This is a preliminary document for an API or technology in development. Apple is supplying this information to help you plan for the adoption of the technologies and programming interfaces described herein for use on Apple-branded products. This information is subject to change, and software implemented according to this document should be tested with final operating system software and final documentation.

Newer versions of this document may be provided with future betas of the API or technology.

●

About Swift

(page 15)

A Swift Tour

(page 16)

About Swift

Swift is a new programming language for iOS and OS X apps that builds on the best of C and Objective-C, without the constraints of C compatibility. Swift adopts safe programming patterns and adds modern features to make programming easier, more flexible, and more fun. Swift’s clean slate, backed by the mature and much-loved Cocoa and Cocoa Touch frameworks, is an opportunity to reimagine how software development works.

Swift has been years in the making. Apple laid the foundation for Swift by advancing our existing compiler, debugger, and framework infrastructure. We simplified memory management with Automatic Reference

Counting (ARC). Our framework stack, built on the solid base of Foundation and Cocoa, has been modernized and standardized throughout. Objective-C itself has evolved to support blocks, collection literals, and modules, enabling framework adoption of modern language technologies without disruption. Thanks to this groundwork, we can now introduce a new language for the future of Apple software development.

Swift feels familiar to Objective-C developers. It adopts the readability of Objective-C’s named parameters and the power of Objective-C’s dynamic object model. It provides seamless access to existing Cocoa frameworks and mix-and-match interoperability with Objective-C code. Building from this common ground, Swift introduces many new features and unifies the procedural and object-oriented portions of the language.

Swift is friendly to new programmers. It is the first industrial-quality systems programming language that is as expressive and enjoyable as a scripting language. It supports playgrounds, an innovative feature that allows programmers to experiment with Swift code and see the results immediately, without the overhead of building and running an app.

Swift combines the best in modern language thinking with wisdom from the wider Apple engineering culture.

The compiler is optimized for performance, and the language is optimized for development, without compromising on either. It’s designed to scale from “hello, world” to an entire operating system. All this makes

Swift a sound future investment for developers and for Apple.

Swift is a fantastic way to write iOS and OS X apps, and will continue to evolve with new features and capabilities.

Our goals for Swift are ambitious. We can’t wait to see what you create with it.

A Swift Tour

Tradition suggests that the first program in a new language should print the words “Hello, world” on the screen.

In Swift, this can be done in a single line: println("Hello, world")

If you have written code in C or Objective-C, this syntax looks familiar to you—in Swift, this line of code is a complete program. You don’t need to import a separate library for functionality like input/output or string handling. Code written at global scope is used as the entry point for the program, so you don’t need a main function. You also don’t need to write semicolons at the end of every statement.

This tour gives you enough information to start writing code in Swift by showing you how to accomplish a variety of programming tasks. Don’t worry if you don’t understand something—everything introduced in this tour is explained in detail in the rest of this book.

Simple Values

Use let to make a constant and var to make a variable. The value of a constant doesn’t need to be known at compile time, but you must assign it a value exactly once. This means you can use constants to name a value that you determine once but use in many places.

var myVariable = 42 myVariable = 50 let myConstant = 42

A constant or variable must have the same type as the value you want to assign to it. However, you don’t always have to write the type explicitly. Providing a value when you create a constant or variable lets the compiler infer its type. In the example above, the compiler infers that myVariable is an integer because its initial value is a integer.

If the initial value doesn’t provide enough information (or if there is no initial value), specify the type by writing it after the variable, separated by a colon.

A Swift Tour

Simple Values let implicitInteger = 70 let implicitDouble = 70.0

let explicitDouble: Double = 70

Experiment:

Create a constant with an explicit type of Float and a value of 4 .

Values are never implicitly converted to another type. If you need to convert a value to a different type, explicitly make an instance of the desired type.

let label = "The width is " let width = 94 let widthLabel = label + String(width)

Experiment:

Try removing the conversion to

String from the last line. What error do you get?

There’s an even simpler way to include values in strings: Write the value in parentheses, and write a backslash

( \ ) before the parentheses. For example: let apples = 3 let oranges = 5 let appleSummary = "I have \(apples) apples." let fruitSummary = "I have \(apples + oranges) pieces of fruit."

Experiment:

Use \() to include a floating-point calculation in a string and to include someone’s name in a greeting.

Create arrays and dictionaries using brackets ( [] ), and access their elements by writing the index or key in brackets.

var shoppingList = ["catfish", "water", "tulips", "blue paint"] shoppingList[1] = "bottle of water" var occupations = [

A Swift Tour

Control Flow

"Malcolm": "Captain",

"Kaylee": "Mechanic",

] occupations["Jayne"] = "Public Relations"

To create an empty array or dictionary, use the initializer syntax.

let emptyArray = String[]() let emptyDictionary = Dictionary<String, Float>()

If type information can be inferred, you can write an empty array as [] and an empty dictionary as [:] —for example, when you set a new value for a variable or pass an argument to a function.

shoppingList = [] // Went shopping and bought everything.

Control Flow

Use if and switch to make conditionals, and use for in , for , while , and do while to make loops.

Parentheses around the condition or loop variable are optional. Braces around the body are required.

let individualScores = [75, 43, 103, 87, 12] var teamScore = 0 for score in individualScores { if score > 50 { teamScore += 3

} else

{ teamScore += 1

}

} teamScore

In an if statement, the conditional must be a Boolean expression—this means that code such as if score

{ ... } is an error, not an implicit comparison to zero.

A Swift Tour

Control Flow

You can use if and let together to work with values that might be missing. These values are represented as optionals. An optional value either contains a value or contains nil to indicate that the value is missing. Write a question mark ( ?

) after the type of a value to mark the value as optional.

var optionalString: String? = "Hello" optionalString == nil var optionalName: String? = "John Appleseed" var greeting = "Hello!" if let name = optionalName { greeting = "Hello, \(name)"

}

Experiment:

Change optionalName to nil . What greeting do you get? Add an else clause that sets a different greeting if optionalName is nil .

If the optional value is nil , the conditional is false and the code in braces is skipped. Otherwise, the optional value is unwrapped and assigned to the constant after let , which makes the unwrapped value available inside the block of code.

Switches support any kind of data and a wide variety of comparison operations—they aren’t limited to integers and tests for equality.

let vegetable = "red pepper" switch vegetable { case

"celery": let vegetableComment = "Add some raisins and make ants on a log." case

"cucumber", "watercress": let vegetableComment = "That would make a good tea sandwich." case let x where x.hasSuffix("pepper"): let vegetableComment = "Is it a spicy \(x)?" default

: let vegetableComment = "Everything tastes good in soup."

}

A Swift Tour

Control Flow

Experiment:

Try removing the default case. What error do you get?

After executing the code inside the switch case that matched, the program exits from the switch statement.

Execution doesn’t continue to the next case, so there is no need to explicitly break out of the switch at the end of each case’s code.

You use for in to iterate over items in a dictionary by providing a pair of names to use for each key-value pair.

let interestingNumbers = [

"Prime": [2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13],

"Fibonacci": [1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8],

"Square": [1, 4, 9, 16, 25],

] var largest = 0 for

(kind, numbers) in interestingNumbers { for number in numbers { if number > largest { largest = number

}

} largest

Experiment:

Add another variable to keep track of which kind of number was the largest, as well as what that largest number was.

Use while to repeat a block of code until a condition changes. The condition of a loop can be at the end instead, ensuring that the loop is run at least once.

} n var n = 2 while n < 100 { n = n * 2

A Swift Tour

Functions and Closures var m = 2 do

{ m = m * 2

} while m < 100 m

You can keep an index in a loop—either by using

to make a range of indexes or by writing an explicit initialization, condition, and increment. These two loops do the same thing: var firstForLoop = 0 for i in

0..3 { firstForLoop += i

} firstForLoop var secondForLoop = 0 for var i = 0; i < 3; ++i { secondForLoop += 1

} secondForLoop

Use

to make a range that omits its upper value, and use

...

to make a range that includes both values.

Functions and Closures

Use func to declare a function. Call a function by following its name with a list of arguments in parentheses.

Use -> to separate the parameter names and types from the function’s return type.

func greet(name: String, day: String) -> String { return

"Hello \(name), today is \(day)."

} greet("Bob", "Tuesday")

A Swift Tour

Functions and Closures

Experiment:

Remove the day parameter. Add a parameter to include today’s lunch special in the greeting.

Use a tuple to return multiple values from a function.

func getGasPrices() -> (Double, Double, Double) { return

(3.59, 3.69, 3.79)

} getGasPrices()

Functions can also take a variable number of arguments, collecting them into an array.

func sumOf(numbers: Int...) -> Int { var sum = 0 for number in numbers { sum += number

} return sum

} sumOf() sumOf(42, 597, 12)

Experiment:

Write a function that calculates the average of its arguments.

Functions can be nested. Nested functions have access to variables that were declared in the outer function.

You can use nested functions to organize the code in a function that is long or complex.

func returnFifteen() -> Int { var y = 10 func add() { y += 5

} add() return y

A Swift Tour

Functions and Closures

} returnFifteen()

Functions are a first-class type. This means that a function can return another function as its value.

func makeIncrementer() -> (Int -> Int) { func addOne(number: Int) -> Int { return

1 + number

} return addOne

} var increment = makeIncrementer() increment(7)

A function can take another function as one of its arguments.

func hasAnyMatches(list: Int[], condition: Int -> Bool) -> Bool { for item in list { if condition(item) { return true

}

} return false

} func lessThanTen(number: Int) -> Bool { return number < 10

} var numbers = [20, 19, 7, 12] hasAnyMatches(numbers, lessThanTen)

Functions are actually a special case of closures. You can write a closure without a name by surrounding code with braces ( {} ). Use in to separate the arguments and return type from the body.

numbers.map({

(number: Int) -> Int in

A Swift Tour

Objects and Classes let result = 3 * number return result

})

Experiment:

Rewrite the closure to return zero for all odd numbers.

You have several options for writing closures more concisely. When a closure’s type is already known, such as the callback for a delegate, you can omit the type of its parameters, its return type, or both. Single statement closures implicitly return the value of their only statement.

numbers.map({ number in

3 * number })

You can refer to parameters by number instead of by name—this approach is especially useful in very short closures. A closure passed as the last argument to a function can appear immediately after the parentheses.

sort([1, 5, 3, 12, 2]) { $0 > $1 }

Objects and Classes

Use class followed by the class’s name to create a class. A property declaration in a class is written the same way as a constant or variable declaration, except that it is in the context of a class. Likewise, method and function declarations are written the same way.

class

Shape { var numberOfSides = 0 func simpleDescription() -> String { return

"A shape with \(numberOfSides) sides."

