence of critical policy options in the
Democratic Republic of the Congo DRC?
Limitation:
This is a futures science research which attempts to identify, promulgate and
secure policy options in conflict areas. It is a new approach to scientific
investigation and as such, it provides scenarios for utilization and
implementation in conflict zones.
33
Chapter Two: Review of Relevant Literature
The Policy Formation Agenda
Despite the plethora of all the definitions given by different authors, Anderson
(2000:4) is of the opinion that public policy seems to have common
characteristics which are as follows:
a. policies consists of courses or patterns of action taken overtime by
government officials;
b. public policies emerge in response to policy demand. In response to
policy demands, public officials make decisions that give content
and direction to public policy; and
c. policy involves what governments actually do not just what they
intend to do or what officials say are going to do.
For the purpose of this dissertation, it can be deduced that public policy is a
declaration of a course of action that is taken by government to achieve
societal aims and objectives. Policy provides a comprehensive framework of
action and is thus goal oriented. The crisis in the DRC has been in existence
for prolonged periods and has impacted negatively on the socio-economic
situation confronting the Congolese.
The dissertation seeks to develop an understanding of the socio-political
circumstances and situations to which the Congolese have been subjected to,
and with a view to establish a base for future policy formulation and to
address the DRC quagmire. Despite the prolonged effects of miserable
conditions caused by poverty, lack of government and mismanagement,
ordinary Congolese have, within the contest of a collapsing state, developed
numerous survival strategies for food, water, healthcare and dealing with
sickness and death of loved ones. This development is significant, their ability
34
to adjust and cope and underlines the centrality of the principle of ownership
and accountability by communities.
Indeed in a remarkable manner, the Congolese have, in courageous and
innovative ways created institutions, practices, networks and a way of living
that has enabled them to survive. An interpretive analysis would help us
understand these conditions and how they can be utilised to support new
theories and policies.
An important principle of the qualitative interpretive research is the contextual
nature of the studied phenomenon. By delving into history, and analysing the
evolvement of the current challenges the study
intends to develop an
understanding of the social and historical context that has produced the crisis
confronting the Congolese with a view to situate efforts deployed to provide
solutions.
Policy-Analytic Methods
Dunn (2004) postulates five methods of Policy analysis. This study in
executing a futures research agenda and scenario relies heavily on the Dunn’s
five methodological frameworks. These methods are common to most social
science research.
These are as follows:
•
Monitoring (description) produces information about observed
outcomes of policies.
•
Forecasting (prediction) produces information about expected
outcomes of policies.
•
Evaluation (appraisal) produces information about the value or
worth of observed and expected outcomes.
35
•
Recommendation (prescription) produces information about
preferred policies; and
•
Problem structuring (definition) produces information about
what problem to solve.
Dunn (2004) describes the last method as being about other methods and
refers to it as a ‘meta-method’ (method of methods). It is important to note
that these methods are interdependent and are utilised together to obtain the
preferred results.
Policy Inquiry
The methodology will also involve a process of inquiry, designed to determine
solutions to practical problems. William Dunn refers to inquiry as a process of
probing, investigating, or searching for solutions. This approach recognises
that policy analysis is based on scientific methods, however it also takes
cognisance of the fact that ’policy analysis also rests on art, craft and
persuasion (Dunn, 2004).
Policy analysis is based on a combination of ordinary common sense and
specialised forms of knowing associated with the sciences, professions and
humanities. It is a pragmatic enterprise because it involves human
understanding in solving practical problems.
The data collected for this research is mainly from government reports
particularly emanating from the bi-lateral work between South Africa and the
Democratic Republic of the Congo. Each year the DRC and South Africa Bi
National Commission produces a comprehensive report on the progress
achieved in the collaboration of the two countries The dissertation relies in
particular on the 2007 report of the Bi National Commission to analyse South
Africa’ s involvement in the Post Conflict Reconstruct and Development of the
DRC.
36
Other sources such as European Union reports were also helpful in providing
information; this is important considering the contribution of the International
Community to peace and development in the DRC. The research utilised also
a lot of Internet sources.
Data for the section dealing with the historical review is collected from
historical books. The importance of the historical review is in providing
background and explanation to the miserable conditions of poverty the DRC is
confronted with despite her potential wealth.
Policy Implications
Public Policy
In a complex changing world, governments and institutions are constantly
accepting or rejecting new courses of action or maintaining or forsaking old
courses. Today emerging governments of developing countries have to
formulate policies in an increasingly, uni-polar world, where power is
concentrated in only in one super power, the United States of America (USA).
These emerging states are faced with an environment in which the balance of
forces is tilted heavily in favour of the developed nations. Globalisation in the
world although positive in general, is at the moment not benefiting the poor
and the underdeveloped. Efforts at an international level should be made to
ensure that the poor nations benefit from the positive effects of Globalisation.
The battle for a just economic and social order at an international level has
been raging for a long time already. This is illustrated by the numerous high
profile conferences such as those of the World Trade Organisation – the Doha
round and others – the United Nation Summit on the Millennium Development
Goals (MDGs).
The DRC and other states emerging from conflict have to formulate new
policies taking into account the international climate mentioned above. This
37
factor coupled with the continued involvement of the former colonial masters
at every stage of development in these countries, must imply that policy
making is not entirely free and independent on the part of those in the
corridors of power. The former colonial countries become involved in one
form or the other but mostly as part of the international community assisting
in the evolvement from crisis to development.
Despite the international climate the responsibility to formulate coherent
policies lies with the nation state. Professor Wayne Parsons states: Whatever
the influence of ‘international’ or ‘global’ agenda–setting, the locus of
decision-making remains the nation state (Parsons, 1995).
Policy Making and Policy Analysis
To be absolutely certain that the Democratic Republic of the Congo is on a
sustainable path towards recovery, it is imperative to utilise a scientific tool
that will contribute to a well defined programme. A Public Policy based on
policy analysis informed by a multi–disciplinary scientific inquiry that critically
assesses and at the same time draws in the culminate experiences of the
Congolese.
Although policy analysis builds on political science, economics and other social
sciences, disciplines and social professions, it also seeks to transform them
into a new multidisciplinary inquiry that creates, critically assesses, and
communicates information that is useful for understanding and improving
politics (Dunn, 2004).
The Democratic Republic of the Congo is a multi-faceted country that requires
a multi - disciplinary approach to solutions. The post conflict reconstruction
and developed solutions would need to cut across and weave through the
entire fabric of society represented by all the social sciences, professions and
disciplines. An integrated policy analysis is required.
38
Policy analysis is partly descriptive and partly normative. Descriptive because
‘it relies on the social and behavioural sciences, and normative because it
draws on ethics and other branches of social and political philosophy, as well
as normative economics and decision analysis (Dunn, 2004).
Policy – Relevant Information
Dunn (2004) refers to five types of questions that need addressing in the
process of developing policy analysis, which he states as:
•
The nature of the problem for which a solution is sought.
•
Courses of action two or more that should be chosen to find a
solution.
•
The outcomes of choosing that particular course of action.
•
Determining whether achieving outcomes contributes to solving the
problem
•
And if the course of action is not taken what future outcomes can
be expected?
According to Dunn (2004), response to the above yield five type of policy –
relevant information or what he refers to as policy – informational
components. These components represent information about policy problems,
policy performance, expected policy outcomes preferred policies and observed
policy outcomes.
39
Evaluat
ion
OBSERVED
POLICIES
Monito
ring
POLICY
PERFOMAN
CE
POLICY
PROBLEMS
Forecasti
ng
EXPECTED
OUTCOMES
PREFERED
POLICIES
Recomm
endation
Configured From Dunn (2004)
40
Forms of Policy Analysis
According to Dunn (2004), policy analysis has accumulated a multidisciplinary
stock of knowledge, most of that knowledge is methodology, a term that
refers not only to the method and technique but also standards, rules and
principles that guides their use.
Policies based on knowledge from multi disciplines and professions will be
more effective than from single discipline in responding to real world
problems. Dunn (2004) also refers to ‘retrospective and prospective analysis
in which the later would refer to the production and transformation of
information before policy actions are taken and the former involves the
production and transformation of information after policies have been
implemented.’
Integrated Analysis
Dunn (2004) describes Integrated Policy analysis as a process that links
segments such as retrospective and prospective forms of analysis in one
continuous process. In addition, descriptive and normative forms are linked,
as methods designed to find as well as solve problems.
Public Policy and the Policymakers
Lindblom (1993) argues that there is obviously the need to use social scientist
in government to conduct analyses of national economy and social trends At
the same time an application of this approach towards the development of a
Public Policy, must take into account a national programme that is suitable to
the nation’s need. Such a process might be suitable to the Congolese
conditions and its people. Public Policy analysis will bisect and have two broad
branches. One that is substantive, deals with processes is descriptive and
objective. This approach is what Lindbloom (1993) typifies as the
‘Incrementalist Paradigm of Public Policymaking and Implementation’.
41
The second branch is theoretical, effectual, prescriptive, and normative. It is
concerned with the development of theories of public policymaking and the
outputs and effect of those theories in practice. It is concerned with making
better ways of making and implementing policies regardless of the
substantive issues. Public administrators dominate this branch and it is called
‘the Rationalist Paradigm of Public Policymaking and Implementation.’
The context within which the above branches operate is in a framework of the
models of decision-making drawn from a number of social sciences. These
include
political
science,
sociology,
organisational
theory,
economics,
psychology and management. Decision analysis encompasses a range of
academic disciplines and frameworks, the focus of each of the disciplines and
the frameworks, which they contain, vary.
Power Approaches to Decision-Making
The distribution of power is of importance in the DRC. It has been the misuse
of power that accounts for the state the country finds itself. Power has been
misused beginning with the colonial rule of King Leopold the 11, when the
country was virtually enslaved, through the dictatorship of Mobuto Sese Seko,
to the elitist rule of ‘Laurent-Désiré Kabila.’ In support of this assertion and
putting forward an explanation of an elitist approach to power, Lasswell
suggests that the study of politics is the study of influence and the influential.
(Lasswell, 1958).
Public Policy has in the past debated extensively the issue of power models.
An analysis of the new regime is essential to determine the model of power it
should pursue. How representative of the interest of the people is the new
regime? Do sufficient conditions exit to impose a democratic and a
transparent government? What institutions of the people are required to
safeguard democratic transition and to make those in power accountable?
42
Very often in our haste, we tend to support a leadership we consider to be
the better of the rest. The better of the rest may not necessarily be the best.
It is very often a case of the better of two evils. The Congo is a perfect
example; Laurent-Désiré Kabila was without doubt a better leader than
Joseph Mobutu, certainly more democratic. But was he the best we could
expect? Was he and his partners motivated enough to create a democratic
Congo that would put in place institutions to safeguard transparency and
good governance? Today an even more serious challenge is to determine,
whether Laurent Kabila’s son who is the current President of the DRC and his
collective possesses the right kind of ingredients to lead the way in the
Congo.
Decision Analysis
Etzioni (1995)
postulates that the making of policy falls between policy
formulation and implementation and that they are closely interwoven, with
decisions affecting implementation and initial implementation affecting later
stages of decision-making which in turn affect later implementations. This
assertion implies that correct and proper decisions taken in good time will lay
the foundations in every step of the recovery in the development of society.
The presence and involvement of the international community including South
Africa during the period of transition is contributing immensely in mapping out
a transparent and democratic society in the DRC. Polices formulated now will
impact on the future direction of the DRC.
Throughout the different stages of the evolvement of the of the DRC,
different regimes have all taken turns, through prolonged policies of
mismanagement and bad governance, to contribute in making the DRC a
failed state. Policy-making in the DRC has to take into consideration the post
conflict conditions and must move from the premise that the country has to
be stabilised, that peace, stability and development are interdependent and
43
essential ingredients for the prosperity of the country. All Congolese must
have an understanding that the can be no stability without peace, equally the
can be no sustainable peace without development.
The modern meaning of the English notion of policy is that of a course of
action, a set of political purpose, policy is therefore a manifestation of
considered judgement determined by different circumstances within a given
period in time. Lasswell (1970:13-14) states that policy sciences are
contextual, multi-method and problem orientated.
In the context of the Congo, the feature of orientation towards policy has to
take into account the designation and functions within policy making.