}

A Swift Tour

Objects and Classes

Experiment:

Add a constant property with let , and add another method that takes an argument.

Create an instance of a class by putting parentheses after the class name. Use dot syntax to access the properties and methods of the instance.

var shape = Shape() shape.numberOfSides = 7 var shapeDescription = shape.simpleDescription()

This version of the Shape class is missing something important: an initializer to set up the class when an instance is created. Use init to create one.

class

NamedShape { var numberOfSides: Int = 0 var name: String init

(name: String) { self

.name = name

}

} func simpleDescription() -> String { return

"A shape with \(numberOfSides) sides."

}

Notice how self is used to distinguish the name property from the name argument to the initializer. The arguments to the initializer are passed like a function call when you create an instance of the class. Every property needs a value assigned—either in its declaration (as with numberOfSides ) or in the initializer (as with name

Use deinit to create a deinitializer if you need to perform some cleanup before the object is deallocated.

Subclasses include their superclass name after their class name, separated by a colon. There is no requirement for classes to subclass any standard root class, so you can include or omit a superclass as needed.

A Swift Tour

Objects and Classes

Methods on a subclass that override the superclass’s implementation are marked with override —overriding a method by accident, without override

, is detected by the compiler as an error. The compiler also detects methods with override that don’t actually override any method in the superclass.

class

Square: NamedShape { var sideLength: Double init

(sideLength: Double, name: String) { self

.sideLength = sideLength super

init

(name: name) numberOfSides = 4

} func area() -> Double { return sideLength * sideLength

} override func simpleDescription() -> String { return

"A square with sides of length \(sideLength)."

}

} let test = Square(sideLength: 5.2, name: "my test square") test.area() test.simpleDescription()

Experiment:

Make another subclass of NamedShape called Circle that takes a radius and a name as arguments to its initializer. Implement an area and a describe method on the Circle class.

In addition to simple properties that are stored, properties can have a getter and a setter.

class

EquilateralTriangle: NamedShape { var sideLength: Double = 0.0

init

(sideLength: Double, name: String) {

A Swift Tour

Objects and Classes

} self

.sideLength = sideLength super

init

(name: name) numberOfSides = 3 var perimeter: Double { get

{ return

3.0 * sideLength

}

} set

{ sideLength = newValue / 3.0

override func simpleDescription() -> String { return

"An equilateral triagle with sides of length \(sideLength)."

}

} var triangle = EquilateralTriangle(sideLength: 3.1, name: "a triangle") triangle.perimeter

triangle.perimeter = 9.9

triangle.sideLength

In the setter for perimeter

, the new value has the implicit name newValue

. You can provide an explicit name in parentheses after set .

Notice that the initializer for the EquilateralTriangle class has three different steps:

Setting the value of properties that the subclass declares.

Calling the superclass’s initializer.

Changing the value of properties defined by the superclass. Any additional setup work that uses methods, getters, or setters can also be done at this point.

If you don’t need to compute the property but still need to provide code that is run before and after setting a new value, use willSet and didSet

. For example, the class below ensures that the side length of its triangle is always the same as the side length of its square.

A Swift Tour

Objects and Classes class

TriangleAndSquare { var triangle: EquilateralTriangle { willSet

{ square.sideLength = newValue.sideLength

}

} var square: Square { willSet

{ triangle.sideLength = newValue.sideLength

}

} init

(size: Double, name: String) { square = Square(sideLength: size, name: name) triangle = EquilateralTriangle(sideLength: size, name: name)

}

} var triangleAndSquare = TriangleAndSquare(size: 10, name: "another test shape") triangleAndSquare.square.sideLength

triangleAndSquare.triangle.sideLength

triangleAndSquare.square = Square(sideLength: 50, name: "larger square") triangleAndSquare.triangle.sideLength

Methods on classes have one important difference from functions. Parameter names in functions are used only within the function, but parameters names in methods are also used when you call the method (except for the first parameter). By default, a method has the same name for its parameters when you call it and within the method itself. You can specify a second name, which is used inside the method.

class

Counter { var count: Int = 0 func incrementBy(amount: Int, numberOfTimes times: Int) { count += amount * times

}

} var counter = Counter()

A Swift Tour

Enumerations and Structures counter.incrementBy(2, numberOfTimes: 7)

When working with optional values, you can write ?

before operations like methods, properties, and subscripting.

If the value before the ?

is nil , everything after the ?

is ignored and the value of the whole expression is nil .

Otherwise, the optional value is unwrapped, and everything after the

acts on the unwrapped value. In both cases, the value of the whole expression is an optional value.

let optionalSquare: Square? = Square(sideLength: 2.5, name: "optional square") let sideLength = optionalSquare?.sideLength

Enumerations and Structures

Use enum to create an enumeration. Like classes and all other named types, enumerations can have methods associated with them.

enum

Rank: Int { case

Ace = 1 case

Two, Three, Four, Five, Six, Seven, Eight, Nine, Ten case

Jack, Queen, King func simpleDescription() -> String { switch self

{ case

.Ace: return

"ace" case

.Jack: return

"jack" case

.Queen: return

"queen" case

.King: return

"king" default

: return

String( self

.toRaw())

}

A Swift Tour

Enumerations and Structures let ace = Rank.Ace

let aceRawValue = ace.toRaw()

Experiment:

Write a function that compares two Rank values by comparing their raw values.

In the example above, the raw value type of the enumeration is Int , so you only have to specify the first raw value. The rest of the raw values are assigned in order. You can also use strings or floating-point numbers as the raw type of an enumeration.

Use the toRaw and fromRaw functions to convert between the raw value and the enumeration value.

if let convertedRank = Rank.fromRaw(3) { let threeDescription = convertedRank.simpleDescription()

}

The member values of an enumeration are actual values, not just another way of writing their raw values. In fact, in cases where there isn’t a meaningful raw value, you don’t have to provide one.

enum

Suit { case

Spades, Hearts, Diamonds, Clubs func simpleDescription() -> String { switch self

{ case

.Spades: return

"spades" case

.Hearts: return

"hearts" case

.Diamonds: return

"diamonds" case

.Clubs: return

"clubs"

}

} let hearts = Suit.Hearts

A Swift Tour

Enumerations and Structures let heartsDescription = hearts.simpleDescription()

Experiment:

Add a color method to Suit that returns “black” for spades and clubs, and returns

“red” for hearts and diamonds.

Notice the two ways that the

Hearts member of the enumeration is referred to above: When assigning a value to the hearts constant, the enumeration member Suit.Hearts

is referred to by its full name because the constant doesn’t have an explicit type specified. Inside the switch, the enumeration is referred to by the abbreviated form .Hearts

because the value of self is already known to be a suit. You can use the abbreviated form anytime the value’s type is already known.

Use struct to create a structure. Structures support many of the same behaviors as classes, including methods and initializers. One of the most important differences between structures and classes is that structures are always copied when they are passed around in your code, but classes are passed by reference.

struct

Card { var rank: Rank var suit: Suit func simpleDescription() -> String { return

"The \(rank.simpleDescription()) of \(suit.simpleDescription())"

}

} let threeOfSpades = Card(rank: .Three, suit: .Spades) let threeOfSpadesDescription = threeOfSpades.simpleDescription()

Experiment:

Add a method to Card that creates a full deck of cards, with one card of each combination of rank and suit.

An instance of an enumeration member can have values associated with the instance. Instances of the same enumeration member can have different values associated with them. You provide the associated values when you create the instance. Associated values and raw values are different: The raw value of an enumeration member is the same for all of its instances, and you provide the raw value when you define the enumeration.

For example, consider the case of requesting the sunrise and sunset time from a server. The server either responds with the information or it responds with some error information.

A Swift Tour

Protocols and Extensions enum

ServerResponse { case

Result(String, String) case

Error(String)

} let success = ServerResponse.Result("6:00 am", "8:09 pm") let failure = ServerResponse.Error("Out of cheese.") switch success { case let

.Result(sunrise, sunset): let serverResponse = "Sunrise is at \(sunrise) and sunset is at \(sunset)." case let

.Error(error): let serverResponse = "Failure...

\(error)"

}

Experiment:

Add a third case to ServerResponse and to the switch.

Notice how the sunrise and sunset times are extracted from the ServerResponse value as part of matching the value against the switch cases.

Protocols and Extensions

Use protocol to declare a protocol.

protocol

ExampleProtocol { var simpleDescription: String { get

} mutating func adjust()

}

Classes, enumerations, and structs can all adopt protocols.

class

SimpleClass: ExampleProtocol { var simpleDescription: String = "A very simple class."

A Swift Tour

Protocols and Extensions var anotherProperty: Int = 69105 func adjust() { simpleDescription += " Now 100% adjusted."

}

} var a = SimpleClass() a.adjust() let aDescription = a.simpleDescription

struct

SimpleStructure: ExampleProtocol { var simpleDescription: String = "A simple structure" mutating func adjust() { simpleDescription += " (adjusted)"

}

} var b = SimpleStructure() b.adjust() let bDescription = b.simpleDescription

Experiment:

Write an enumeration that conforms to this protocol.

Notice the use of the mutating keyword in the declaration of SimpleStructure to mark a method that modifies the structure. The declaration of

SimpleClass doesn’t need any of its methods marked as mutating because methods on a class can always modify the class.

Use extension to add functionality to an existing type, such as new methods and computed properties. You can use an extension to add protocol conformance to a type that is declared elsewhere, or even to a type that you imported from a library or framework.

extension

Int: ExampleProtocol { var simpleDescription: String { return

"The number \( self

} mutating func adjust() { self

+= 42

A Swift Tour

Generics

}

7.simpleDescription

Experiment:

Write an extension for the Double type that adds an absoluteValue property.

You can use a protocol name just like any other named type—for example, to create a collection of objects that have different types but that all conform to a single protocol. When you work with values whose type is a protocol type, methods outside the protocol definition are not available.

let protocolValue: ExampleProtocol = a protocolValue.simpleDescription

// protocolValue.anotherProperty

// Uncomment to see the error

Even though the variable protocolValue has a runtime type of SimpleClass , the compiler treats it as the given type of

ExampleProtocol

. This means that you can’t accidentally access methods or properties that the class implements in addition to its protocol conformance.

Generics

Write a name inside angle brackets to make a generic function or type.

func repeat<ItemType>(item: ItemType, times: Int) -> ItemType[] { var result = ItemType[]() for i in

0..times { result += item

} return result

} repeat("knock", 4)

You can make generic forms of functions and methods, as well as classes, enumerations, and structures.

// Reimplement the Swift standard library's optional type

A Swift Tour

Generics enum

OptionalValue<T> { case

None case

Some(T)

} var possibleInteger: OptionalValue<Int> = .None

possibleInteger = .Some(100)

Use where after the type name to specify a list of requirements—for example, to require the type to implement a protocol, to require two types to be the same, or to require a class to have a particular superclass.

func anyCommonElements <T, U where

T: Sequence, U: Sequence,

T.GeneratorType.Element: Equatable, T.GeneratorType.Element ==

U.GeneratorType.Element> (lhs: T, rhs: U) -> Bool { for lhsItem in lhs { for rhsItem in rhs { if lhsItem == rhsItem { return true

}

} return false

} anyCommonElements([1, 2, 3], [3])

Experiment:

Modify the anyCommonElements function to make a function that returns an array of the elements that any two sequences have in common.

In the simple cases, you can omit where and simply write the protocol or class name after a colon. Writing

<T: Equatable> is the same as writing

Language Guide

●

The Basics

(page 37)

●

Basic Operators

(page 58)

Strings and Characters

(page 71)

●

Collection Types

(page 82)

Control Flow

(page 95)

●

Functions

(page 120)

Closures

(page 137)

●

Enumerations

(page 148)

Classes and Structures

(page 156)

●

Properties

(page 170)

Methods

(page 185)

●

Subscripts

(page 195)

Inheritance

(page 200)

Initialization

(page 209)

●

Deinitialization

(page 233)

Automatic Reference Counting

(page 237)

●

Optional Chaining

(page 257)

Type Casting

(page 267)

●

Nested Types

(page 275)

Extensions

(page 278)

●

Protocols

(page 287)

Generics

(page 310)

●

Advanced Operators

(page 327)

The Basics

Swift is a new programming language for iOS and OS X app development. Nonetheless, many parts of Swift will be familiar from your experience of developing in C and Objective-C.

Swift provides its own versions of all fundamental C and Objective-C types, including Int for integers; Double and

Float for floating-point values;

Bool for Boolean values; and

String for textual data. Swift also provides powerful versions of the two primary collection types, Array and Dictionary , as described in

Collection

Types

(page 82).

Like C, Swift uses variables to store and refer to values by an identifying name. Swift also makes extensive use of variables whose values cannot be changed. These are known as constants, and are much more powerful than constants in C. Constants are used throughout Swift to make code safer and clearer in intent when you work with values that do not need to change.

In addition to familiar types, Swift introduces advanced types not found in Objective-C. These include tuples, which enable you to create and pass around groupings of values. Tuples can return multiple values from a function as a single compound value.

Swift also introduces optional types, which handle the absence of a value. Optionals say either “there

a value, and it equals

” or “there

isn’t

a value at all”. Optionals are similar to using nil with pointers in Objective-C, but they work for any type, not just classes. Optionals are safer and more expressive than nil pointers in

Objective-C and are at the heart of many of Swift’s most powerful features.

Optionals are an example of the fact that Swift is a

type safe

language. Swift helps you to be clear about the types of values your code can work with. If part of your code expects a String , type safety prevents you from passing it an Int by mistake. This enables you to catch and fix errors as early as possible in the development process.

Constants and Variables

Constants and variables associate a name (such as maximumNumberOfLoginAttempts or welcomeMessage ) with a value of a particular type (such as the number 10 or the string "Hello" ). The value of a

constant

cannot be changed once it is set, whereas a

variable

can be set to a different value in the future.

The Basics

Constants and Variables

Declaring Constants and Variables

Constants and variables must be declared before they are used. You declare constants with the let keyword and variables with the var keyword. Here’s an example of how constants and variables can be used to track the number of login attempts a user has made: let maximumNumberOfLoginAttempts = 10 var currentLoginAttempt = 0

This code can be read as:

“Declare a new constant called maximumNumberOfLoginAttempts

, and give it a value of

. Then, declare a new variable called currentLoginAttempt , and give it an initial value of 0 .”

In this example, the maximum number of allowed login attempts is declared as a constant, because the maximum value never changes. The current login attempt counter is declared as a variable, because this value must be incremented after each failed login attempt.

You can declare multiple constants or multiple variables on a single line, separated by commas: var x = 0.0, y = 0.0, z = 0.0

Note:

If a stored value in your code is not going to change, always declare it as a constant with the let keyword. Use variables only for storing values that need to be able to change.

Type Annotations

You can provide a

type annotation

when you declare a constant or variable, to be clear about the kind of values the constant or variable can store. Write a type annotation by placing a colon after the constant or variable name, followed by a space, followed by the name of the type to use.

This example provides a type annotation for a variable called welcomeMessage

, to indicate that the variable can store String values: var welcomeMessage: String

The colon in the declaration means

“…of type…,”

so the code above can be read as:

“Declare a variable called welcomeMessage that is of type

String

.”

The Basics

Constants and Variables

The phrase “of type String ” means “can store any String value.” Think of it as meaning “the type of thing”

(or “the kind of thing”) that can be stored.

The welcomeMessage variable can now be set to any string value without error: welcomeMessage = "Hello"

Note:

It is rare that you need to write type annotations in practice. If you provide an initial value for a constant or variable at the point that it is defined, Swift can almost always infer the type to be used for that constant or variable, as described in

Type Safety and Type Inference

(page 43)

. In the welcomeMessage example above, no initial value is provided, and so the type of the welcomeMessage variable is specified with a type annotation rather than being inferred from an initial value.

Naming Constants and Variables

You can use almost any character you like for constant and variable names, including Unicode characters: let

π = 3.14159

let

= " " let

= "dogcow"

Constant and variable names cannot contain mathematical symbols, arrows, private-use (or invalid) Unicode code points, or line- and box-drawing characters. Nor can they begin with a number, although numbers may be included elsewhere within the name.

Once you’ve declared a constant or variable of a certain type, you can’t redeclare it again with the same name, or change it to store values of a different type. Nor can you change a constant into a variable or a variable into a constant.

Note:

If you need to give a constant or variable the same name as a reserved Swift keyword, you can do so by surrounding the keyword with back ticks (

) when using it as a name. However, you should avoid using keywords as names unless you have absolutely no choice.

You can change the value of an existing variable to another value of a compatible type. In this example, the value of friendlyWelcome is changed from "Hello!" to "Bonjour!" : var friendlyWelcome = "Hello!"

The Basics

Constants and Variables friendlyWelcome = "Bonjour!"

// friendlyWelcome is now "Bonjour!"

Unlike a variable, the value of a constant cannot be changed once it is set. Attempting to do so is reported as an error when your code is compiled: let languageName = "Swift" languageName = "Swift++"

// this is a compile-time error - languageName cannot be changed

Printing Constants and Variables

You can print the current value of a constant or variable with the println function: println(friendlyWelcome)

// prints "Bonjour!" println is a global function that prints a value, followed by a line break, to an appropriate output. If you are working in Xcode, for example, println prints its output in Xcode’s “console” pane. (A second function, print

, performs the same task without appending a line break to the end of the value to be printed.)

The println function prints any String value you pass to it: println("This is a string")

// prints "This is a string"

The println function can print more complex logging messages, in a similar manner to Cocoa’s NSLog function. These messages can include the current values of constants and variables.

Swift uses

string interpolation

to include the name of a constant or variable as a placeholder in a longer string, and to prompt Swift to replace it with the current value of that constant or variable. Wrap the name in parentheses and escape it with a backslash before the opening parenthesis: println("The current value of friendlyWelcome is \(friendlyWelcome)")

// prints "The current value of friendlyWelcome is Bonjour!"

The Basics

Comments

Note:

All options you can use with string interpolation are described in

String Interpolation

(page

76) .

Comments

Use comments to include non-executable text in your code, as a note or reminder to yourself. Comments are ignored by the Swift compiler when your code is compiled.

Comments in Swift are very similar to comments in C. Single-line comments begin with two forward-slashes

(

// this is a comment

You can also write multiline comments, which start with a forward-slash followed by an asterisk (

) and end with an asterisk followed by a forward-slash ( */ ):

/* this is also a comment, but written over multiple lines */

Unlike multiline comments in C, multiline comments in Swift can be nested inside other multiline comments.

You write nested comments by starting a multiline comment block and then starting a second multiline comment within the first block. The second block is then closed, followed by the first block:

/* this is the start of the first multiline comment

/* this is the second, nested multiline comment */ this is the end of the first multiline comment */

Nested multiline comments enable you to comment out large blocks of code quickly and easily, even if the code already contains multiline comments.

Semicolons

Unlike many other languages, Swift does not require you to write a semicolon ( ; ) after each statement in your code, although you can do so if you wish. Semicolons

are

required, however, if you want to write multiple separate statements on a single line:

The Basics

Integers let cat = " "; println(cat)

// prints " "

Integers

Integers

are whole numbers with no fractional component, such as 42 and -23 . Integers are either

signed

(positive, zero, or negative) or

unsigned

(positive or zero).

Swift provides signed and unsigned integers in 8, 16, 32, and 64 bit forms. These integers follow a naming convention similar to C, in that an 8-bit unsigned integer is of type UInt8 , and a 32-bit signed integer is of type

Int32

. Like all types in Swift, these integer types have capitalized names.

Integer Bounds

You can access the minimum and maximum values of each integer type with its min and max properties: let minValue = UInt8.min

// minValue is equal to 0, and is of type UInt8 let maxValue = UInt8.max

// maxValue is equal to 255, and is of type UInt8

The values of these properties are of the appropriate-sized number type (such as UInt8 in the example above) and can therefore be used in expressions alongside other values of the same type.

Int

In most cases, you don’t need to pick a specific size of integer to use in your code. Swift provides an additional integer type, Int , which has the same size as the current platform’s native word size:

●

On a 32-bit platform, Int is the same size as Int32 .

On a 64-bit platform,

Int is the same size as

Int64

Unless you need to work with a specific size of integer, always use Int for integer values in your code. This aids code consistency and interoperability. Even on 32-bit platforms, Int can store any value between

-2,147,483,648 and

2,147,483,647

, and is large enough for many integer ranges.

The Basics

Floating-Point Numbers

UInt

Swift also provides an unsigned integer type, UInt , which has the same size as the current platform’s native word size:

●

On a 32-bit platform,

UInt is the same size as

UInt32

On a 64-bit platform, UInt is the same size as UInt64 .

Note:

Use

UInt only when you specifically need an unsigned integer type with the same size as the platform’s native word size. If this is not the case, Int is preferred, even when the values to be stored are known to be non-negative. A consistent use of Int for integer values aids code interoperability, avoids the need to convert between different number types, and matches integer type inference, as described in

Type Safety and Type Inference

(page 43) .