Considering the stages of development the DRC is going through, the policy
cycle or stagiest approach forms the basis for both the policy process and the
policy analysis.
The role the new state has to play is to inspire economic management and to
create a better welfare reforms. The state has to reconcile both public and
private interest and create a bureaucracy that is not corrupt but that can
genuinely represent the interest of the population. Considering the prolonged
period of bad governance that the country went through, it must be
presumed that corruption has set in, almost becoming a way of life. In such a
situation, it will be difficult to create a neutral bureaucracy that serves public
interest. However, Lindblom’s model (1993) rejects the stagiest approach and
advocates for a model that takes into account power and interaction between
phases and stages. This model has a solution and it is more applicable in the
current prevailing situation in the DRC. Lindblom teaches us that in studying
the policy process we should take account of elections, bureaucracies, parties
and politicians, and interest groups, but also consider deeper forces:
business, inequality and the limited capacities of analysis, which structure
and distort the policy process” (Lindblom, 1993).
44
The Bureaucracy
Weber as cited in Lindblom (1959) introduced the Notion of bureaucratic
rationality, in which he demonstrated that the growth of bureaucracy was due
to the process of ‘rationalisation’ in industrial society. The bureaucrat was the
rational functionary who served the public interest. According to Lindblom
(1959), Weber’s theory has been contested and the argument of the rational
public interest began to erode way back in the 1940’ as studies demonstrated
the following: Weber’s theory needed re–examination in both theory and
practices as it became obvious that bureaucracies exhibited a large merger of
‘irrationality’, or at least bounded rationality (Simon, 1945 and Lindblom,
1959).
More studies emerged which argued that in reality bureaucrats did not
function in the ‘public interest’, but displayed the capacity to have distinct
goal of their own (Mueller, 1989). The argument about the ‘irrationality’ of
bureaucrats would even be more applicable in the DRC due to the following
reasons:
•
Lack of proper governance in the DRC for a prolonged period
implies that the system of governance has broken down completely.
For example, in situations where civil servants are not paid salaries
for prolonged periods either due to the fact that government does
not have the proper structures in place or due to lack of funds, in
these situations civil servants would find innovative ways of
remunerating themselves for services rendered. Such a breakdown
leads invariable to corruption.
•
The poverty in the country creates a situation where being in a
bureaucratic position empowers one to accrue certain benefits. This
is exacerbated by lack of systems that enforces accountability and
45
compliance on the part of those in governing or bureaucratic
positions.
However, the DRC like any other country does require the services of
bureaucrats and people who will make interventions on behalf of government
and other institutions.
46
Chapter Three: Post Conflict Reconstruction and
Development Strategy in the DRC
The history of Africa demonstrates that political and economic development
stalls when governments do not uphold the rule of law, pursue sound
economic policy, make appropriate public investments, manage a public
administration, protect basic human rights, and support civil society
organisations – including those representing poor people – in national
decision-making (Annan, 2005, see the Bas-Congo Scoping Report, 2005,
Kinshasa).
The Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) is a huge country; potentially
rich, and which together with other hugely endowed countries, should be
capable of contributing immensely to Africa’s revival. Given the changes
taking place in the DRC and the prevailing climate in the continent within
which the new country is emerging, one would be perfectly justified to hope
that the crisis will someday avail itself of a peaceful situation (online via
htpp://www.worldpress.org/Africa/3033.cfm on 16 January 2008).
The DRC faces challenges of developing a Post Conflict Reconstruction and
Development (PCRD) Policy. The policy must draw on lessons from past
efforts in Africa and in the developing world. The policy must consolidate
progress achieved thus far in stabilising the country during the period of
transition. It has to aim at creating peace, be inclusive and begin to create
foundations for a transparent and democratic society.
Development in the DRC must be dealt with holistically. All sectors need
attention simultaneously. Unfortunately, at this stage the DRC cannot succeed
on its own, despite its enormous potential, it requires the input of the
International Community. South Africa as the most advanced economically
developed and prosperous African country must be in the forefront of efforts
47
to reconstruct the Congo. Africa as a whole must rally and contribute to the
renewal of the Congo.
Development must be based on a plan with each step taken carefully,
contemplated; to ensure that a proper foundation based on recognition of the
basics is put in place. There are no shortcuts; the painstaking process must
be fully implemented by a leadership that is truly committed to changing the
lives of the downtrodden, marginalised and impoverished Congolese.
A Post–Conflict Reconstruction and Development (PCRD) strategy should
assist the Congolese in addressing their needs in the short, medium and long
term. In the DRC, ever since the inception of the country to its independence
in 1960, the prospect has never been so bright. The DRC which for the past
forty years has been characterised by despotism, crisis and chaos brought
about by decades of lawlessness, bad governance and undemocratic rule, has
held democratic elections based on a constitution. The constitution has won
the approval of the overwhelming majority who endorsed it through a
referendum. The country adopted and promulgated an electoral law that laid
the foundations for the historic elections which hopefully is the first step in
transforming the country.
The 2006 elections brought into office the first truly elected government in
four decades. The Presidential, legislative and provincial elections ushered in
the possibility of genuine reform. Opposition parties contested the outcome of
the elections, however the involvement of the international community, and
the thorough preparations in managing the elections were sufficient to
persuade observers that the process was transparent and fair.
The high turnout - 70 percent in the first round of the Presidential poll in July
and 65 percent in the second round in October – gave the winner, President
Joseph Kabila, the political legitimacy he had lacked in the transition period.
Many different parties won seats in the National Assembly. Kabila’s own party
48
has only won 111 of the 500 seats, although an alliance of parties that
backed his presidential bid holds a comfortable majority with 338 seats. The
alliance also has more than half the seats in the senate. His government,
named in February 2007, has members from different parties and is headed
by Prime Minister Antoine Gizenga, who was a close a close colleague of
Patrice
Lumumba
at
independence
in
1960
(accessed
online
via
htpp://www.worldpress.org/Africa/3033.cfm on 16 January 2008).
Challenges facing the New State
The DRC government is facing a number of serious challenges. The suffering
of the population has been very severe: “Over four million people have
perished as a result of the continuing conflict, a number which increases by
some 1,200 every day” (Figures provided by the EU Strategic Document on
Humanitarian Aid).
The basic elements of service provision such as health and education have
been deprived of resources for many years and critical elements of urban and
rural infrastructure such as water supply and transportation are barely
functioning.
Many aspects of governance in all parts of the country have suffered from
decades of neglect, poor governance and mismanagement of resources. All
these factors have conjured to contribute to the chronically poor state of
services.
The new government is inheriting a country which is lacking public safety. A
country where key state organs such as police, army, courts, civil
administration, state enterprise, local government council, tax agencies-have
only just begun. The mistrust between all the leaders of the former rebel
groups that have participated in steering the country through the period of
the transitional arrangements continues to pose a thread to the stability of
49
the country. The mistrust generates insecurity exacerbated by greed for
power.
After many years of bitter intra–conflict, a culture of tolerance does not exist.
The animosity between the main opposing parties is ample demonstrated by
the skirmish between the armed guards of the two leading contenders in the
Presidential race, Mr Jean Pierre Bemba and President Joseph Kabila. This has
had a negative impact on the country. The tension that exists particularly
between President Kabila and the leader of the opposition Mr Bemba
underscores the importance of establishing a programme to heal the wounds
and reconcile erstwhile enemies. In this regard, South Africa’s experience,
particularly in the establishment and functioning of the Truth and
Reconciliation Committee (TRC) could provide valuable lessons. The biggest
challenge confronting the new state is the stabilisation of the country, the
provision of security and nation building. Presently institutions do exist on
paper, time is required to make these institutions truly effective.
Building a Congolese State
The government of the day appear ready and committed to develop policies
and strategies that will transform the country. The Government declares that
it is establishing conditions to enable it to enter into a social contract with
Congolese. The contract presumably should ensure that the leadership serves
and is accountable to the people. In addition to improving the people’s living
conditions, measures such as reforming the army, police, and courts, cleaning
up the management of public funds, overhauling the civil service and state
administration so that political and administrative authority should not be
concentrated excessively in Kinshasa alone. He states further that the
government will be judged on actions it takes to address the issues he raises
(Olivier Kamitatu’s article accessed online via http://www.worldpress.org/
Africa/3033.cfm, 16 January 2008).
50
Setting Priorities
Reconstruction strategy in the Congo must be based on clear priorities.
Consolidating and maintaining peace is the most important priority that must
act as a foundation for the development of policies and projects in all sectors.
In this regard the continuing instability in the east is of greatest concern.
Proper prioritisation will require a thoroughly researched approach that goes
beyond providing a mere shopping list of proposals intended to solicit aid
from donors and supporters. A step by step approach is recommended with
certain steps or policies being designated as first stage, either because of
urgency or because they are a prerequisite for other actions. A typical
example of this is the provision of humanitarian aid which although required
urgently to relief disparate conditions, must not be dealt with in isolation but
as a first step that must lead to, and ensure sustainable development.
Similarly, a need exist to prioritise the security sector reform, this must
however be done not in isolation but within the overall contest of socio–
economic and political development.
Prioritisation must apply to all innovations as well as development proposals.
It must be based on lessons learned from the past and be geared towards
ensuring the correction of mistakes. Three key areas that the DRC need to
prioritise are: the security sector reform, economic development, and
institutional capacity building.
The Democratic Republic of the Congo: Areas
Requiring Attention
In the DRC, all areas of political and socio-economic life need attention but
the most prominent areas that require attention at this very moment are the
following:
51
Humanitarian Situation
There are some 960 000 internally displaced persons in eight of the 11
provinces of the DRC and over 300 000 refugees from six of its nine
neighbouring countries. Recent humanitarian assessments reveal that over
2.1 million people (internally displaced persons, refugees, urban vulnerable)
or 4.3% of the population and farmers in the proximity of the front line), or
17% of the population, face moderate but rapidly growing food insecurity.
Humanitarian sources estimate that over 5000 people have been killed and
another 150 000 displaced in the ethnic conflict between the Hema and Lendu
tribes around the town of Bunia on north-eastern Congo. Parallels have been
drawn between this conflict and that between Tutsis and Hutus, which
exploded,
into
genocide
in
1994.
(http://www.worldpress.org/
Africa/3033.cfm, 16 January 2008).
Security Sector Reform
A project document developed jointly by the government of the of the DRC,
United Nations Peacekeeping Mission in the DRC (MONUC) and the United
Nations Development programme makes the following observation: “in post
conflict transitions, security sector reform constitutes a precondition for socio–
economic recovery and stabilisation. Without safety and security, human
development cannot be achieved. In this context, the government of the
DRC, with the support of the international community has developed and is
implementing a national strategy aimed at the creation of a national army”
(UN/DRC Project Document, 2007).
A draft South African document on SA’s participation in SSR outlines a similar
notion: SSR, as defined, is a concept to rebuild, reform or reconfigure the
institutions or agencies of state, security apparatus [or sector], especially
where such structures are nonexistent or dysfunctional and consequently
52
unable to secure the state and its people effectively or in accordance with
principles of democratic governance. Simply put SSR is essentially aimed at
the efficient and effective provision of state and human security within a
framework of democratic governance (Draft South Africa Document on
Participation in Security Sector Reform, 2007).
There is a nexus between peace, security and development. The development
of human security in the DRC depends on the creation and strengthening of a
single united national military and police force. The strengthening of the
security establishment in it totality remains key to the DRC’s prosperity. To
achieve this entails first and foremost assisting the DRC government in
capacity building projects particularly of government departments. This forms
one country level strategic framework so that political, security and
development frameworks are synchronised and co-ordinated.
The conceptualisation of the SSR as defined in the mentioned documents is
broad and incorporates the concept of Human Security and a multilateral
approach to conflict resolution. Inherent in these definitions is the notion of
development which takes into cognisance the fact that poverty and
underdevelopment contributes largely to conflict and the struggle to control
limited resources.
Core Objectives of the SSR Process in the DRC
The SSR process in the DRC should address the following core objectives:
•
Establishing peace stability and security founded on well–defined
policies rooted in democratic governance of the state institutions.
•
Ensuring civilian oversight of security forces without compromising
the professionalism of the forces in the execution of their tasks and
functions.
53
•
Building capacity of both personnel and institutional mechanisms
particularly in the security sector.