Floating-Point Numbers

Floating-point numbers

are numbers with a fractional component, such as 3.14159

, 0.1

, and -273.15

Floating-point types can represent a much wider range of values than integer types, and can store numbers that are much larger or smaller than can be stored in an Int . Swift provides two signed floating-point number types:

●

Double represents a 64-bit floating-point number. Use it when floating-point values must be very large or particularly precise.

Float represents a 32-bit floating-point number. Use it when floating-point values do not require 64-bit precision.

Note:

Double has a precision of at least 15 decimal digits, whereas the precision of

Float can be as little as 6 decimal digits. The appropriate floating-point type to use depends on the nature and range of values you need to work with in your code.

Type Safety and Type Inference

Swift is a

type safe

language. A type safe language encourages you to be clear about the types of values your code can work with. If part of your code expects a String , you can’t pass it an Int by mistake.

Because Swift is type safe, it performs

type checks

when compiling your code and flags any mismatched types as errors. This enables you to catch and fix errors as early as possible in the development process.

The Basics

Type Safety and Type Inference

Type-checking helps you avoid errors when you’re working with different types of values. However, this doesn’t mean that you have to specify the type of every constant and variable that you declare. If you don’t specify the type of value you need, Swift uses

type inference

to work out the appropriate type. Type inference enables a compiler to deduce the type of a particular expression automatically when it compiles your code, simply by examining the values you provide.

Because of type inference, Swift requires far fewer type declarations than languages such as C or Objective-C.

Constants and variables are still explicitly typed, but much of the work of specifying their type is done for you.

Type inference is particularly useful when you declare a constant or variable with an initial value. This is often done by assigning a

literal value

(or

literal

) to the constant or variable at the point that you declare it. (A literal value is a value that appears directly in your source code, such as 42 and 3.14159

in the examples below.)

For example, if you assign a literal value of

42 to a new constant without saying what type it is, Swift infers that you want the constant to be an Int , because you have initialized it with a number that looks like an integer: let meaningOfLife = 42

// meaningOfLife is inferred to be of type Int

Likewise, if you don’t specify a type for a floating-point literal, Swift infers that you want to create a

Double

: let pi = 3.14159

// pi is inferred to be of type Double

Swift always chooses Double (rather than Float ) when inferring the type of floating-point numbers.

If you combine integer and floating-point literals in an expression, a type of Double will be inferred from the context: let anotherPi = 3 + 0.14159

// anotherPi is also inferred to be of type Double

The literal value of 3 has no explicit type in and of itself, and so an appropriate output type of Double is inferred from the presence of a floating-point literal as part of the addition.

The Basics

Numeric Literals

Integer literals can be written as:

●

decimal

number, with no prefix

binary

number, with a 0b prefix

●

octal

number, with a 0o prefix

●

hexadecimal

number, with a 0x prefix

All of these integer literals have a decimal value of 17 : let decimalInteger = 17 let binaryInteger = 0b10001 let octalInteger = 0o21 let hexadecimalInteger = 0x11

// 17 in binary notation

// 17 in octal notation

// 17 in hexadecimal notation

Floating-point literals can be decimal (with no prefix), or hexadecimal (with a 0x prefix). They must always have a number (or hexadecimal number) on both sides of the decimal point. They can also have an optional

exponent

, indicated by an uppercase or lowercase e for decimal floats, or an uppercase or lowercase p for hexadecimal floats.

For decimal numbers with an exponent of exp , the base number is multiplied by 10 exp

●

1.25e2

means 1.25 × 10

, or 125.0

●

1.25e-2 means 1.25 × 10

-2

, or

0.0125

For hexadecimal numbers with an exponent of exp , the base number is multiplied by 2 exp

●

0xFp2 means 15 × 2

, or 60.0

●

0xFp-2 means 15 × 2

-2

, or 3.75

All of these floating-point literals have a decimal value of 12.1875

: let decimalDouble = 12.1875

let exponentDouble = 1.21875e1

let hexadecimalDouble = 0xC.3p0

The Basics

Numeric Type Conversion

Numeric literals can contain extra formatting to make them easier to read. Both integers and floats can be padded with extra zeroes and can contain underscores to help with readability. Neither type of formatting affects the underlying value of the literal: let paddedDouble = 000123.456

let oneMillion = 1_000_000 let justOverOneMillion = 1_000_000.000_000_1

Numeric Type Conversion

Use the Int type for all general-purpose integer constants and variables in your code, even if they are known to be non-negative. Using the default integer type in everyday situations means that integer constants and variables are immediately interoperable in your code and will match the inferred type for integer literal values.

Use other integer types only when they are are specifically needed for the task at hand, because of explicitly-sized data from an external source, or for performance, memory usage, or other necessary optimization. Using explicitly-sized types in these situations helps to catch any accidental value overflows and implicitly documents the nature of the data being used.

Integer Conversion

The range of numbers that can be stored in an integer constant or variable is different for each numeric type.

An Int8 constant or variable can store numbers between -128 and 127 , whereas a UInt8 constant or variable can store numbers between

0 and

255

. A number that will not fit into a constant or variable of a sized integer type is reported as an error when your code is compiled: let cannotBeNegative: UInt8 = -1

// UInt8 cannot store negative numbers, and so this will report an error let tooBig: Int8 = Int8.max + 1

// Int8 cannot store a number larger than its maximum value,

// and so this will also report an error

Because each numeric type can store a different range of values, you must opt in to numeric type conversion on a case-by-case basis. This opt-in approach prevents hidden conversion errors and helps make type conversion intentions explicit in your code.

The Basics

Numeric Type Conversion

To convert one specific number type to another, you initialize a new number of the desired type with the existing value. In the example below, the constant twoThousand is of type UInt16 , whereas the constant one is of type

UInt8

. They cannot be added together directly, because they are not of the same type. Instead, this example calls UInt16(one) to create a new UInt16 initialized with the value of one , and uses this value in place of the original: let twoThousand: UInt16 = 2_000 let one: UInt8 = 1 let twoThousandAndOne = twoThousand + UInt16(one)

Because both sides of the addition are now of type

UInt16

, the addition is allowed. The output constant

( twoThousandAndOne ) is inferred to be of type UInt16 , because it is the sum of two UInt16 values.

SomeType(ofInitialValue) is the default way to call the initializer of a Swift type and pass in an initial value. Behind the scenes,

UInt16 has an initializer that accepts a

UInt8 value, and so this initializer is used to make a new UInt16 from an existing UInt8 . You can’t pass in

any

type here, however—it has to be a type for which UInt16 provides an initializer. Extending existing types to provide initializers that accept new types

(including your own type definitions) is covered in

Extensions

(page 278).

Integer and Floating-Point Conversion

Conversions between integer and floating-point numeric types must be made explicit: let three = 3 let pointOneFourOneFiveNine = 0.14159

let pi = Double(three) + pointOneFourOneFiveNine

// pi equals 3.14159, and is inferred to be of type Double

Here, the value of the constant three is used to create a new value of type Double , so that both sides of the addition are of the same type. Without this conversion in place, the addition would not be allowed.

The reverse is also true for floating-point to integer conversion, in that an integer type can be initialized with a Double or Float value: let integerPi = Int(pi)

// integerPi equals 3, and is inferred to be of type Int

The Basics

Type Aliases

Floating-point values are always truncated when used to initialize a new integer value in this way. This means that 4.75

becomes 4 , and -3.9

becomes -3 .

Note:

The rules for combining numeric constants and variables are different from the rules for numeric literals. The literal value 3 can be added directly to the literal value 0.14159

, because number literals do not have an explicit type in and of themselves. Their type is inferred only at the point that they are evaluated by the compiler.

Type Aliases

Type aliases

define an alternative name for an existing type. You define type aliases with the typealias keyword.

Type aliases are useful when you want to refer to an existing type by a name that is contextually more appropriate, such as when working with data of a specific size from an external source: typealias

AudioSample = UInt16

Once you define a type alias, you can use the alias anywhere you might use the original name: var maxAmplitudeFound = AudioSample.min

// maxAmplitudeFound is now 0

Here,

AudioSample is defined as an alias for

UInt16

. Because it is an alias, the call to

AudioSample.min

actually calls UInt16.min

, which provides an initial value of 0 for the maxAmplitudeFound variable.

Booleans

Swift has a basic

Boolean

type, called

Bool

. Boolean values are referred to as

logical

, because they can only ever be true or false. Swift provides two Boolean constant values, true and false : let orangesAreOrange = true let turnipsAreDelicious = false

The Basics

Booleans

The types of orangesAreOrange and turnipsAreDelicious have been inferred as Bool from the fact that they were initialized with Boolean literal values. As with

Int and

Double above, you don’t need to declare constants or variables as Bool if you set them to true or false as soon as you create them. Type inference helps make Swift code more concise and readable when it initializes constants or variables with other values whose type is already known.

Boolean values are particularly useful when you work with conditional statements such as the if statement: if turnipsAreDelicious { println("Mmm, tasty turnips!")

} else

{ println("Eww, turnips are horrible.")

}

// prints "Eww, turnips are horrible."

Conditional statements such as the if statement are covered in more detail in

Control Flow

(page 95).

Swift’s type safety prevents non-Boolean values from being be substituted for

Bool

. The following example reports a compile-time error: let i = 1 if i {

// this example will not compile, and will report an error

}

However, the alternative example below is valid: let i = 1 if i == 1 {

// this example will compile successfully

}

The result of the i == 1 comparison is of type

Bool

, and so this second example passes the type-check.

Comparisons like i == 1 are discussed in

Basic Operators

(page 58).

As with other examples of type safety in Swift, this approach avoids accidental errors and ensures that the intention of a particular section of code is always clear.

The Basics

Tuples

Tuples

group multiple values into a single compound value. The values within a tuple can be of any type and do not have to be of the same type as each other.

In this example, (404, "Not Found") is a tuple that describes an

HTTP status code

. An HTTP status code is a special value returned by a web server whenever you request a web page. A status code of 404 Not Found is returned if you request a webpage that doesn’t exist.

let http404Error = (404, "Not Found")

// http404Error is of type (Int, String), and equals (404, "Not Found")

The

(404, "Not Found") tuple groups together an

Int and a

String to give the HTTP status code two separate values: a number and a human-readable description. It can be described as “a tuple of type (Int,

String) ”.

You can create tuples from any permutation of types, and they can contain as many different types as you like.

There’s nothing stopping you from having a tuple of type

(Int, Int, Int)

, or

(String, Bool)

, or indeed any other permutation you require.

You can

decompose

a tuple’s contents into separate constants or variables, which you then access as usual: let

(statusCode, statusMessage) = http404Error println("The status code is \(statusCode)")

// prints "The status code is 404" println("The status message is \(statusMessage)")

// prints "The status message is Not Found"

If you only need some of the tuple’s values, ignore parts of the tuple with an underscore ( _ ) when you decompose the tuple: let

(justTheStatusCode,

) = http404Error println("The status code is \(justTheStatusCode)")

// prints "The status code is 404"

Alternatively, access the individual element values in a tuple using index numbers starting at zero: println("The status code is \(http404Error.0)")

The Basics

Optionals

// prints "The status code is 404" println("The status message is \(http404Error.1)")

// prints "The status message is Not Found"

You can name the individual elements in a tuple when the tuple is defined: let http200Status = (statusCode: 200, description: "OK")

If you name the elements in a tuple, you can use the element names to access the values of those elements: println("The status code is \(http200Status.statusCode)")

// prints "The status code is 200" println("The status message is \(http200Status.description)")

// prints "The status message is OK"

Tuples are particularly useful as the return values of functions. A function that tries to retrieve a web page might return the (Int, String) tuple type to describe the success or failure of the page retrieval. By returning a tuple with two distinct values, each of a different type, the function provides more useful information about its outcome than if it could only return a single value of a single type. For more information, see

Functions with Multiple Return Values

(page 123).

Note:

Tuples are useful for temporary groups of related values. They are not suited to the creation of complex data structures. If your data structure is likely to persist beyond a temporary scope, model it as a class or structure, rather than as a tuple. For more information, see

Classes and Structures

(page

156) .

Optionals

You use

optionals

in situations where a value may be absent. An optional says:

●

There

a value, and it equals

x or

●

There

isn’t

a value at all

The Basics

Optionals

Note:

The concept of optionals doesn’t exist in C or Objective-C. The nearest thing in Objective-C is the ability to return nil from a method that would otherwise return an object, with nil meaning

“the absence of a valid object.” However, this only works for objects—it doesn’t work for structs, basic C types, or enumeration values. For these types, Objective-C methods typically return a special value (such as

NSNotFound

) to indicate the absence of a value. This approach assumes that the method’s caller knows there is a special value to test against and remembers to check for it. Swift’s optionals let you indicate the absence of a value for

any type at all

, without the need for special constants.

Here’s an example. Swift’s

String type has a method called toInt

, which tries to convert a

String value into an Int value. However, not every string can be converted into an integer. The string "123" can be converted into the numeric value 123 , but the string "hello, world" does not have an obvious numeric value to convert to.

The example below uses the toInt method to try to convert a

String into an

Int

: let possibleNumber = "123" let convertedNumber = possibleNumber.toInt()

// convertedNumber is inferred to be of type "Int?", or "optional Int"

Because the toInt method might fail, it returns an

optional

Int , rather than an Int . An optional Int is written as Int?

, not Int . The question mark indicates that the value it contains is optional, meaning that it might contain

some

Int value, or it might contain

no value at all

. (It can’t contain anything else, such as a Bool value or a String value. It’s either an Int , or it’s nothing at all.)

If Statements and Forced Unwrapping

You can use an if statement to find out whether an optional contains a value. If an optional does have a value, it evaluates to true ; if it has no value at all, it evaluates to false .

Once you’re sure that the optional

does

contain a value, you can access its underlying value by adding an exclamation mark ( !

) to the end of the optional’s name. The exclamation mark effectively says, “I know that this optional definitely has a value; please use it.” This is known as

forced unwrapping

of the optional’s value: if convertedNumber { println("\(possibleNumber) has an integer value of \(convertedNumber!)")

} else

{ println("\(possibleNumber) could not be converted to an integer")

The Basics

Optionals

}

// prints "123 has an integer value of 123"

For more on the if statement, see

Control Flow

(page 95).

Note:

Trying to use

to access a non-existent optional value triggers a runtime error. Always make sure that an optional contains a nonnil value before using !

to force-unwrap its value.

Optional Binding

You use

optional binding

to find out whether an optional contains a value, and if so, to make that value available as a temporary constant or variable. Optional binding can be used with if and while statements to check for a value inside an optional, and to extract that value into a constant or variable, as part of a single action.

if and while statements are described in more detail in

Control Flow

(page 95).

Write optional bindings for the if statement as follows: if let

constantName = someOptional {

statements

}

You can rewrite the possibleNumber example from above to use optional binding rather than forced unwrapping: if let actualNumber = possibleNumber.toInt() { println("\(possibleNumber) has an integer value of \(actualNumber)")

} else

{ println("\(possibleNumber) could not be converted to an integer")

}

// prints "123 has an integer value of 123"

This can be read as:

“If the optional Int returned by possibleNumber.toInt

contains a value, set a new constant called actualNumber to the value contained in the optional.”

The Basics

Optionals

If the conversion is successful, the actualNumber constant becomes available for use within the first branch of the if statement. It has already been initialized with the value contained

within

the optional, and so there is no need to use the !

suffix to access its value. In this example, actualNumber is simply used to print the result of the conversion.

You can use both constants and variables with optional binding. If you wanted to manipulate the value of actualNumber within the first branch of the if statement, you could write if var actualNumber instead, and the value contained within the optional would be made available as a variable rather than a constant.

nil

You set an optional variable to a valueless state by assigning it the special value nil

: var serverResponseCode: Int? = 404

// serverResponseCode contains an actual Int value of 404 serverResponseCode = nil

// serverResponseCode now contains no value

Note:

nil cannot be used with non-optional constants and variables. If a constant or variable in your code needs to be able to cope with the absence of a value under certain conditions, always declare it as an optional value of the appropriate type.

If you define an optional constant or variable without providing a default value, the constant or variable is automatically set to nil for you: var surveyAnswer: String?

// surveyAnswer is automatically set to nil

Note:

Swift’s nil is not the same as nil in Objective-C. In Objective-C, nil is a pointer to a non-existent object. In Swift, nil is not a pointer—it is the absence of a value of a certain type.

Optionals of

any

type can be set to nil , not just object types.

Implicitly Unwrapped Optionals

As described above, optionals indicate that a constant or variable is allowed to have “no value”. Optionals can be checked with an if statement to see if a value exists, and can be conditionally unwrapped with optional binding to access the optional’s value if it does exist.

The Basics

Optionals

Sometimes it is clear from a program’s structure that an optional will

always

have a value, after that value is first set. In these cases, it is useful to remove the need to check and unwrap the optional’s value every time it is accessed, because it can be safely assumed to have a value all of the time.

These kinds of optionals are defined as

implicitly unwrapped optionals

. You write an implicitly unwrapped optional by placing an exclamation mark ( String!

) rather than a question mark ( String?

) after the type that you want to make optional.

Implicitly unwrapped optionals are useful when an optional’s value is confirmed to exist immediately after the optional is first defined and can definitely be assumed to exist at every point thereafter. The primary use of implicitly unwrapped optionals in Swift is during class initialization, as described in

Unowned References and

Implicitly Unwrapped Optional Properties

(page 249).

An implicitly unwrapped optional is a normal optional behind the scenes, but can also be used like a nonoptional value, without the need to unwrap the optional value each time it is accessed. The following example shows the difference in behavior between an optional

String and an implicitly unwrapped optional

String

: let possibleString: String? = "An optional string." println(possibleString!) // requires an exclamation mark to access its value

// prints "An optional string." let assumedString: String! = "An implicitly unwrapped optional string." println(assumedString) // no exclamation mark is needed to access its value

// prints "An implicitly unwrapped optional string."

You can think of an implicitly unwrapped optional as giving permission for the optional to be unwrapped automatically whenever it is used. Rather than placing an exclamation mark after the optional’s name each time you use it, you place an exclamation mark after the optional’s type when you declare it.

Note:

If you try to access an implicitly unwrapped optional when it does not contain a value, you will trigger a runtime error. The result is exactly the same as if you place an exclamation mark after a normal optional that does not contain a value.

You can still treat an implicitly unwrapped optional like a normal optional, to check if it contains a value: if assumedString { println(assumedString)

}

The Basics

Assertions

// prints "An implicitly unwrapped optional string."

You can also use an implicitly unwrapped optional with optional binding, to check and unwrap its value in a single statement: if let definiteString = assumedString { println(definiteString)

}

// prints "An implicitly unwrapped optional string."

Note:

Implicitly unwrapped optionals should not be used when there is a possibility of a variable becoming nil at a later point. Always use a normal optional type if you need to check for a nil value during the lifetime of a variable.

Assertions

Optionals enable you to check for values that may or may not exist, and to write code that copes gracefully with the absence of a value. In some cases, however, it is simply not possible for your code to continue execution if a value does not exist, or if a provided value does not satisfy certain conditions. In these situations, you can trigger an

assertion

in your code to end code execution and to provide an opportunity to debug the cause of the absent or invalid value.

Debugging with Assertions

An assertion is a runtime check that a logical condition definitely evaluates to true . Literally put, an assertion

“asserts” that a condition is true. You use an assertion to make sure that an essential condition is satisfied before executing any further code. If the condition evaluates to true , code execution continues as usual; if the condition evaluates to false

, code execution ends, and your app is terminated.

If your code triggers an assertion while running in a debug environment, such as when you build and run an app in Xcode, you can see exactly where the invalid state occurred and query the state of your app at the time that the assertion was triggered. An assertion also lets you provide a suitable debug message as to the nature of the assert.

You write an assertion by calling the global assert function. You pass the assert function an expression that evaluates to true or false and a message that should be displayed if the result of the condition is false :

The Basics

Assertions let age = -3 assert(age >= 0, "A person's age cannot be less than zero")

// this causes the assertion to trigger, because age is not >= 0

In this example, code execution will continue only if age >= 0 evaluates to true

, that is, if the value of age is non-negative. If the value of age

negative, as in the code above, then age >= 0 evaluates to false , and the assertion is triggered, terminating the application.

Assertion messages cannot use string interpolation. The assertion message can be omitted if desired, as in the following example: assert(age >= 0)

When to Use Assertions

Use an assertion whenever a condition has the potential to be false, but must

definitely

be true in order for your code to continue execution. Suitable scenarios for an assertion check include:

●

An integer subscript index is passed to a custom subscript implementation, but the subscript index value could be too low or too high.

A value is passed to a function, but an invalid value means that the function cannot fulfill its task.

●

An optional value is currently nil , but a nonnil value is essential for subsequent code to execute successfully.

See also

Subscripts

(page 195) and

Functions

(page 120).