•
The Security Sector should be managed according to principles of
accountability ant transparency that guides the public sector.
•
Ensuring that security forces can in a non – partisan manner
facilitates the participation and involvement of civil society groups
in post conflict reconstruction of the recipient country.
Challenges facing the establishment of a coherent security sector reform
confronting policy makers are:
•
Challenges around the deployment plan for the integrated and
trained Brigades;
•
The importance of the census of the military;
•
Inadequate transportation for the census team;
The weak link between the Disarmament, Demobilisation and Reintegration
process (DDR) and SSR. (Draft South Africa Document on Participation in
Security Sector Reform, 2007).
Regional Dynamics in Reconstruction and Socio-economic
Development
The DRC and other countries of the Great Lakes region possess vast mineral
wealth, hydro – electric energy potential as well as abundant resources for a
robust agro–industry. To realise the potential that exist there is need to
establish a strategy that will put in place the most effective ways of ensuring
sustainable investments that are not just merely extractive but that must also
have a sustainable developmental impact.
The governments have the responsibility to create an enabling environment
for trade and investment, thus by promoting good political, economic and
cooperate governance, by strengthening institutional and human capacities,
54
and by developing a regulatory environment that not only facilitates and
attract investments but also safeguards them.
The governments in the region must adopt a comprehensive legal framework,
simplify bureaucratic procedures, incentives would be investors, focus on
standards for quality products to meet conditions set by target markets and
secure funding for various projects. A need for effective investment
prioritisation is essential.
•
A need to develop a policy and advice on Spatial Development
Initiatives (SDI) building programmes exist. Competent experts
could include administrators, managers of topographic and resource
mapping departments and agencies, legislators and policy – makers
and major users of geo - information products. South Africa and
other close, friendly and supportive countries could assist in
developing
capacity
for
the
SDI.
(AU
Secretariat
Report
‘Benchmarks and Standards’, 2005).
Experts would be required to provide on a continuous bases, guidelines and
recommendations on the building of various components, such as policies, the
identification and building of core datasets, standards, metadata development
and capturing and on developing human resources and technical capacity.
The Regional Pact on Security, Stability and Development
In the Dar Es Salaam Declaration(DD), signed by the Heads of State and
government (HOSG) of the Great Lakes Region and in which the HOSG
commit to sealing a Pact on Security, Stability and Development, the following
statement is made: “the Heads of State and of Government of the great lakes
region are determined to transform the Great Lakes Region into a space of
sustainable peace and security for States and peoples, political and social
stability, shared growth and development, a space of cooperation based on
55
convergent strategies and policies driven by a common destiny (Regional
Programme of Action Document Produced by the International Conference of
the Great Lakes Region, 2005).
To reinforce regional cooperation and to built and rehabilitate transport and
communication infrastructures, a programme of action is proposed for the
region by the International Conference of the Great Lakes. This programme
entails three sub programmes drawn from the priority policy options and
guiding principles enshrined in the Dar Es Salaam declaration. The objective
of the sub programmes is restoring peace and fighting poverty.
Poverty Reduction
The region intends to re–launch economic development through the
implementation in the short and medium terms of the following projects:
•
Creation of a regional mechanism for the certification of natural
resources;
•
Regional project on food security; and
•
Trans border development basins (TDBs). The programme of action
explains TDBs as follow: “the TDBs are an innovative concept which
in an integrative approach brings together three or more Member
states that agree on an identified area/zone at their common
border where various economic and security activities could be
jointly developed in order to contribute to the economic
development and the stability of the border area/zones”
(Programme of action, Document Produced by the International
Conference of the Great Lakes, 2005).
Policy Harmonisation
The region will reinforce and harmonize regional cooperation policies. Two
policies elaborated upon are: the revival of the Economic Community of
Countries of the Great Lakes Region (CEPGL) and its specialised agencies, and
56
the Regional Mechanism for the certification of natural resources. The latter
intended to ensure that a lasting solution is found to the use of the natural
resources for the benefit of the population and not the few greedy individuals.
In addition, the mechanism will promote rationale and sustainable
management of these resources which are one of the root causes of the
recurrent conflicts and their perpetuation. This can be achieved only with an
adequate policy framework. Therefore, the next section entails to briefly
outline the policy framework.
Policy Framework
The policy framework is highlighted by two case studies. The first case
portrays the African Union’s Post Conflict Reconstruction and Development
(PCRD) Framework while the second case examines South Africa’s postconflict engagement in the DRC.
Case Study Two: The African Union’s Post Conflict
Reconstruction and Development (PCRD) Framework – an
Analysis
For decades, the African region has been afflicted by conflicts, political
tension and civil unrest all of which have contributed a great deal to the
collapse of the socio-economic fabric leading to very slow development of the
continent. However, there has been a visible improvement in Africa’s ability to
resolve conflicts, resorting more and more to peaceful means and thus
reducing tensions. An end to conflict frees Africa’s resources and allows for
focussing on developmental strategies that hopefully should bring an end to
economic marginalisation and lead to recovery. Taking the lead, the AU has
developed a Post Conflict Reconstruction and Development (PCRD) policy.
57
The African Union’s Post Conflict and Reconstruction strategies are inspired by
the significant progress made in the resolution of crisis and conflict situations
in the continent. At the 7th Ordinary Session held in Sirte, Libya in July 2005,
the Executive Council of the AU adopted decision Ex CL/Dec.228 (VII) on
conflict situations in Africa. In that decision, the Executive Council, inter alia,
stressed the need for peace agreements to be effectively complemented by
sustained efforts towards post – conflict reconstruction and peace – building
with a view to addressing the root causes underlying their outbreak. In this
respect, the Executive Council urged the Commission to develop an AU Policy
on Post – Conflict Reconstruction based on the relevant provisions of the
Peace and Security Protocol and the experience gained so far in the continent
(AU Secretariat Report, 2005).
Definitions
The AU policy document envisages the PCRD policy as a strategic and
normative framework that elaborates in a comprehensive manner the entire
spectrum of activity areas that are crucial for the consolidation of peace. It
also sees the PCRD policy as providing guidelines to translate comprehensive
strategies into specific actions that empower affected countries to take the
lead in the reconstruction and development of their societies. In this regard,
the Executive Council of the AU adopted the following definition: “Post–
Conflict Reconstruction and Development (PCRD) is a set of measures that
seek to address the needs of countries emerging from conflict, including the
needs of affected populations; prevent escalation of disputes; avoid relapse
into violence; address the root causes of conflict; and consolidate sustainable
peace. PRCD is conceived within the African vision of renewal and sustainable
development and while its activities are integrated, and many must be
pursued simultaneously, they are envisaged in the emergency (short–term),
transition (medium–term) and development (Long–term) phases (AU, PCRD
Policy Framework Document, 2005).
58
The definition by the AU is comprehensive and addresses the totality of
human activity of the affected population. Equally important is the definition
on Human Security provided by the framework document, which is stated as
follows: “Human Security: In line with the common African Defence and
Security Policy, human security is a multi–dimensional notion of security that
goes beyond the traditional state security. It encompasses the right to
participate fully in the process of governance, the right to equal development
as well as the right to have access to resources and the basic necessities of
life, the right to protection against poverty, the right to access basic social
services such as education and health, the right to protection against
marginalisation on the basis of gender, protection against natural disasters, as
well as ecological and environmental degradation’ (AU, PCRD Policy
Framework Document, 2005).
The aim of a human security framework is stated as being to safeguard the
security of individuals, families, communities and the state/national life, in the
economic political and social dimension.
Elements of the Policy Framework
Africa’s biggest challenge is in ensuring sustainability. Guarding and ensuring
that the peace achieved is sustained and not to allow the situation to regress
and slide back to conflict situation. But also to develop strategies that will
guarantee sustainable development.
The AU Framework is founded on establishing a solid PCR system in countries
that have emerged from conflict. The system is intended to provide
appropriate responses to complex socioeconomic and political emergencies
confronting the countries. The new nation states should be in a position to
deal with lack of good governance, violation of human rights, to act decisively
against impunity and to hold those in positions of power accountable. The
system is also intended to establish check and balances designed to ensure
59
respect for the rule of law. The governance sought must be primarily in three
areas namely, political economic and cooperate field.
The AU Policy Framework accordingly envisages a PRC system that must at
least have seven dimensions including:
•
Security
•
Humanitarian/ emergency assistance
•
Political transition, governance and participation
•
Socio – economic development
•
Human rights justice and reconciliation
•
Coordination management and resource mobilisation; and
•
Gender mainstreaming (AU Secretariat Document, Elements of
policy framework, 2005).
An effective PCR system will require complementarities of the above
mentioned set of dimensions, they must reinforce one another. The
Framework policy does therefore encourage simultaneous establishment of all
these dimensions and not the prioritisation of one at the expense of the
other.
Benchmarks and Standards
In the framework policy document a number of suggested benchmarks are
recommended to underpin each of the dimensions mentioned above.
Examples are:
Security Sector (among others):
•
Right–sizing and professionalizing the security of the security forces
•
Civil oversight of the security sector; and
•
Engagement of security sector in the reconstruction of the country.
60
Humanitarian/Emergency assistance (among others):
•
Adequate and appropriate basic welfare services;
•
Protection of all populations from attacks, harassment, abuse,
exploitation, discrimination and deprivation of their human rights;
and
•
Guaranteed
participation
of
women’s
groups,
civil
society
organisations and other representatives of affected groups in
reconstruction processes, including peace processes.
Socio – Economic Reconstruction and Development
•
Fiscal and budgetary discipline in management of resources;
•
Increased access of the population to social services such as
housing, health, water, education, employment;
•
Improved sustained economic growth, evidenced by a stable socio–
economic growth, reduced unemployment and reduced inflation.
Human Rights, Justice and Reconciliation:
•
Equal protection for all under the law;
•
Existence and use of functioning judicial and reconciliation
mechanisms among various sectors of the community;
•
Independence of the judiciary.
Women and Gender:
•
Existence of a gender sensitive legal framework;
•
Effective implementation of constitutional provisions and laws that
promote and protect the rights of women and girls;
•
Full and meaningful participation of women in all aspects of public
life, particularly in the political and economic spheres;
•
Full enjoyment of rights by people with disabilities.
•
Security and justice systems that is responsive to gender– based
violence; and
61
•
Increased number of women in decision making positions in public
institutions
and
the
private
sector’
(AU
Secretariat
Report
‘Benchmarks and Standards’, 2005).
The Framework acknowledges that situations of conflicts are specific and that
PCR systems would have to be established taking into account the context
existing in each country. Consequently it is therefore not possible to prescribe
a single solution to different countries.
The Policy Framework does at the same time equally recognizes the
similarities in most of the sources of conflict on the continent some of which
are, greed for power, lack of good governance, illegal exploitation of the
natural and mineral resources.
Principles and Values
The framework policy is underpinned by five core principles that inform action
across all PCRD activities and programmes. The PCRD principles are
mentioned as follows:
•
African leadership.
•
National and local ownership.
•
Inclusiveness, equity and non–discrimination.
•
Cooperation and coherence; and
•
Capacity
building
for
sustainability’
(AU,
Secretariat
Report
‘Principles and values’, 2005).
Resource Mobilisation
The framework document recognises the centrality of securing adequate
resources and sustained support and also creating mechanisms for the
transparent allocation and management of resources. This factor, coupled
with establishing processes and mechanisms for the implementation and
62
monitoring of PCRD are set to be important preconditions for the realisation
of the goals of consolidating peace and long–term sustainable development.
The framework policy document urges resource mobilisation at national,
continental and international level.
In stressing the importance of resource mobilisation the policy document
states as follow: “the magnitude and complexity of challenges of PCRD, is the
weak capacity and shortage of resources that limit the ability of local and
national authorities and other actors to respond to the full spectrum of needs.
This necessitates the mobilisation of financial, material, human and technical
resources at the national, regional, continental and international levels. To
effectively meet this challenge, countries emerging from conflict need to have
a comprehensive resource mobilisation strategy’ (AU Secretariat Report July,
2005).
Case Study Three:
An Overview of South Africa’s Post-Conflict Engagement in
the DRC
The Context
At the initial stages, during the difficult period of transition the DRC will
require a lot of international support, particularly from African countries who
stand to benefit a lot by ensuring that the DRC is capacitated to transform the
economic potential it has to become one of Africa’s power- house. As the
most prosperous and developed economy in the continent South Africa,
whose active engagement is analysed in this research, must inevitably play a
leading role. The context of any international support must be to seek a
solution that will ensure a sustainable development.