Note:

Assertions cause your app to terminate and are not a substitute for designing your code in such a way that invalid conditions are unlikely to arise. Nonetheless, in situations where invalid conditions are possible, an assertion is an effective way to ensure that such conditions are highlighted and noticed during development, before your app is published.

Basic Operators

operator

is a special symbol or phrase that you use to check, change, or combine values. For example, the addition operator ( + ) adds two numbers together (as in let i = 1 + 2 ). More complex examples include the logical AND operator

(as in if enteredDoorCode && passedRetinaScan

) and the increment operator ++i , which is a shortcut to increase the value of i by 1 .

Swift supports most standard C operators and improves several capabilities to eliminate common coding errors.

The assignment operator ( = ) does not return a value, to prevent it from being mistakenly used when the equal to operator (

) is intended. Arithmetic operators (

% and so forth) detect and disallow value overflow, to avoid unexpected results when working with numbers that become larger or smaller than the allowed value range of the type that stores them. You can opt in to value overflow behavior by using Swift’s overflow operators, as described in

Overflow Operators

(page 334).

Unlike C, Swift lets you perform remainder ( % ) calculations on floating-point numbers. Swift also provides two range operators ( a..b

and a...b

) not found in C, as a shortcut for expressing a range of values.

This chapter describes the common operators in Swift.

Advanced Operators

(page 327) covers Swift’s advanced operators, and describes how to define your own custom operators and implement the standard operators for your own custom types.

Terminology

Operators are unary, binary, or ternary:

●

Unary

operators operate on a single target (such as -a ). Unary

prefix

operators appear immediately before their target (such as !b

), and unary

postfix

operators appear immediately after their target (such as i++ ).

●

Binary

operators operate on two targets (such as 2 + 3 ) and are

infix

because they appear in between their two targets.

●

Ternary

operators operate on three targets. Like C, Swift has only one ternary operator, the ternary conditional operator ( a ? b : c ).

The values that operators affect are

operands

. In the expression 1 + 2 , the + symbol is a binary operator and its two operands are the values 1 and 2 .

Basic Operators

Assignment Operator

The

assignment operator

( a = b ) initializes or updates the value of a with the value of b : let b = 10 var a = 5 a = b

// a is now equal to 10

If the right side of the assignment is a tuple with multiple values, its elements can be decomposed into multiple constants or variables at once: let

(x, y) = (1, 2)

// x is equal to 1, and y is equal to 2

Unlike the assignment operator in C and Objective-C, the assignment operator in Swift does not itself return a value. The following statement is not valid: if x = y {

// this is not valid, because x = y does not return a value

}

This feature prevents the assignment operator ( = ) from being used by accident when the equal to operator

(

) is actually intended. By making if x = y invalid, Swift helps you to avoid these kinds of errors in your code.

Arithmetic Operators

Swift supports the four standard

arithmetic operators

for all number types:

●

Addition (

)

Subtraction ( )

●

Multiplication ( * )

●

Division ( / )

1 + 2 // equals 3

Basic Operators

Arithmetic Operators

5 - 3

2 * 3

// equals 2

// equals 6

10.0 / 2.5

// equals 4.0

Unlike the arithmetic operators in C and Objective-C, the Swift arithmetic operators do not allow values to overflow by default. You can opt in to value overflow behavior by using Swift’s overflow operators (such as a

&+ b ). See

Overflow Operators

(page 334).

The addition operator is also supported for

String concatenation:

"hello, " + "world" // equals "hello, world"

Two Character values, or one Character value and one String value, can be added together to make a new String value: let dog: Character = " " let cow: Character = " " let dogCow = dog + cow

// dogCow is equal to " "

See also

Concatenating Strings and Characters

(page 75).

Remainder Operator

The

remainder operator

( a % b

) works out how many multiples of b will fit inside a and returns the value that is left over (known as the

remainder

Note:

The remainder operator ( % ) is also known as a

modulo operator

in other languages. However, its behavior in Swift for negative numbers means that it is, strictly speaking, a remainder rather than a modulo operation.

Here’s how the remainder operator works. To calculate

9 % 4

, you first work out how many

4 s will fit inside

9 :

Basic Operators

Arithmetic Operators

You can fit two 4 s inside 9 , and the remainder is 1 (shown in orange).

In Swift, this would be written as:

9 % 4 // equals 1

To determine the answer for a % b , the % operator calculates the following equation and returns remainder as its output: a

= ( b

× some multiplier

) + remainder where some multiplier is the largest number of multiples of b that will fit inside a .

Inserting 9 and 4 into this equation yields:

= (

) +

The same method is applied when calculating the remainder for a negative value of a :

-9 % 4 // equals -1

Inserting -9 and 4 into the equation yields:

-9 = ( 4 × -2 ) + -1 giving a remainder value of -1 .

The sign of b is ignored for negative values of b . This means that a % b and a % -b always give the same answer.

Floating-Point Remainder Calculations

Unlike the remainder operator in C and Objective-C, Swift’s remainder operator can also operate on floating-point numbers:

8 % 2.5

// equals 0.5

In this example, 8 divided by 2.5

equals 3 , with a remainder of 0.5

, so the remainder operator returns a

Double value of

0.5

Basic Operators

Arithmetic Operators

Increment and Decrement Operators

Like C, Swift provides an

increment operator

( ++ ) and a

decrement operator

( -) as a shortcut to increase or decrease the value of a numeric variable by

. You can use these operators with variables of any integer or floating-point type.

var i = 0

++i // i now equals 1

Each time you call ++i , the value of i is increased by 1 . Essentially, ++i is shorthand for saying i = i + 1 .

Likewise,

--i can be used as shorthand for i = i - 1

The ++ and -symbols can be used as prefix operators or as postfix operators.

++i and i++ are both valid ways to increase the value of i by 1 . Similarly, --i and i-are both valid ways to decrease the value of i by

Note that these operators modify i and also return a value. If you only want to increment or decrement the value stored in i , you can ignore the returned value. However, if you

use the returned value, it will be different based on whether you used the prefix or postfix version of the operator, according to the following rules:

●

If the operator is written

before

the variable, it increments the variable

before

returning its value.

●

If the operator is written

after

the variable, it increments the variable

after

returning its value.

For example: var a = 0 let b = ++a

// a and b are now both equal to 1 let c = a++

// a is now equal to 2, but c has been set to the pre-increment value of 1

In the example above, let b = ++a increments a

before

returning its value. This is why both a and b are equal to to the new value of

However, let c = a++ increments a

after

returning its value. This means that c gets the old value of 1 , and a is then updated to equal 2 .

Unless you need the specific behavior of i++

, it is recommended that you use

++i and

--i in all cases, because they have the typical expected behavior of modifying i and returning the result.

Basic Operators

Compound Assignment Operators

Unary Minus Operator

The sign of a numeric value can be toggled using a prefixed , known as the

unary minus operator

: let three = 3 let minusThree = -three // minusThree equals -3 let plusThree = -minusThree // plusThree equals 3, or "minus minus three"

The unary minus operator ( ) is prepended directly before the value it operates on, without any white space.

Unary Plus Operator

The

unary plus operator

( + ) simply returns the value it operates on, without any change: let minusSix = -6 let alsoMinusSix = +minusSix // alsoMinusSix equals -6

Although the unary plus operator doesn’t actually do anything, you can use it to provide symmetry in your code for positive numbers when also using the unary minus operator for negative numbers.

Compound Assignment Operators

Like C, Swift provides

compound assignment operators

that combine assignment ( = ) with another operation.

One example is the

addition assignment operator

( += ): var a = 1 a += 2

// a is now equal to 3

The expression a += 2 is shorthand for a = a + 2

. Effectively, the addition and the assignment are combined into one operator that performs both tasks at the same time.

Note:

The compound assignment operators do not return a value. You cannot write let b = a

+= 2

, for example. This behavior is different from the increment and decrement operators mentioned above.

A complete list of compound assignment operators can be found in

Expressions

(page 363).

Basic Operators

Comparison Operators

Swift supports all standard C

comparison operators

●

Equal to ( a == b )

Not equal to ( a != b

)

Greater than ( a > b )

●

Less than ( a < b )

●

Greater than or equal to ( a >= b )

●

Less than or equal to ( a <= b )

Note:

Swift also provides two

identity operators

( === and !== ), which you use to test whether two object references both refer to the same object instance. For more information, see

Classes and

Structures

(page 156)

Each of the comparison operators returns a Bool value to indicate whether or not the statement is true:

1 == 1 // true, because 1 is equal to 1

2 != 1 // true, because 2 is not equal to 1

2 > 1

1 < 2

// true, because 2 is greater than 1

// true, because 1 is less than 2

1 >= 1 // true, because 1 is greater than or equal to 1

2 <= 1 // false, because 2 is not less than or equal to 1

Comparison operators are often used in conditional statements, such as the if statement: let name = "world" if name == "world" { println("hello, world")

} else

{ println("I'm sorry \(name), but I don't recognize you")

}

// prints "hello, world", because name is indeed equal to "world"

For more on the if statement, see

Control Flow

(page 95).

Basic Operators

Ternary Conditional Operator

The

ternary conditional operator

is a special operator with three parts, which takes the form question ?

answer1 : answer2 . It is a shortcut for evaluating one of two expressions based on whether question is true or false. If question is true, it evaluates answer1 and returns its value; otherwise, it evaluates answer2 and returns its value.

The ternary conditional operator is shorthand for the code below: if question { answer1

} else

{ answer2

}

Here’s an example, which calculates the pixel height for a table row. The row height should be 50 pixels taller than the content height if the row has a header, and 20 pixels taller if the row doesn’t have a header: let contentHeight = 40 let hasHeader = true let rowHeight = contentHeight + (hasHeader ? 50 : 20)

// rowHeight is equal to 90

The preceding example is shorthand for the code below: let contentHeight = 40 let hasHeader = true var rowHeight = contentHeight if hasHeader { rowHeight = rowHeight + 50

} else

{ rowHeight = rowHeight + 20

}

// rowHeight is equal to 90

Basic Operators

Range Operators

The first example’s use of the ternary conditional operator means that rowHeight can be set to the correct value on a single line of code. This is more concise than the second example, and removes the need for rowHeight to be a variable, because its value does not need to be modified within an if statement.

The ternary conditional operator provides an efficient shorthand for deciding which of two expressions to consider. Use the ternary conditional operator with care, however. Its conciseness can lead to hard-to-read code if overused. Avoid combining multiple instances of the ternary conditional operator into one compound statement.

Range Operators

Swift includes two

range operators

, which are shortcuts for expressing a range of values.