63
South Africa has since her attainment of democracy in 1994, pursued a policy
aimed at assisting African countries in general, to transcend the difficult
period characterised by crisis, coups and unconstitutional method of
governing. South Africa’ s contribution is premised on the understanding that
she together with the international community can only provide political,
moral support and economic support, but that honours to determine their
destiny lies with all African countries faced with the challenge of
reconstructing their countries.
South Africa’s resources are not limitless, she is also not a donor country, at
least not to the same extend as countries of the developed world. It could be
argued that to a lesser extend, South Africa is emerging as a donor country.
This argument is motivated by the role South Africa plays within a forum such
as the Southern African Custom Unions (SACU) and also considering debt
forgiveness given to countries such as Namibia, Comoros including assistance
aid given to countries such as the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Burundi
and others.
However, as a developing country and with little resources at her disposal
South Africa cannot afford to be everywhere and to do everything, she must
intervene strategically to avoid over–extending herself. South Africa must
emphasise on a strategic approach based on capacitating bigger countries
which are potentially wealthy, particularly those endowed with natural and
mineral resources. Such an approach would pay dividend in the long run
because the countries with greater potential could become engines, capable
of pulling the continent out of the hopeless situation that it is in. The
Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), the Sudan and Angola are three
countries in Africa that can play a major role in the re-awaking of the
continent. Nigeria, the country with the biggest population in the continent is
already partnering South Africa in efforts to transform the continent
64
South Africa’s Contribution
The South African government departments are assisting in the provision of
short, medium and long-term programmes to lay the foundations for social
justice and sustainable peace in the DRC. The reconstruction of a post conflict
country will be the evolvement of a long-term process of rebuilding the
political, security, social and economic dimensions of a society in difficult
conditions.
The collaboration between the emerging government of the DRC, the
international community and South Africa on the short to medium term
support programmes could lay the foundation for the creation of political
stability and a secure environment that is needed for the establishment of
long – term projects.
South Africa bases its engagement in the DRC on key fundamental principles
such as the promotion of human rights and democracy, consolidation of the
African agenda, South – South cooperation, the need to create stability,
security and peaceful resolution of conflicts. These principles guiding South
Africa’s foreign policy objectives reinforce the continent’s fundamental policy
documents such as the Constitutive Act (CA), the NEPAD economic
development programme and others.
South Africa must work with the democratically elected government of the
DRC and must stay the course in that country, embarking on long-term
projects aimed at reconstruction. Focus must be on critical support areas like
Security Sector Reform (to assist with the creation of a strong army, police
services and an independent judiciary including focus on military justice);
institutional
and
human
resource
capacity
building;
infrastructure
development; electrification and mining, as well as increased South African
investments in the DRC (Both in the industry and agriculture).
65
Bi-National Commission between South Africa and the
Democratic Republic of the Congo
On the 14th January 2004 South Africa and the Democratic Republic of the
Congo signed the General Cooperation Agreement to promote political,
economic, and social cooperation. This Agreement made provision for the
establishment of a Bi–National Commission (BNC) as an annual forum for
exchange and dialogue between the two countries at a Summit level. The
DRC remains one of the foreign policy pillars of South Africa’s engagement on
the African continent.
On the 14th to 15th June 2007 President Joseph Kabila Kabange paid his first
State Visit as a democratically elected leader to South Africa. It is important
to note that the democratically elected President of the DRC paid his very first
state visit to the Republic of South Africa. This factor alone conveys a
message that unequivocally stresses the importance of the relation between
South Africa and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The visit reinforced
and confirmed the strategic partnership existing between the two countries. It
also provided South Africa and the DRC an opportunity to review existing
agreements reached between the two countries and entered into during the
period of transition in the Congo. The two countries committed to working
together in the period of Post conflict Reconstruction and Development in the
DRC.
The bi-national commission has set up four sub-commissions that are as
follow:
•
Politics and governance commission,
•
Defence and security commission,
•
Trade and industry commission, and
•
Social and humanitarian commission (DRC/South Africa Bi–National
Report, 2007).
66
The commissions focus on a collaborative endeavour particularly in the area
of capacity building of both personnel and institutional resources. The
Governance programme of the newly democratically elected Government of
the DRC has identified a number of priorities; President Joseph Kabila
Kabange stated these priorities during his first state visit to South Africa. The
priorities that are now also the focus of the Bi-National Commission (BNC)
between South Africa and the Democratic Republic of the Congo are as
follows:
“Health,
electricity
and
water,
education,
employment
and
infrastructure with the overarching issues such as the Security Sector Reform
and gender related maters (Report of the DRC/SA Bi National Commission,
2007).
Government Priorities for Post-Conflict Reconstruction
Health
The health sub committee operates under the social and humanitarian cluster,
one of the four clusters underpinning South Africa and the Democratic
Republic of the Congo’s Bi lateral Commission. A report of the sub committee
presented to the Commission in 2007 identifies hospitals, maternal and child
health care, pharmaceuticals and human resource development as key areas
that warrant prioritisation in the area of collaboration in the health sector.
These priorities were first outlined in the Memorandum of Understanding
signed in 2004 between the Departments of Health (DRC and RSA).
In the area of maternal and child health, South Africa provided polio vaccines
to the DRC in September 2004. A department within the University Clinic of
Kinshasa is being considered for rehabilitation. Experts are considering the
feasibility of rehabilitating such a department within the hospital.
While the DRC is in the process of building up its secondary and tertiary
health services, the two countries have developed a mechanism of referring
67
patients to SA public hospitals for specialist treatment’ (Health Sub-committee
Report, 2007). The challenges in this sector are huge, compounded by lack of
adequate funding, lack of sufficiently trained personnel and lack of proper
transport infrastructure. The vastness of the Congolese territory to be covered
leaves many zones unattended and the ongoing war has made it almost
impossible to attend to certain areas. Due to the numerous difficulties, the
outcome has been that medical services even when heavily subsidised, are
beyond the reach of many citizens.
Preventable and easily treatable diseases, such as measles, diarrhoea and
upper respiratory tract infections, continue to claim the highest number of
lives (UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs, United Nations
action plan, 2006: 19).
South Africa and the Democratic Republic of the Congo are aware of the
challenges and resolve to overcome the problem of funding by jointly
engaging the partner countries in tri lateral cooperation.
Challenges
The two countries face the enormous task of assisting the DRC to overcome
challenges identified in the DRC action plan as follows:
•
Make curative and preventative primary health care accessible, with
particular attention to the fight against malaria, reproductive health,
acute respiratory infections and diarrhoeal diseases.
•
Increase access to secondary levels of health care.
•
Maintain preparedness in the event of epidemics.
•
Ensure a psycho-medical response to victims of sexual violence;
and
68
•
Work to prevent HIV/AIDS and care support those affected (United
Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs: Action
Plan, 2006: 18).
Energy (Electricity)
The Governments of South Africa and the Democratic Republic of the Congo
have signed a memorandum of understanding making it possible for the two
countries to explore collaboration in the field of energy.
Kimbanseke Electrification Project
This project is aimed at connecting 10 000 new customers at an estimated
10MW and will cost about US$14 million. This project is as a ‘pilot project’ of
the new DRC/RSA cooperation. Operation guided by an economical and
financial preliminary feasibility study will start as soon as possible’ (Report of
the Minerals and Energy commission, 2007).
Pre-paid meters system project
A project on pre paid meters is contemplated; expectations are that the
Development Bank of Southern Africa (DBSA) will avail fund to finance. This
project will assist the government with the collection of much needed
revenue.
Other DRC projects proposed for financing
The DRC is proposing the following projects within the collaborative effort
between South Africa and the Democratic Republic of the Congo. The projects
require finances:
•
Rehabilitation of Zongo power station.
•
Building of the 132kV Boma-Moanda power line.
69
•
Building of the second line Inga-Kinshasa.
•
Electrification of rural areas around Bas-Congo province
and Kinshasa within the framework of the proposed SDI; and
•
Kananga Electricity Project’ (Minerals and Energy Sub-Commission
Report, 2007).
The Inga Hydroelectric Project
The DRC’S chances of rapid economic recovery and development are perhaps
to be found in the realisation of the energy potential existing in the Inga
Dam. The Inga Hydroelectric power project is currently Africa’s (and possibly
the World’s) largest hydroelectric power potential, it is due to this fact stated
by the scoping report commissioned by the DRC and SA government, that
both countries have identified the rehabilitation of the Inga project as a top
most priority. If realised this project could provide electricity for most of the
countries of the Great Lakes region and Southern African states. The project
provides the primary driver for the South African proposed Spatial
Development Initiative (SDI) that has the potential of linking the DRC’
economic development to that of the entire region.
Rehabilitation of Inga I and Inga II is currently underway and the future
development of Inga III and Grande Inga could raise total generating
capacity to in excess of 40 000 megawatts. This project provides the basis
for possible minerals exploitation and processing in the SDI area as well as
the export of power to a number of major demand centres across the African
continent and beyond.
Through the link between the potential availability of very cheap electricity
from Inga, an opportunity is created for a series of mining and minerals
processing projects within the Bas-Congo SDI. An aluminium smelter mooted
for Matadi based on large bauxite deposits in the DRC, a magnesium smelter
at Point Noire based on mineral deposits at Kouilou in the Republic of Congo
70
(Congo-Brazzaville) and a possible aluminium smelter in northern Angola are
examples of an energy intensive projects currently being contemplated that
would require power from a rehabilitated and upgraded Inga. Large-scale
phosphate deposits between Quindonacaxa in Angola to Sinto-Kola in the
Republic of Congo are another element of minerals development potential of
the Bas-Congo SDI” (The Commissioned Bas-Congo Scoping Report, 2005).
Education
Each year witnesses a steady increase of Congolese students in South African
universities. A report of the education sub committee stated that during 2004,
there were 470 Congolese students at South African Higher Education
Institutions, representing a 20% increase from the 380 students during 2003.
It is significant to note that this steady increase is happening even before the
formalisation of the bilateral relations (The Bi-national Commission was
launched in 2005.) It is therefore safe to assume that with the establishment
of the Bi-national Commission and deliberate attempts by both governments
to forge links in education, the scope for rapid development of the
collaboration in this sector is enormous.
Possibly Areas for Co-operation in the Education Sector
•
The University of South Africa (UNISA) is investigating the
possibility of establishing a distance education centre in the DRC.
The institution is looking at ways in which NEPAD could assist in
implementing the program.
•
The
University
comprehensive
of
link
KwaZulu-Natal
with
the
(UKZN)
University
is
of
developing
a
Lubumbashi
in
partnership with the University of Liege in Belgium. The tripartite
agreement reached by the three universities is intended to
encourage collaboration in the education of students from the
Congo. This collaboration will assist the DRC in capacity building.
71
•
The Education Foundation Trust (a specialised education agency in
South Africa) is exploring possible establishment of a similar
institution in the DRC. This institution will work closely with the
Ministry of Education in developing Education Management
Information Systems (EMIS), support training and research to
facilitate policy development, planning, implementation, monitoring
and evaluation with EMIS.
Trilateral cooperation involving DRC, RSA and donor countries is encouraged
to enable the parties to leverage increased funding. Both countries are
exploring possibilities of collaboration in the sphere of Science and
Technology.
Economy Finance and Infrastructure
Trade and Industry
Article 6 of the Memorandum of Understanding on Economic Co-operation
entered into between the Department of Trade and Industry (on behalf of the
government of the Republic of South Africa) and the Ministry of Industry;
Small and Medium Enterprises (on behalf of the government of the
Democratic Republic of the Congo) stipulates the establishment of a
Ministerial Bilateral Working Committee to oversee the implementation of the
MOU and all the bilateral economic projects emanating there from.
The following agreements have been signed: “the Protection and Promotion
of Investments; the Avoidance of Double Taxation; and Mutual Assistance
Agreement on Customs Cooperation” (Trade and industry Sub-commission,
2007).
72
The BI-National Commission and the Spatial Development
Initiatives (SDI)
The two countries are seeking to cooperate in the development of SDI that
will link the DRC with its neighbours and encourage economic development.
Three SDI proposed by South African experts are under consideration. These
are: the Bas–Congo Corridor; the Central Development Corridor and the
DRC/Zambia Copper belt. A feasibility study on the Bas–Congo has been
finalised and both countries are now agreed on a plan of action to begin
implementation’ (Trade and Industry Sub-Committee Report to the BiNational Commission, 2007).
Spatial Development Initiatives: A Priority of Post Conflict
Reconstruction and Development
The SDI methodology will address the following:
•
Effective investment prioritisation.
•
Synchronisation of infrastructure with users to enhance investment
potential.
•
Need for a solid economic/business rationale for projects.
•
Create a pipeline of credible and sound projects to unlock the
country’s potential and reduce poverty; and
•
Develop an effective Public – Private Partnership (PPP).
Expected outcome
The Spatial Development Initiatives in the region could contribute to the
consolidation of peace and security, promotion of democracy and good
governance, promote economic development and regional integration and
provide relieve and solutions to the humanitarian and social crisis.
73
Agriculture
The Memorandum of Co-operation in the field of Agriculture signed on the
29th of April 2005 between the Ministry of Agriculture in South Africa and the
Ministry of Agriculture in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, highlights the
following areas:
•
Technical co-operation on the restructuring of Administration and
Capacity Building; and
•
Co-operation in the Field of Agricultural Economic Development (in
particular farmer-to-farmer co-operation).
Disaster management
The process of negotiations and conflict resolution saw the need for the
creation of the Ministry of Solidarity and Humanitarian Affairs that came to
being because of the Inter-Congolese Dialogue. The Ministry established is
based on Decree number 03/27 of 16th September 2003. Its objective is to
manage crisis created by natural and man made disasters like war, fires,
building collapses, ship racks etc. The Ministry is to oversee the following:
•
Coordinate humanitarian action.
•
Cooperate with United Nations humanitarian agencies and nongovernmental organizations in the sector, and
•
Fundraise to manage the containment of such crisis’ (Report of the
Social Development Sub-Committee, 2007).
Establishment of a Gender Sub-commission
The Commission established a Gender Sub–Commission whose mandate will
be to enable women participation in the Bi-national Commission. The Gender
74
Sub–Commission will also monitor the commitments of both Governments to
gender equality corresponding to the constitutional prerequisites of the two
countries. Importantly the Gender Sub Commission will focus the entire
commission on the post conflict reconstruction and development of the DRC
(The Politics and Diplomacy Sub-commission Report to the Bi-National
Commission, 2007).
The establishment of the Gender Commission takes into account the
disposition of the two countries to work for Gender equality. The women of
the DRC participate actively in the affairs of the country. This is demonstrated
both during the negotiations for a peaceful solution and now in the period of
transition. The women are actively engaged in the fight for peace and are
involved in peace building, reconstruction, and development.
The
establishment of a gender commission by the BNC conforms to the African
Union (AU) and SADC resolutions encouraging respect for gender equality in
all member states.
Cooperation in the Reform of the security Sector
The DRC Master Plan for the Armed Forces
The government of the Democratic Republic of the Congo has developed a
master plan based on four pillars: Deterrence; Reconstruction; Production and
Excellence. The plan envisages the training of thirty three thousand (33 000)
Battalions that will be utilised to stabilise the whole territory of the Congo.
The Rapid Reaction Force (the thirty-three Battalions) established within a
period of two years will replace MONUC forces when the UN withdraws. South
Africa is committed to training three Battalions and assist in coordinating the
training of the remaining thirty Battalions. South Africa is already engaged in
the integration and training (SADAIT) beginning with the identification and
registration of combatants. In addition, through operations TEUTONIC 1 and
75
11, South Africa has been involved in the DDR process and the refurbishment
and/or rehabilitation of the ‘Centres de Brassage’ (CBR’s).
Defence and Security
Defence cooperation between South Africa and the DRC is guided and
strengthened by the following:
•
MOU on Practical Assistance with the Integration of Armed Forces
DRC.
•
Defence Co-operation Agreement, signed on 18 June 2004.
•
Tripartite Agreement between DRC, Belgium and RSA signed on 01
June 2005; and
•
Letter of Intent between RSA, Netherlands and the DRC dated 2005
(Defence Sub-commission Report, 2007).
Police
The South African Police Services (SAPS) is working with the DRC National
Police to develop some units in the PNC through training and capacity building
projects. SAPS as an Implementing Agent in partnership with DRC PNC, will
assist by developing and implementing strategies aimed at ensuring a safe
and secure environment for all DRC citizens.
This project is divided into three phases:
Phase 1
: Before Election – Capacity Building through Operational
Training.
Phase 2
: During Election – Rendering of Operational Assistance.
Phase 3
: after Election-, Consistent planning for implementation
and continuous projects ensuring organizational
capacity building (Police Sub-commission Report, 2007).
76
Transport Infrastructure
On going discussions and work done by the Department of Transport
(DOT/RSA) and the Ministry of Transport and Communication (MOTC/DRC)
yielded the following results:
Agreements
•
The Merchant Shipping Agreement and other Maritime related
Matters agreement was signed and is being implemented.
•
The Memorandum of Understanding on Economic Cooperation and
Transport Infrastructure.
Aviation
Aviation is divided into two (2) separate areas:
•
Aviation Infrastructure; and
•
Upper Air Space Services and Management.
Aviation infrastructure
A number of challenges remain in area of airport infrastructure, namely
rehabilitation of the five airports identified by the Congolese party as
necessary for linkages and access to remote areas, particularly during
elections. The five (5) airports identified are as follows:
•
N’djili International Airport
•
Lubumbashi International Airport
•
Kisangani Airport
•
Mbuji-Mayi Airport
•
Tshikapa Airport
Airport Companies of South Africa (ACSA)
ACSA has committed to assisting by conducting feasibility studies for the
refurbishment of the airports. The commitment also extends to support in the
training of personnel and capacity building. The refurbishment of the airports
77
is crucial as flights play a vital role in linking areas almost impossible to reach
by other means (e.g. roads & Congo River).
Rehabilitation of N’djili Airport
The two countries are conscious of the need to improve land transport
planning and road safety management in the Congo. Also crucial, in view of
the increasing volumes of people visiting and working in the Congo, is to
improve airport safety and security.
Both countries are working to secure funding for the rehabilitation of N’djili
International Airport in Kinshasa. ACSA is encouraged to participate in the
Build Operate and Transfer (BOT) type concession.
Rail Transport
Spoornet
South Africa‘s Spoornet donated 100 passenger coaches to the Congolese rail
agency, La Société Nationale des Chemins De Fer Du Congo (SNCC) before
the end of March 2006. Spoornet will facilitate servicing of the 100 passenger
coaches in South Africa, to make them rail worthy. Repairs, refurbishment
and transfer of about 15 – 25 Coaches per month, will be subject to the
availability of funds.
Spoornet will transfer the ownership of 14 Diesel Locomotives currently in the
possession of the SNCC in terms of the lease agreement within three (3)
months. Spoornet will also ensure that these are in running condition.
Furthermore, Spoornet will provide the SNCC with spares to the value of 2.5
million Rands.
78
In addition, Spoornet will transfer ownership of 50 flat bed wagons to SNCC
at minimal value; the Transnet foundation has approved a donation of 130
three-meter containers to the DRC. During election time, these containers can
be utilised as mobile elections units, offices, etc” (The Transport Sub-sector
Commission Report, 2007).
Please see the annexure for a detailed report of the Bi-National Commission –
DRC/SA.
79
Chapter Four: Conclusion and Recommendations
This dissertation entitled: “Policy Options in The Democratic Republic of the
Congo (DRC): An Overview from 1960 to 2006” intended to develop an
analytical framework in order to look at the various policy options that could
guide the leadership in drawing a roadmap for the reconstruction of the
country and creation of conditions for sustainable development. Hence, the
research stood on the assumptions that suitable policies that might solve the
political and socio-economic problems of the DRC must be sought within the
geographic, demographic, religious and ethnic context of the country. Beyond
the emphasis on policies, the dissertation also attempted to examine the
Democratic Republic of the Congo’s own Post Conflict and Reconstruction
policy and considered the areas of priority that need attention if the post
conflict and reconstruction policy is to be successful. However, the study held
the viewpoint that policies alone are not sufficient to create a functioning
state that renders adequate services to its people. For the future and
prosperity of the Congo, it is essential not only to have the correct policies
only, but also to dispose of a leadership, at all levels, that will embrace and
implement them.
The main concern in this study was to determine whether the present efforts
engaged in the DRC suffice to ensure that the country is well on its way
towards recovery. Therefore, the questions were: can the DRC now explore
its full potential? What standard should be set to ensure that in the postconflict, reconstruction and development era, the Congo does not slide back
to anarchy and lawlessness? To answer these questions, the study was
divided into four chapters.
The paper departed from the premises that the diagnosis of the solution
needed to remedy problems afflicting many African nations in general, and
particularly the Democratic Republic of the Congo, begins with the inherent
80
problem of governance. Therefore, it was essential for the study to
investigate sources of bad governance and factors which have led to the
collapse of the state. To do so, the introductory chapter outlined the historical
consequences of colonialism and the mismanagement by successive regimes.
For instance, the history of the Congo is characterised by slavery, brutal
exploitation, dictatorship and ethnic conflicts. All these factors combined,
contributed to the reversal of development in the Democratic Republic of the
Congo. In many cases, these factors are largely responsible for the
decimation of potentially Africa’s wealthiest nations such as the DRC, reducing
them to being amongst the poorest in the world. Nevertheless, the challenges
facing the elected government of the Democratic Republic of the Congo are
concerned with strengthening the fragile peace existing in the country,
delivering a strategy for sustainable growth, alleviating if not ending poverty
and producing an accurate plan for economic recovery.
Chapter two entailed to examine policy formation and analysis. At this
Stage, it was said that the crisis in the DRC has been in existence for
prolonged periods and has impacted negatively on the socio-economic
situation confronting the Congolese. Hence, it was essential for the
dissertation to develop an understanding of the social circumstances and
situations to which the Congolese have been subjected with a view to
establish a base for future policy formulation. Despite the prolonged effects of
miserable
conditions
caused
by
poverty,
lack
of
government
and
mismanagement, ordinary Congolese have, within the contest of a collapsing
state, developed numerous survival strategies for food, water, healthcare and
dealing with sickness and death of loved ones. This development is of
significant for the mere fact that the peoples’ ability to adjust and cope with
socio-economic challenges underlines the centrality of the principle of
ownership and accountability by communities. To this end, the study applied
both quantitative and qualitative methods of analysis relying more on the
later. The study was critical in its approach and was interpretive, explanatory
81
in nature since it compares and contrasts different experiences that the
country went through.
To be absolutely certain that the Democratic Republic of the Congo is on a
sustainable path towards recovery, it is imperative to utilise a scientific tool
that will contribute to a well defined programme. A public policy based on
policy analysis informed by a multi–disciplinary scientific inquiry that critically
assesses and at the same time, draws in the culminate experiences of the
Congolese. The Democratic Republic of the Congo is a multi-faceted country
that requires a multi-disciplinary approach to solutions. The post conflict
reconstruction and developed solutions would need to cut across and weave
through the entire fabric of society represented by all the social sciences,
professions and disciplines. An integrated policy analysis is required.
In the context of the Congo, the feature of orientation towards policy has to
take into account the designation and functions within policy making.
Considering the stages of development the DRC is going through, the policy
cycle or stagiest approach forms the basis for both the policy process and
analysis.
Chapter three was dedicated to the study of the post-conflict reconstruction
and development strategy in the DRC. The study stated that the Democratic
Republic of the Congo (DRC) is a huge country; potentially rich, and which
together with other hugely endowed countries, should be capable of
contributing immensely to Africa’s revival. Given the changes taking place in
the DRC and the prevailing climate in the continent within which the new
country is emerging, one would be perfectly justified to hope that the popular
saying which states: “Out of every crisis comes the chance to be reborn”,
could become a reality. However, the DRC faces challenges of developing a
Post Conflict Reconstruction and Development (PCRD) Policy. The policy must
draw on lessons from past efforts in Africa and in the developing world. The
policy must consolidate progress achieved thus far in stabilising the country
82
during the period of transition. The policy has to aim at creating peace, be
inclusive and begin to create foundations for a transparent and democratic
society. Nevertheless, development in the DRC must be dealt with holistically.