Closed Range Operator

The

closed range operator

( a...b

) defines a range that runs from a to b , and includes the values a and b .

The closed range operator is useful when iterating over a range in which you want all of the values to be used, such as with a for in loop: for index in

1...5 { println("\(index) times 5 is \(index * 5)")

}

// 1 times 5 is 5

// 2 times 5 is 10

// 3 times 5 is 15

// 4 times 5 is 20

// 5 times 5 is 25

For more on for in loops, see

Control Flow

(page 95).

Half-Closed Range Operator

The

half-closed range operator

( a..b

) defines a range that runs from a to b

, but does not include b

. It is said to be

half-closed

because it contains its first value, but not its final value.

Half-closed ranges are particularly useful when you work with zero-based lists such as arrays, where it is useful to count up to (but not including) the length of the list:

Basic Operators

Logical Operators let names = ["Anna", "Alex", "Brian", "Jack"] let count = names.count

for i in

0..count { println("Person \(i + 1) is called \(names[i])")

}

// Person 1 is called Anna

// Person 2 is called Alex

// Person 3 is called Brian

// Person 4 is called Jack

Note that the array contains four items, but

0..count

only counts as far as

(the index of the last item in the array), because it is a half-closed range. For more on arrays, see

Arrays

(page 82).

Logical Operators

Logical operators

modify or combine the Boolean logic values true and false . Swift supports the three standard logical operators found in C-based languages:

●

Logical NOT (

)

Logical AND ( a && b

)

Logical OR ( a || b )

Logical NOT Operator

The

logical NOT operator

( !a

) inverts a Boolean value so that true becomes false , and false becomes true

The logical NOT operator is a prefix operator, and appears immediately before the value it operates on, without any white space. It can be read as “not a ”, as seen in the following example: let allowedEntry = false if

!allowedEntry { println("ACCESS DENIED")

}

// prints "ACCESS DENIED"

Basic Operators

Logical Operators

The phrase if !allowedEntry

can be read as “if not allowed entry.” The subsequent line is only executed if “not allowed entry” is true; that is, if allowedEntry is false

As in this example, careful choice of Boolean constant and variable names can help to keep code readable and concise, while avoiding double negatives or confusing logic statements.

Logical AND Operator

The

logical AND operator

( a && b ) creates logical expressions where both values must be true for the overall expression to also be true .

If either value is false

, the overall expression will also be false

. In fact, if the

first

value is false

, the second value won’t even be evaluated, because it can’t possibly make the overall expression equate to true . This is known as

short-circuit evaluation

This example considers two Bool values and only allows access if both values are true : let enteredDoorCode = true let passedRetinaScan = false if enteredDoorCode && passedRetinaScan { println("Welcome!")

} else

{ println("ACCESS DENIED")

}

// prints "ACCESS DENIED"

Logical OR Operator

The

logical OR operator

( a || b ) is an infix operator made from two adjacent pipe characters. You use it to create logical expressions in which only

one

of the two values has to be true for the overall expression to be true .

Like the Logical AND operator above, the Logical OR operator uses short-circuit evaluation to consider its expressions. If the left side of a Logical OR expression is true , the right side is not evaluated, because it cannot change the outcome of the overall expression.

In the example below, the first

Bool value ( hasDoorKey

) is false

, but the second value

( knowsOverridePassword ) is true . Because one value is true , the overall expression also evaluates to true , and access is allowed:

Basic Operators

Logical Operators let hasDoorKey = false let knowsOverridePassword = true if hasDoorKey || knowsOverridePassword { println("Welcome!")

} else

{ println("ACCESS DENIED")

}

// prints "Welcome!"

Combining Logical Operators

You can combine multiple logical operators to create longer compound expressions: if enteredDoorCode && passedRetinaScan || hasDoorKey || knowsOverridePassword { println("Welcome!")

} else

{ println("ACCESS DENIED")

}

// prints "Welcome!"

This example uses multiple && and || operators to create a longer compound expression. However, the && and || operators still operate on only two values, so this is actually three smaller expressions chained together.

It can be read as:

If we’ve entered the correct door code and passed the retina scan; or if we have a valid door key; or if we know the emergency override password, then allow access.

Based on the values of enteredDoorCode , passedRetinaScan , and hasDoorKey , the first two mini-expressions are false . However, the emergency override password is known, so the overall compound expression still evaluates to true .

Explicit Parentheses

It is sometimes useful to include parentheses when they are not strictly needed, to make the intention of a complex expression easier to read. In the door access example above, it is useful to add parentheses around the first part of the compound expression to make its intent explicit: if

(enteredDoorCode && passedRetinaScan) || hasDoorKey || knowsOverridePassword {

Basic Operators

Logical Operators println("Welcome!")

} else

{ println("ACCESS DENIED")

}

// prints "Welcome!"

The parentheses make it clear that the first two values are considered as part of a separate possible state in the overall logic. The output of the compound expression doesn’t change, but the overall intention is clearer to the reader. Readability is always preferred over brevity; use parentheses where they help to make your intentions clear.

Strings and Characters

string

is an ordered collection of characters, such as "hello, world" or "albatross" . Swift strings are represented by the

String type, which in turn represents a collection of values of

Character type.

Swift’s String and Character types provide a fast, Unicode-compliant way to work with text in your code.

The syntax for string creation and manipulation is lightweight and readable, with a similar syntax to C strings.

String concatenation is as simple as adding together two strings with the + operator, and string mutability is managed by choosing between a constant or a variable, just like any other value in Swift.

Despite this simplicity of syntax, Swift’s

String type is a fast, modern string implementation. Every string is composed of encoding-independent Unicode characters, and provides support for accessing those characters in various Unicode representations.

Strings can also be used to insert constants, variables, literals, and expressions into longer strings, in a process known as string interpolation. This makes it easy to create custom string values for display, storage, and printing.

Note:

Swift’s String type is bridged seamlessly to Foundation’s NSString class. If you are working with the Foundation framework in Cocoa or Cocoa Touch, the entire

NSString

API is available to call on any String value you create, in addition to the String features described in this chapter.

You can also use a String value with any API that requires an NSString instance.

For more information about using String with Foundation and Cocoa, see

Using Swift with Cocoa and Objective-C

String Literals

You can include predefined String values within your code as

string literals

. A string literal is a fixed sequence of textual characters surrounded by a pair of double quotes ( "" ).

A string literal can be used to provide an initial value for a constant or variable: let someString = "Some string literal value"

Note that Swift infers a type of String for the someString constant, because it is initialized with a string literal value.

Strings and Characters

Initializing an Empty String

String literals can include the following special characters:

●

The escaped special characters \0 (null character), \\ (backslash), \t (horizontal tab), \n (line feed), \r

(carriage return),

(double quote) and

(single quote)

Single-byte Unicode scalars, written as \xnn , where nn is two hexadecimal digits

●

Two-byte Unicode scalars, written as \unnnn , where nnnn is four hexadecimal digits

●

Four-byte Unicode scalars, written as \Unnnnnnnn , where nnnnnnnn is eight hexadecimal digits

The code below shows an example of each kind of special character. The wiseWords constant contains two escaped double quote characters. The dollarSign , blackHeart , and sparklingHeart constants demonstrate the three different Unicode scalar character formats: let wiseWords = "\"Imagination is more important than knowledge\" - Einstein"

// "Imagination is more important than knowledge" - Einstein let dollarSign = "\x24" let blackHeart = "\u2665"

// $, Unicode scalar U+0024

// ♥, Unicode scalar U+2665 let sparklingHeart = "\U0001F496" // , Unicode scalar U+1F496

Initializing an Empty String

To create an empty String value as the starting point for building a longer string, either assign an empty string literal to a variable, or initialize a new

String instance with initializer syntax: var emptyString = "" // empty string literal var anotherEmptyString = String() // initializer syntax

// these two strings are both empty, and are equivalent to each other

You can find out whether a String value is empty by checking its Boolean isEmpty property: if emptyString.isEmpty { println("Nothing to see here")

}

// prints "Nothing to see here"

Strings and Characters

String Mutability

You indicate whether a particular String can be modified (or

mutated

) by assigning it to a variable (in which case it can be modified), or to a constant (in which case it cannot be modified): var variableString = "Horse" variableString += " and carriage"

// variableString is now "Horse and carriage" let constantString = "Highlander" constantString += " and another Highlander"

// this reports a compile-time error - a constant string cannot be modified

Note:

This approach is different from string mutation in Objective-C and Cocoa, where you choose between two classes (

NSString and

NSMutableString

) to indicate whether a string can be mutated.

Strings Are Value Types

Swift’s String type is a

value type

. If you create a new String value, that String value is

copied

when it is passed to a function or method, or when it is assigned to a constant or variable. In each case, a new copy of the existing String value is created, and the new copy is passed or assigned, not the original version. Value types are described in

Structures and Enumerations Are Value Types

(page 159).

Note:

This behavior differs from that of

NSString in Cocoa. When you create an

NSString instance in Cocoa, and pass it to a function or method or assign it to a variable, you are always passing or assigning a

reference

to the same single NSString . No copying of the string takes place, unless you specifically request it.

Swift’s copy-by-default String behavior ensures that when a function or method passes you a String value, it is clear that you own that exact String value, regardless of where it came from. You can be confident that the string you are passed will not be modified unless you modify it yourself.

Behind the scenes, Swift’s compiler optimizes string usage so that actual copying takes place only when absolutely necessary. This means you always get great performance when working with strings as value types.

Strings and Characters

Working with Characters

Swift’s String type represents a collection of Character values in a specified order. Each Character value represents a single Unicode character. You can access the individual Character values in a string by iterating over that string with a for in loop: for character in

"Dog!

" {

}

// D println(character)

// o

// g

// !

The for in loop is described in

For Loops

(page 95).

Alternatively, create a stand-alone Character constant or variable from a single-character string literal by providing a

Character type annotation: let yenSign: Character = "¥"

Counting Characters

To retrieve a count of the characters in a string, call the global countElements function and pass in a string as the function’s sole parameter: let unusualMenagerie = "Koala , Snail , Penguin , Dromedary " println("unusualMenagerie has \(countElements(unusualMenagerie)) characters")

// prints "unusualMenagerie has 40 characters"

Strings and Characters

Concatenating Strings and Characters

Note:

Different Unicode characters and different representations of the same Unicode character can require different amounts of memory to store. Because of this, characters in Swift do not each take up the same amount of memory within a string’s representation. As a result, the length of a string cannot be calculated without iterating through the string to consider each of its characters in turn. If you are working with particularly long string values, be aware that the countElements function must iterate over the characters within a string in order to calculate an accurate character count for that string.