All sectors need attention simultaneously. Unfortunately, at this stage the
DRC cannot succeed on its own, despite its enormous potential, it requires
the input of the International Community. Africa as a whole must rally and
contribute to the renewal of the Congo. It is in this instance that South Africa
as the most advanced economically developed and prosperous African country
must be in the forefront of efforts to reconstruct the Congo. Therefore, South
Africa must emphasise on a strategic approach based on capacitating bigger
countries, which are potentially wealthy, particularly those endowed with
natural and mineral resources. Such an approach would pay dividend in the
long run because the countries with greater potential could become engines,
capable of pulling the continent out of the hopeless situation that it is in. The
Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC), the Sudan and Angola are three
countries in Africa that can play a major role in the re-awaking of the
continent. Nigeria, the country with the biggest population in the continent is
already partnering South Africa in efforts to transform the continent. In this
context, a Post–Conflict Reconstruction and Development (PCRD) strategy
should assist Congolese people in addressing their needs in the short,
medium and long term so that the country can play its meaningful role in
African revival.
The collaboration between the emerging government of the DRC, the
international community and South Africa on the short to medium term
support programmes could lay the foundation for the creation of political
stability and a secure environment that is needed for the establishment of
long–term projects. South Africa bases its engagement in the DRC on key
fundamental principles such as the promotion of human rights and
democracy, consolidation of the African agenda, South–South cooperation,
the need to create stability, security and peaceful resolution of conflicts.
These principles guiding South Africa’s foreign policy objectives reinforce the
83
continent’s fundamental policy documents such as the Constitutive Act (CA),
the NEPAD economic development programme and others.
The reconstruction strategy in the Congo must be based on clear priorities.
Consolidating and maintaining peace is the most important priority that must
act as a foundation for the development of policies and projects in all sectors.
In this regard the continuing instability in the east is of greatest concern.
Hence, proper prioritisation will require a thoroughly researched approach
that goes beyond providing a mere shopping list of proposals intended to
solicit aid from donors and supporters. A step by step approach is
recommended with certain steps or policies being designated as first stage,
either because of urgency or because they are a prerequisite for other
actions. In addition, prioritisation must apply to all innovations as well as
development proposals. It must be based on lessons learned from the past
and be geared towards ensuring the correction of mistakes. Three key areas
that the DRC need to prioritise are the security sector reform, economic
development and Institutional capacity building. Briefly, the government has
the responsibility to create an enabling environment for trade and investment,
thus by promoting good political, economic and cooperate governance, by
strengthening institutional and human capacities, and by developing a
regulatory environment that not only facilitates and attract investments but
also safeguards them.
In the light of what has been said so far in the study, the following
recommendations as outlined below are in order.
Any country that comes out of a war situation is vulnerable and can
sometimes be classified among what is being called ‘weak states’. Thus,
because most of such a country’s formal structures have been destroyed and
public sector institutions are inadequate. Considering the DRC’s potential in
terms of resources and its inability to satisfy the needs of its people, one can
classify the country among the weak states. For instance, after more than
84
three decades of dictatorship, the country went also through rebellions, civil
wars and aggression. This situation has paralysed the activities of public
institutions in the country to a point that the elected government is not able
to deal with the legacy of the historical background. The impasse in the DRC
might seem difficult but it is not impossible to be solved. The solution resides
in the following actions:
•
Consolidating democratic governance that is committed to
peace
and the prevention of relapse into violent conflict;
•
Restoring the rule of law and the establishment of a credible,
accountable and independent judicial system;
•
Promoting reconciliation and nation building and enshrining
Human Rights;
•
Facilitating the establishment of legitimate and inclusive public
institutions and civil authorities that ensure participatory processes,
legislative oversight capacity, and a representative constitutional
structure, and that encourages active participation of civil society in
the formulation of government and its policies;
•
Restoring internal security and stability, including an effective
disarmament, demobilisation and reintegration (DDR) programme
for armed combatants, as well as a comprehensive security sector
reform;
•
Developing political governance and administrative capacities;
•
Establishing the functioning economic and financial infrastructure;
and
85
•
Providing humanitarian assistance to vulnerable groups including
the rolling out of an effective resettlement programme for refugees
and internally displaced persons.
When all or some of the above key points are attended to, then one will
expect the Democratic Republic of the Congo to find a way for stability and
economic development, to create an environment that enhances living
conditions its citizens and to restore its image and role in the continent and
elsewhere.
86
References and Sources Consulted
Books
Arnold, G. 2005. Africa a Modern History: On Compromise of the New Political
Leaders. London, United Kingdom: Atlantic Books.
Dunn, WN. 2004. Public Policy Analysis: an introduction: Methods of Policy
analysis. 3rd Ed. New Jersey: Upper Saddle River.
Etzioni, A. 1995. The Spirit of Community: Rights, Responsibilities, and the
Communitarian Agenda. London: HarperCollins.
Fanon, F. 1963. The Wretched of the Earth: On Compromise and
Collaboration of Emerging National States. London, England: Pengiun Books.
Hoschild, A. 2002. King Leopold’s Ghost: on the Legacy of Colonial Rule.
London, Great Britain: Pan Books.
Lasswell, DH. 1958. Politics: who gets what, when, how. New York: World
Publishing.
Lindblom, CE. 1993. The Policy-making Process. Englewood Cliffs, NJ:
Prentice Hall Boston.
Meredith, Martin. 2005. The Fate of Africa: on the patronising arrogance of
King Baudouin Speech at Independence. New York, USA: Public Affairs.
Babbie E. and Mouton J 1998 The Practice
of Social Research. Oxford
University Press, Cape Town.
Parsons, DW. 1995 Public Policy: an Introduction to the Theory and Practice
of Policy Analysis. Aldershot: Elgar.
87
Documents
African Union. 2005. The African Union Secretariat Report. Sirte, Libya. July
2005.
Annan, K. 2005. UN Millennium project: On the Need to Uphold the Rule of
Law and Sound Economic Policies. New York, USA.
Defence
Sub-commission
Report,
2007.
Kinshasa,
DRC.
Police
Sub-
commission Report, 2007. Kinshasa, DRC.
Draft South African document on Security Sector Reform Document: The
concept.
EU. 2006. Paper on Good Governance in the DRC. Brussels, Belgium. (Kabila,
Joseph, 2005) Inaugural Speech. Kinshasa, Democratic Republic of the
Congo.
Governance and Administration Sub-commission Report, 2007. Kinshasa,
DRC.
Human Rights Watch. 2004. ‘The Curse of Gold’ the Role of Mineral Resources
in Conflicts. New York. USA. Human Rights Watch.
Kabila, J. 2005. Inaugural Speech. Kinshasa, DRC.
NEPAD. 2004. Meeting of Heads of State and Government Implementation
Committee. Secretariat Report. Abuja, Nigeria.
Politics and Diplomacy Sub-commission Report, 2007. Kinshasa, DRC.
Report of the Transport Sector Sub–commission, 2007. Kinshasa, DRC.
Report of the Transport Sector Sub–commission, 2007. Kinshasa, DRC.
88
Health Sub-committee Report, 2007. Kinshasa, DRC.
SA-DRC. 2007. Report of the DRC/SA BI-National Commission (BNC).
Kinshasa, DRC.
Social Development Sub-committee, 2007. Kinshasa, DRC.
The Dar Es Salaam Declaration 2005. Document of the International
Conference on the Great Lakes Region. Dar Es Salaam, Republic of Tanzania.
The Commissioned Bas-Congo Scoping Report, 2005, Kinshasa, DRC.
The Lusaka Ceasefire Agreement. 1999. Lusaka, Zambia.
Trade and Industry Sub-commission Report, 2007. Kinshasa, DRC.
The Minerals and Energy Sub-commission Report, 2007. Kinshasa, DRC.
United Nations/Democratic Republic of the Congo Joint Document on Security
Sector Reform in the DRC: The concept of SSR
Internet Search
www.worldatlas.com/webimage/countrys/africa/africaa.htm
accessed
18.11.2007.
Data Resources Online http://www.data.org accessed on 28.02.2008.
http://bookrags.com/Mobutu Sese Seko accessed on 24.04.2008.
htpp://www.worldpress.org/Africa/3033.cfm accessed on 16.01.2008.
89
on
Other sources consulted
BOOKS
Anderson, J.E. 2000. Public Policy Making. Fourth Edition. USA. Houghton
Mifflin Company.
Babbie, E. & Mouton, J. 2001. The Practice of Social Research. Belmont:
Wadsworth Publishing Company.
Bailey, K.D. 1982. Methods of Social Research, Second Edition. New York: The
Free Press.
Beckhard, R. & Harris, R. T. 1987. Organizational Transition: Managing
Complex Change. Second Edition. United State of America: Addison-Wesley.
Bless, C. & Smith, C.H. 2000. Fundamentals of Social Research Methods: An
African Perspective. Third Edition. Cape Town: Zebra Publication.
Bridges, W. 1991. Managing Transitions: Making the Most of Change. United
States of America: Addison-Wesley.
Brynard, P.A. & Hanekom, S.X. 1997. Introduction to Research in Public
Administration and Related Principles. Pretoria: van Schaik Publishers.
Christopher, W. E. 1994. Vision, Mission & Total Quality: Leadership tools for
Turbulent Times. Potlant: Productivity Press.
Cochran, T. A. & Useem, M. 1992. Transforming Organizations. New York:
Oxford University Press.
Donaldson, B. & O’Toole, T. 2003. Strategic Market Relationship: From
Strategy to Implementation. Great Britain: Deerpark Publishing.
90
Esterhuyse, W. 1996. Challenges in Change. Bellville: School of Public
Management, University of Pretoria.
Harvard Business Essentials. 2003. Managing Creativity and Innovation.
United State of America: Harvard Business School Publishing Corporation.
Kroon, J. 1996. General Management. Pretoria: Kagiso Tertiary.
Leedy, P.D. & Ormrod, J. E. 2001. Practical research: Planning and Design.
Seventh Edition. New Jersy: Courier/Kendallville Inc
Neuman, W.L. 1994. Social Research Methods: Quantitative and Qualitative
Approaches.
DICTIONARIES
Collins English Dictionary. 1982. London: Collins.
Maheshwari, S.R. 2002. A Dictionary of Public Administration. New Delhi:
Baba Barkha North Printers.
True, J.L. Encyclopedia of Public Administration and Public Policy. New York:
Marcel Dekker Inc. {Jack Rabin: Editor}.
91
Annexure
Details of South Africa-DRC Bilateral Collaboration
Politics and Governance Cluster
Cooperation in the field of Politics and Governance
Before elections and during the era of the transitional government, South
Africa and the DRC exchanged views on a regular basis. This included views
on the regional and international political developments and on such topical
issues such as the reform of the United Nations Security Council and others.
Due to the urgency of the need to analyse, strategise and develop a coherent
programme during the transitional period the commission on cooperation and
governance established by the bi–national agreement between the two
countries focussed primarily on the internal developments in the DRC.
The Bilateral Commission has signed a number of agreements in various
areas for example, on Cooperation in the Field of Maritime Transport, on
Decentralisation, on the Memorandum of Understanding on Education
Cooperation and others.
Department of Foreign Affairs
Capacity-Building Project
The Department of foreign affairs of the Republic of South Africa commenced
a comprehensive capacity-building project for the DRC’s Ministry of Foreign
Affairs and International Cooperation. The project has the following
objectives:
•
Reform of the DRC’s Ministry of Foreign Affairs and International
Cooperation
•
Diplomatic training for senior diplomats and administrators
92
•
Development of information and communication systems for the
Foreign Ministry
The South African Foreign Ministry is engaged in assisting with the reform of
the Foreign Ministry of the DRC this includes, the development and
computerisation of human and financial resource management systems.
Following an assessment of capacity-building requirements, a technical team
of experts from South Africa’s Department of Foreign Affairs worked with their
Congolese counterparts in Kinshasa to design specific forms in the area of
Finance, personnel management forms, to account for the Ministry’s
personnel stationed locally and abroad. In addition, the team has designed
forms for asset management to track the movement and acquisition of the
Ministry’s assets (Sub-commission Report to the BNC, 2007).
South Africa is also assisting in developing ICT expertise; the South African
Department of Foreign Affairs’ ICT, Finance and Human Resources Sections,
as well as a Solution Architect from Dimension Data do this jointly. The
agreement reached is As follows:
Short Term:
•
Reinstallation and upgrading of internal computer networks at the
Ministry;
•
Re-establishment of reliable full time internet access to provide
reliable communication with Foreign Missions;
•
Restoration of internal telephonic communication capability; and
•
Training of technical, helpdesk and IT staff of the Directorate:
Transmissions.
Medium Term:
•
Securing
a
system
to
enable
communication
information to and from Foreign Missions;
•
Management of databases;
93
of
classified
•
Improvement of communications to Foreign Missions;
•
Connection to other Ministries in the DRC; and
•
Training of user trainers.
Long Term:
•
Development of a system to manage the issuing of passports and
visas;
•
Management of communications and other databases; and
•
Training of users.
The two countries are committed to working together on the three-year
strategic plan developed by the diplomatic academy of the Democratic
Republic of the Congo.
Governance and Administration
The sub-commission deals with issues of governance and transparency
particularly in the public service. The sub-commission collaborated in the
Organisation of the first elections after a period of over forty years of
dictatorship and conflict. The last elections held in 1960 did not have a
successful outcome. Soon after democratic elections, Anti democratic forces
assassinated the democratically elected Prime Minister, Mr Patrice Lumumba
and the country was plunged into the darkness of conflict, poverty and
despair.
The sub-commission comprised of the work area of public administration,
preparations for elections and population and immigration matters.
Decentralisation of the Public Service
Article 3 of the constitution of the DRC makes provision for the development
of an organic law on decentralisation. South Africa worked together with the
Democratic Republic of the Congo to develop a legal framework for this law.
Based on this law the partnership will work on the following:
94
•
To develop models for the organisation of Public Administration;
•
To rationalise and restructure the public service and the match and
place public servants against appropriate posts;
•
Establishment of the process of transfer of public servants from the
Central Public Service to the provincial Public Administration; and
•
Implementation of human resource management system at the
provincial level.
In terms of the agreement on decentralisation signed by both countries on
the 16 march 2006 the key focus areas will be the following:
•
Information technology systems supporting decentralised
Entities;
•
Assistance with organising administrative departments;
•
Building capacity for local government institutions;
•
Assistance with equipment and refurbishment;
•
Support to Demarcation; and
•
Training Local and Provincial Executives and government officials
(Report of the sub-commission to the DRC/SA Bi-National, 2007).
Both countries are working to realise the vision and three year strategy for
decentralisation developed by the Ministry of Interior, Security and
Decentralisation
of
the
Congo.
The
law
governing
the
Territorial
Administrative and Political Decentralisation of the Congo will pave the way
and facilitate easier administration of the entire country.
Establishment
of
the
National
School
of
Public
Administration (ENA)
The personnel and institutional capacity building has been identified as the
top most cross cutting priority in the collaboration of the two countries. South
Africa has therefore committed to assisting with the establishment of the
95
National School of Public administration whose responsibility is to train and
capacitate the DRC in public services. This entails the following:
•
Promulgation of statutes and regulation regarding the setting of
ENA;
•
To raise funds for such a project;
•
To develop a project plan for setting up ENA;
•
To determine needs and to develop a training; and
programme accordingly… (Sub-commission Report to the
SA/DRC Bi-national Commission, 2007).
Governance and Administration Commission
In the area of public administration work has focused on the census of public
servants, the establishment of the national school of public administration,
anti corruption and decentralisation of public administration and on the areas
of justice matters particularly those concerned with governance and violation
of human rights… (Sub-commission Report to the SA/DRC Bi-National
Commission, 2007).
Public Administration
Cooperation in the area of public administration includes the following:
•
Support for institutional reforms and good governance;
•
Improvement of the operation of public services and human
resources;
•
Institutional and human capacity building in public service;
•
Promotion of public administration and the management of training
institutes; and
•
Support of other specialised areas as the two parties may
agree.
96
Four projects have been prioritised, namely the census project, anti–
corruption, the establishment of the National School of Administration (ENA)
and the decentralisation of public administration (Sub-commission Report,
2007).
Census
The two countries embarked on the counting of civil servants for registration
and accountability. The collaboration meant to improve efficiency in the public
service of the DRC is also a tool to combat corruption by exposing ghost civil
servants in whose names financial claim are made. The cooperation operates
on the principle of ownership of the process by the Congolese.
A Memorandum of Understanding signed on the 31st August 2004 lays the
foundation for an agreement that focuses on funding and procurement for the
census project. The ‘modus operandi’ is the manual census followed by the
biometric enrolment of all civil servants.
Anti - corruption
The two countries successfully collaborated on a project on the promotion of
the Code of Conduct for public for public officials. This is now completed and
a booklet for trainees, a guide for trainers, training aids in the form of a
video, posters and flyers is now available’ (Sub-commission Report, 2007).
Corruption is one of the biggest factors that accounts for failure to move
rapidly with developmental efforts. Funding remains the biggest obstacle to
putting in place mechanisms that will ensure the erosion of corruption. Both
countries are committed to exploring trilateral arrangements that will include
third parties to overcome lack of resources. The DRC relies on South Africa to
assist in the development of an implementation plan on the system for the
declaration of assets.
97
Safety and Security Commission
Defence Sub-commission
The following objectives are identified:
•
Developing and formulating procedures of military cooperation
between the Armed Forces of South Africa and the DRC;
•
Personnel Training that includes exchange of trainees, instructors
and observers;
•
Acquiring and procuring military equipment; Technical Cooperation;
Implementation of the Defence Agreement by the Defence
Technical Committee;
•
Cooperating in medical research;
•
Exchanging knowledge and training in UN peacekeeping operations;
•
Encouragement of the exchange of military personnel at all levels to
enhance sporting and cultural links between the Armed Forces;
•
Provision of advice and assistance on policy and planning on the
integration of the DRC’s Armed Forces;
•
Provision of advice and assistance, in terms of identification,
registration and selection, in close collaboration with the Military
Integration Structure of the Congolese Armed Forces;
•
South Africa is also assisting in the creation and training of military
brigades that will contribute to the reform of the military sector of
the DRC. The brigades that are expected to stabilise the DRC will
also be deployed in the conflict ridden east of the country where
rebel groups continue to create havoc;
•
CASA 212 aircraft and aircrew: The deployment of a CASA 212
aircraft and air-crew (11) to assist with the movement of
equipment, personnel and material took place. The CASA is mainly
utilized for the transportation of material and personnel from Goma
to Beni; and
98
•
South Africa is assisting the DRC with the identification and
compilation of the certified personnel and weapons register.
Police Sub-commission
Projects agreed upon:
Phase 1: Capacity Building through Operational Training (PNC)
This project focuses on the following operational fields: Operational
Commander Training, Crowd Management Techniques Training, VIP Training,
Crime
Intelligence
Training,
Firearm
Proliferation
Training,
Radio
Telecommunications, Interpol and Project Management Programme (Police
Sub-commission Report, 2007).
Crowd Management Techniques Training (CMT)
South Africa is training Congolese in crowd management techniques and
assisting with acquiring the appropriate weapons for use during crowd
control.
VIP Training
The collaboration also includes training the trainers in VIP protection. The
‘Police Nationale Congolaise’ (PNC) requested the training of 1000 PNC
members in VIP Protection.
Crime Intelligence Training
1206 PNC members were trained in the pre-election Intelligence Processes in
Kinshasa. A number of courses are offered to Congolese, these include
training the trainers’ courses. Four Thousand (4000) PNC members are to be
trained. The UNDP is assisting with the funding.
99
Radio Telecommunications Project
16 PNC Radio Technicians were trained during February 2005 in South Africa.
The British DFID provided funding for a phase 1 roll out in Kinshasa, for the
procurement of equipment through SAPS contracts and tender procedures to
the amount of $ 460 000. The SAPS provided technical support and
mentoring for the installation of the equipment. In addition 17 technicians
were trained (3 in Radio Telecommunication technical management and 14 in
Radio installation, maintenance and radio programming).
The Phase 2 rolls out, funded by UNDP/DFID, and is in the provinces. 16
SAPS and 36 PNC technicians are currently deployed. Total cost is 15.75
Million USD. Fourteen 4 x 4 Land cruiser (fully equipped with radio
telecommunication kits) vehicles have been donated by the UNDP to the PNC.
Economy, Finance and Infrastructure
The Ministerial Bilateral Working Committee is comprised of the following
Ministers:
Republic of South Africa
Democratic Republic of Congo
1.
1.
Trade and Industry
(Chair and Co-
Co-ordinator)
ordinator)
2.
Planning (Chair and
2.
Minerals and
Industry, Small and
Medium Enterprises
Energy
3.
Transport
3.
Transport
4.
Agriculture
4.
Agriculture
5.
Foreign Trade
6.
Mining
7.
Energy
100
Collaboration on the Establishment of the Spatial Initiative
Subsequent to the Bi-national Commission held in Pretoria on the 29th of April
2005, the Government of South Africa and the Government of the Democratic
Republic of Congo agreed to adopt the Regional SDI Programme in the DRC.
Through the application of the SDI methodology, it would be possible to
determine the linkages between and promote a portfolio of large-scale
infrastructure development and economic investment projects. The South
African Department of Trade and Industry (DTI), commissioned a scoping
study to confirm the developmental business case for the Bas-Congo SDI. The
scoping study is finalised and ready for implementation.
Bas-Congo Scoping Study
The scoping study describes the geographic extent of the Bas Congo SDI
project area, current economic activities, and the main economic and
infrastructure drivers for future economic development in the project area and
provides justification for the allocation of resources for the implementation of
the SDI.
•
Geographic Location: This SDI is located in the lower-Congo
river basin. It extends from the mouth of the Congo River to the
Kinshasa-Brazzaville urban centre, as well as up the coast to BasKouilou in the Republic of Congo and down the coast to
Quindonacaxa in Angola.
•
Economic Rationale: The main infrastructure and economic
drivers that provide the underlying economic rationale for the BasCongo SDI are: The Inga Hydroelectric power project is currently
Africa’s (and possibly the World’s) largest hydroelectric power
potential.
As such, it provides the primary driver for this SDI.
Rehabilitation of Inga I and Inga II is currently underway and the
101
future development of Inga III and Grande Inga could raise total
generating capacity to in excess of 40 000 megawatts. This project
provides the basis for possible minerals exploitation and processing
in the SDI area as well as the export of power to a number of
major demand centres across the African continent and beyond.
Through the link between the potential availability of very cheap electricity
from Inga, an opportunity is created for a series of mining and minerals
processing projects within the Bas-Congo SDI. An aluminium smelter mooted
for Matadi based on large bauxite deposits in the DRC, a magnesium smelter
at Point Noire based on mineral deposits at Kouilou in the Republic of Congo
(Congo-Brazzaville) and a possible aluminium smelter in northern Angola are
examples of an energy intensive projects currently being contemplated that
would require power from a rehabilitated and upgraded Inga. Large-scale
phosphate deposits between Quindonacaxa in Angola to Sinto-Kola in the
Republic of Congo are another element of minerals development potential of
the Bas-Congo SDI” [The Commissioned Bas-Congo Scoping Report, 2005).
The key infrastructure drivers of this SDI are the existing road and rail links
from both Kinshasa and Brazzaville to the ports of Matadi and Point Noire in
the Democratic Republic of Congo and Republic of Congo respectively. In
addition, there are plans to develop a new deep-water port at Banana in the
DRC.
The development of the SDI requires the prioritisation and upgrading the road
link from Luanda to Kinshasa. This, together with a possible bridge across the
Congo River linking Kinshasa and Brazzaville could result in the full integration
of regional transport systems on the Bas-Congo SDI (The commissioned BasCongo Scoping Study, 2005).
The cross-border nature of the economic linkages between elements of the
Bas-Congo SDI suggests that it requires a three-country initiative between the
102
DRC, Congo and Angola. In so doing, the SDI has the potential to serve as a
catalyst for improved regional integration consistent with the objectives of
NEPAD.
Other Spatial Development Initiative
Several other potential SDIs have been identified (Malange-Kananga, LobitoKatanga,
Central-Kalemie/Kisangani
and
Kodo-Mombassa)
for
future
consideration and development. However, the Lobito-Katanga area is already
attracting substantial investment due to its excellent mineral resource
endowment (copper/cobalt & manganese) and could conceivably benefit from
the SDI integrated economic development methodology in the short to
medium term.
Development of an Industrial Zone in Maluku
Also under consideration is the development of an Industrial Development
Zone. Some of the projects already identified are:
•
Rehabilitation of SOSIDER (Metallurgical complex)
•
Development of a real estate and housing projects
Both countries are exploring the feasibility of involving the involvement of the
Industrial Development Corporation (IDC) and the Development Bank of
Southern Africa (DBSA).
Investment Facilitation
•
Both countries exchange Fact-Finding Missions in order to
assess the business climate and identify potential opportunities
for investments.
•
The Missions are intended to facilitate trade and investment,
complementary to the SDI process in the DRC.
103
Tax and Customs Sub-Commission
Avoidance of Double Taxation Agreement (DTA)
Both Democratic Republic of Congo and South Africa Ministers signed the DTA
during the BNC in April 2005 in Pretoria. The DTA required first, to be
operational, ratification by both parliaments of the Democratic Republic of the
Congo and South Africa.
Mutual Assistance Agreement on Customs Co-operation (MAA)
The Mutual Assistance Agreement on Customs signed in April 2005 in Pretoria
by both the DRC and the RSA required Parliamentary ratification.
Minerals and Energy Sub-Commission
Mining
Promoting Joint Mining ventures between RSA and DRC companies. The list of
viable mining projects and researches, especially those concerning the base
metals group (copper, cobalt, lead, zinc,) were given to the South African
counterpart during the November 2005 review meeting held in Kinshasa, for
circulation to potential investors (The Minerals and energy Sub-commission
Report, 2007).
The Technical Mining Coordination and Planning Unit (TCPM) has been
appointed by the ministry of mining as the focal point with which South
African companies should be in touch to access DRC’s mining field’s
information.
Geology
Projects identified include:
•
The rehabilitation of the laboratory and mining research centre of
Bukavu;
104
•
Updating geological and metallogenical maps;
•
Geophysical and geochemical surveys;
•
Acquisition of analytical laboratories; and
•
OKIMO Projects (MOU signed for exploration with Anglo Ashanti,
Goldfields, Afri-Minerals, Boundy Investment and Mowana Africa’
(The Minerals and Energy Sub-commission, 2007).
Of the five companies, only AngloAshanti is currently doing exploration and
exploitation.
Draft MOU sent to Council of Geosciences by OKIMO for consideration.
Mineral processing / Metallurgy beneficiation
Projects identified include:
•
Gold recovery by IGOLI process (without use of mercury) (Total
cost: USD 445,890.00);
•
Manufacturing of ceramics and glass products (Total cost: USD
546,990.00); and
•
Training of trainers in the artisan and small scale mining and
acquisition of technologies appropriate to artisan field and small
scale mining’ (The Minerals and Energy Sub-commission Report,
2007).
The DRC and South Africa signed an MOU 2 February 2006 in Johannesburg.
The two countries were represented by Mintek of RSA and Technical Mining
Coordination and Planning Unit (CTCPM) and SAESSCAM (Assistance and
Supervision Unit of Small Scale Mining) of DRC. The success of projects
identified depends on the availability of funds.
Diamonds and Precious stones
Projects identified include:
•
Training in sorting and evaluation of diamonds;
•
Implementation of cutting and polishing workshops in DRC;
105
Reinforcement of the Congolese regulation in order to prevent and
•
efficiently control fraud through the Kimberley process; and
Promotion of the Small Scale Mining’ (Report of the Minerals and
•
Energy Sub-commission, 2007).
MOU signed by CEEC (Centre of Evaluation and Certification) of DRC and the
South African Diamond Board (SADB) guides regulation of the diamond trade
in compliance with international law.
New Projects Proposed by the Congolese Party:
•
Promoting the new mining legislation in DRC;
•
Supporting the development of the Mining Cadastre (Unit working
in the granting of mining and quarries titles); and
Supporting DRC in mining environment issues.
•
The Congolese party is asking for financial and technical assistance,
depending on the case, from South Africa for an effective implementation of
the identified projects within the proposed time frames.
Social and Humanitarian Affairs
Purpose
The
Social
and
Humanitarian
Affairs
Commission
comprises
four
Ministries/sectors, namely: Urban planning and Housing, Education, Health,
and Social Development.
Housing committee
The two countries signed a Memorandum of Understanding in 2006. The MOU
envisages cooperation in the following areas:
•
A Programme of Action intended to implement projects in the short,
medium and the long-term;
106
•
Both countries will work together for the establishment of Private
Public Partnerships (PPP) / formation in the DRC. The PPP will
explore possibilities of forming Joint Ventures between South Africa
and the DRC;
•
Establishment of a Housing Company and Capacity to manage the
construction of housing stock;
•
Collaboration of the two countries in land Management/bulk
infrastructure & Framework legislation;
•
Training of staff;
•
Assistance with the provisioning of Office Equipment; and
•
Establishment of a Housing Bank.
Social Development Sub-Committee
The Department of Social Development (South Africa) and the Ministry of
Social Affairs (Democratic Republic of the Congo) has completed negotiations
on a Memorandum of Understanding.
The MOU considers comprehensive analyses on the challenges facing the DRC
in the process of post-conflict social reconstruction and transformation. These
include, among other things, institutional development and building of
administrative capacity as well as social policy development. Care and support
for vulnerable groups such as women, children, older persons, displaced
persons and the youth.
The parties agreed on a memorandum of understanding that focuses on the
following:
•
Support programmes to assist displaced families, communities and
refugees;
•
Development of programmes to tackle HIV and AIDS and its
impact, particularly on children; and
107
•
Development and support of programmes for integration of
vulnerable groups such as women, children, older persons, people
with disabilities and youth’ (Report of the Social Development Subcommittee, 2007).
Responsibility
The Ministry is responsible for the following:
•
Providing Humanitarian Relieve (e.g. Provision of food, medicines,
clothing, cooking utensils etc) in the case of disasters;
•
Organizing the return of refugees, other displaced persons and
assisting in their socio-economic re-integration; and
•
Coordinating and cooperating with relevant Ministries/ department
that are immediately responsible for the provision of some form of
relieve to the people in the event of disaster or crisis (these
Ministries are: Ministries of Health, Education, Interior, Human
Rights and Social Affairs).
Challenges
The immediate challenges facing the Ministry are the following:
•
Humanitarian
assistance
to
3million
displaced
persons
and
refugees;
•
Improving the standard of living in the designated areas where
returnees are settled; and
•
Promoting reconciliation and solidarity amongst Congolese and
engaging in political education to abolish existing obstacles
between provinces and ethnic groups’ (Report of the Social
Development Sub-committee, 2007).
Areas of cooperation
The proposed areas of cooperation are the following:
108
1.
Relocation and integration support to displaced persons;
2.
Exchanges amongst officials in the areas of disaster relief that
include the following elements:
•
Humanitarian Assistance.
•
Strategy.
•
Policy
•
Planning
•
Training of Ministerial Personnel.
•
Capacity building.
•
Civil awareness support to pre-empt future disasters and
encouraging acceptance and re-integration of returnees.
•
Promoting integration and coexistence that avoids future
conflict; and
•
Fundraising Support.
Transport Sector Sub-Commission
On going discussions and work done by the Department of Transport
(DOT/RSA) and the Ministry of Transport and Communication (MOTC/DRC)
yielded the following results:
Agreements
•
The Merchant Shipping Agreement and other Maritime related
Matters agreement was signed and is being implemented; and
•
The Memorandum of Understanding on Economic Cooperation and
Transport Infrastructure.
Transport sector contribution toward the election mechanism effort
The Department of Transport mobilized all transport sector agencies in South
Africa for maximum participation and contribution towards the election
109
mechanism effort. In response to this, the following agencies declared their
contribution:
Aviation
Aviation is divided into two (2) separate areas:
•
Aviation Infrastructure; and
•
Upper Air Space Services and Management.
Aviation infrastructure
A number of challenges remain in area of airport infrastructure, namely
rehabilitation of the five airports identified by the Congolese party as
necessary for linkages and access to remote areas, particularly during
elections. The five (5) airports identified are as follows:
•
N’djili International Airport.
•
Lubumbashi International Airport.
•
Kisangani Airport.
•
Mbuji-Mayi Airport; and
•
Tshikapa Airport.
Airport Companies of South Africa (ACSA)
ACSA has committed to assisting by conducting feasibility studies for the
refurbishment of the airports. The commitment also extends to support in the
training of personnel and capacity building. The refurbishment of the airports
is crucial as flights play a vital role in linking areas almost impossible to reach
by other means (e.g. roads & Congo River)
Air Traffic Navigation Services (ATNS)
The Air Traffic navigation Services (ATNS) has already implemented the
following:
•
Upper air space services and management;
110
•
Flight procedure design based on the Global Navigation Satellite
System (GNSS);
•
Design of flight procedures at 10 airports;
•
Surveying 10 airports and conversion of coordinates into WGS-84
reference frame as recommended by ICAO; and
•
Drafting of the GNSS Legislation (This project was finalized in
December 2005 and it was fully funded by the United Nations).
Training
To date, the ATNS has trained hundreds of air traffic services personnel,
which include air traffic controllers and technicians. Approach control trainees
and technicians are undergoing training at the Aviation Training Academy in
South Africa.
Aeronautical billing
The ATNS and the RVA signed a contract for the billing and collection of air
navigation charges of non-IATA member airlines over-flying the airspace of
the Democratic Republic of the Congo. This project ensures an effective and
efficient aeronautical billing system for the DRC.
SADC VSAT
The ATNS has implemented a Very Small Aperture Terminal in Kinshasa as
part of the SADC project. This has brought the following to the DRC:
•
Compliance with ICAO standards and recommended practices;
•
Improvement of aeronautical communications between the DRC
and other SADC member states; and
•
Improvement of upper air space safety in the DRC (Transport
Sector Sub-commission Report, 2007).
111
South African Civil Aviation Agency (SACAA)
The CAA is ready to send 5 technical experts to assist with the evaluation of
safety in the five airports identified by the Congolese party as crucial for the
linkages to remote areas during the elections.
Rail Transport
Spoornet
South Africa’s Spoornet donated 100 passenger coaches to the Congolese rail
agency, La Société Nationale des Chémins De Fer Du Congo (SNCC) before
the end of March 2006. Spoornet will facilitate servicing of the 100 passenger
coaches in South Africa, to make them rail worthy. Repairs, refurbishment
and transfer of about 15 – 25 Coaches per month, will be subject to the
availability of funds.
Spoornet will transfer the ownership of 14 Diesel Locomotives currently in the
possession of the SNCC in terms of the lease agreement within three (3)
months. Spoornet will also ensure that these are in running condition.
Furthermore, Spoornet will provide the SNCC with spares to the value of 2.5
million Rands.
In addition, Spoornet will transfer ownership of 50 flat bed wagons to SNCC
at minimal value; the Transnet foundation has approved a donation of 130
three-meter containers to the DRC. During election time, these containers can
be utilised as mobile elections units, offices; etc” (The Transport Sub-sector
Commission Report, 2007).
South African Rail Commuter Corporation (SARCC)
The South African Commuter Corporation (SARCC) has also made available
ticketing machines for use in the DRC.
112
Maritime
South African Maritime Safety Authority (SAMSA)
The South African Maritime Safety Authority (SAMSA) board has approved the
donation R7Million, for use in repairing nine (9) vessels and three (3), barges.
The South African Party will in addition assist in providing spares and other
material needed to repair vessels that will be used for improvement of
mobility and access through the Congo River. It is currently awaits
translation.
Rehabilitation of N’djili Airport
The two countries are conscious of the need to improve land transport
planning and road safety management in the Congo. Also crucial, in view of
the increasing volumes of people visiting and working in the Congo, is to
improve airport safety and security.
Both countries are working to secure funding for the rehabilitation of N’djili
International Airport in Kinshasa. ACSA is encouraged to participate in the
Build Operate and Transfer (BOT) type concession.
113
* Your assessment is very important for improving the work of artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
advertisement
© 2021