Note also that the character count returned by countElements is not always the same as the length property of an NSString that contains the same characters. The length of an NSString is based on the number of 16-bit code units within the string’s UTF-16 representation and not the number of Unicode characters within the string. To reflect this fact, the length property from

NSString is called utf16count when it is accessed on a Swift String value.

Concatenating Strings and Characters

String and

Character values can be added together (or

concatenated

) with the addition operator (

) to create a new String value: let string1 = "hello" let string2 = " there" let character1: Character = "!" let character2: Character = "?" let stringPlusCharacter = string1 + character1 let stringPlusString = string1 + string2 let characterPlusString = character1 + string1

// equals "hello!"

// equals "hello there"

// equals "!hello" let characterPlusCharacter = character1 + character2 // equals "!?"

You can also append a String or Character value to an existing String variable with the addition assignment operator ( += ): var instruction = "look over" instruction += string2

// instruction now equals "look over there"

Strings and Characters

String Interpolation var welcome = "good morning" welcome += character1

// welcome now equals "good morning!"

Note:

You can’t append a String or Character to an existing Character variable, because a

Character value must contain a single character only.

String Interpolation

String interpolation

is a way to construct a new String value from a mix of constants, variables, literals, and expressions by including their values inside a string literal. Each item that you insert into the string literal is wrapped in a pair of parentheses, prefixed by a backslash: let multiplier = 3 let message = "\(multiplier) times 2.5 is \(Double(multiplier) * 2.5)"

// message is "3 times 2.5 is 7.5"

In the example above, the value of multiplier is inserted into a string literal as

\(multiplier)

. This placeholder is replaced with the actual value of multiplier when the string interpolation is evaluated to create an actual string.

The value of multiplier is also part of a larger expression later in the string. This expression calculates the value of

Double(multiplier) * 2.5

and inserts the result (

7.5

) into the string. In this case, the expression is written as \(Double(multiplier) * 2.5) when it is included inside the string literal.

Note:

The expressions you write inside parentheses within an interpolated string cannot contain an unescaped double quote (

) or backslash (

), and cannot contain a carriage return or line feed.

Comparing Strings

Swift provides three ways to compare String values: string equality, prefix equality, and suffix equality.

Strings and Characters

Comparing Strings

String Equality

Two String values are considered equal if they contain exactly the same characters in the same order: let quotation = "We're a lot alike, you and I." let sameQuotation = "We're a lot alike, you and I." if quotation == sameQuotation { println("These two strings are considered equal")

}

// prints "These two strings are considered equal"

Prefix and Suffix Equality

To check whether a string has a particular string prefix or suffix, call the string’s hasPrefix and hasSuffix methods, both of which take a single argument of type String and return a Boolean value. Both methods perform a character-by-character comparison between the base string and the prefix or suffix string.

The examples below consider an array of strings representing the scene locations from the first two acts of

Shakespeare’s

Romeo and Juliet

: let romeoAndJuliet = [

"Act 1 Scene 1: Verona, A public place",

"Act 1 Scene 2: Capulet's mansion",

"Act 1 Scene 3: A room in Capulet's mansion",

"Act 1 Scene 4: A street outside Capulet's mansion",

"Act 1 Scene 5: The Great Hall in Capulet's mansion",

"Act 2 Scene 1: Outside Capulet's mansion",

"Act 2 Scene 2: Capulet's orchard",

"Act 2 Scene 3: Outside Friar Lawrence's cell",

"Act 2 Scene 4: A street in Verona",

"Act 2 Scene 5: Capulet's mansion",

"Act 2 Scene 6: Friar Lawrence's cell"

]

You can use the hasPrefix method with the romeoAndJuliet array to count the number of scenes in Act

1 of the play: var act1SceneCount = 0

Strings and Characters

Uppercase and Lowercase Strings for scene in romeoAndJuliet { if scene.hasPrefix("Act 1 ") {

++act1SceneCount

}

} println("There are \(act1SceneCount) scenes in Act 1")

// prints "There are 5 scenes in Act 1"

Similarly, use the hasSuffix method to count the number of scenes that take place in or around Capulet’s mansion and Friar Lawrence’s cell: var mansionCount = 0 var cellCount = 0 for scene in romeoAndJuliet { if scene.hasSuffix("Capulet's mansion") {

++mansionCount

} else if scene.hasSuffix("Friar Lawrence's cell") {

++cellCount

}

} println("\(mansionCount) mansion scenes; \(cellCount) cell scenes")

// prints "6 mansion scenes; 2 cell scenes"

Uppercase and Lowercase Strings

You can access an uppercase or lowercase version of a string with its uppercaseString and lowercaseString properties: let normal = "Could you help me, please?" let shouty = normal.uppercaseString

// shouty is equal to "COULD YOU HELP ME, PLEASE?" let whispered = normal.lowercaseString

// whispered is equal to "could you help me, please?"

Strings and Characters

Unicode

Unicode

is an international standard for encoding and representing text. It enables you to represent almost any character from any language in a standardized form, and to read and write those characters to and from an external source such as a text file or web page.

Swift’s String and Character types are fully Unicode-compliant. They support a number of different Unicode encodings, as described below.

Unicode Terminology

Every character in Unicode can be represented by one or more

unicode scalars

. A unicode scalar is a unique

21-bit number (and name) for a character or modifier, such as U+0061 for LOWERCASE LATIN LETTER A

( "a" ), or U+1F425 for FRONT-FACING BABY CHICK ( " " ).

When a Unicode string is written to a text file or some other storage, these unicode scalars are encoded in one of several Unicode-defined formats. Each format encodes the string in small chunks known as

code units

. These include the UTF-8 format (which encodes a string as 8-bit code units) and the UTF-16 format (which encodes a string as 16-bit code units).

Unicode Representations of Strings

Swift provides several different ways to access Unicode representations of strings.

You can iterate over the string with a for in statement, to access its individual Character values as Unicode characters. This process is described in

Working with Characters

(page 74).

Alternatively, access a String value in one of three other Unicode-compliant representations:

●

A collection of UTF-8 code units (accessed with the string’s utf8 property)

●

A collection of UTF-16 code units (accessed with the string’s utf16 property)

●

A collection of 21-bit Unicode scalar values (accessed with the string’s unicodeScalars property)

Each example below shows a different representation of the following string, which is made up of the characters

D , o , g , !

, and the character ( DOG FACE , or Unicode scalar U+1F436 ): let dogString = "Dog!

Strings and Characters

Unicode

UTF-8

You can access a UTF-8 representation of a String by iterating over its utf8 property. This property is of type

UTF8View

, which is a collection of unsigned 8-bit (

UInt8

) values, one for each byte in the string’s UTF-8 representation: for codeUnit in dogString.utf8 { print("\(codeUnit) ")

} print("\n")

// 68 111 103 33 240 159 144 182

In the example above, the first four decimal codeUnit values ( 68 , 111 , 103 , 33 ) represent the characters D , o

, g

, and

, whose UTF-8 representation is the same as their ASCII representation. The last four codeUnit values ( 240 , 159 , 144 , 182 ) are a four-byte UTF-8 representation of the DOG FACE character.

UTF-16

You can access a UTF-16 representation of a String by iterating over its utf16 property. This property is of type

UTF16View

, which is a collection of unsigned 16-bit (

UInt16

) values, one for each 16-bit code unit in the string’s UTF-16 representation: for codeUnit in dogString.utf16 { print("\(codeUnit) ")

} print("\n")

// 68 111 103 33 55357 56374

Again, the first four codeUnit values ( 68 , 111 , 103 , 33 ) represent the characters D , o , g , and !

, whose UTF-16 code units have the same values as in the string’s UTF-8 representation.

The fifth and sixth codeUnit values ( 55357 and 56374 ) are a UTF-16 surrogate pair representation of the DOG

FACE character. These values are a lead surrogate value of U+D83D (decimal value 55357 ) and a trail surrogate value of U+DC36 (decimal value 56374 ).

Strings and Characters

Unicode

Unicode Scalars

You can access a Unicode scalar representation of a String value by iterating over its unicodeScalars property. This property is of type

UnicodeScalarView

, which is a collection of values of type

UnicodeScalar

A Unicode scalar is any 21-bit Unicode code point that is not a lead surrogate or trail surrogate code point.

Each UnicodeScalar has a value property that returns the scalar’s 21-bit value, represented within a UInt32 value: for scalar in dogString.unicodeScalars { print("\(scalar.value) ")

} print("\n")

// 68 111 103 33 128054

The value properties for the first four

UnicodeScalar values (

111

103

) once again represent the characters D , o , g , and !

. The value property of the fifth and final UnicodeScalar , 128054 , is a decimal equivalent of the hexadecimal value 1F436 , which is equivalent to the Unicode scalar U+1F436 for the DOG

FACE character.

As an alternative to querying their value properties, each UnicodeScalar value can also be used to construct a new String value, such as with string interpolation: for scalar in dogString.unicodeScalars {

}

// D println("\(scalar) ")

// o

// g

// !

Collection Types

Swift provides two

collection types

, known as arrays and dictionaries, for storing collections of values. Arrays store ordered lists of values of the same type. Dictionaries store unordered collections of values of the same type, which can be referenced and looked up through a unique identifier (also known as a key).

Arrays and dictionaries in Swift are always clear about the types of values and keys that they can store. This means that you cannot insert a value of the wrong type into an array or dictionary by mistake. It also means you can be confident about the types of values you will retrieve from an array or dictionary. Swift’s use of explicitly typed collections ensures that your code is always clear about the types of values it can work with and enables you to catch any type mismatches early in your code’s development.

Note:

Swift’s

Array type exhibits different behavior to other types when assigned to a constant or variable, or when passed to a function or method. For more information, see

Mutability of

Collections

(page 93)

and

Assignment and Copy Behavior for Collection Types

(page 164)

Arrays

array

stores multiple values of the same type in an ordered list. The same value can appear in an array multiple times at different positions.

Swift arrays are specific about the kinds of values they can store. They differ from Objective-C’s NSArray and

NSMutableArray classes, which can store any kind of object and do not provide any information about the nature of the objects they return. In Swift, the type of values that a particular array can store is always made clear, either through an explicit type annotation, or through type inference, and does not have to be a class type. If you create an array of Int values, for example, you can’t insert any value other than Int values into that array. Swift arrays are type safe, and are always clear about what they may contain.

Array Type Shorthand Syntax

The type of a Swift array is written in full as Array<SomeType> , where SomeType is the type that the array is allowed to store. You can also write the type of an array in shorthand form as

SomeType[]

. Although the two forms are functionally identical, the shorthand form is preferred, and is used throughout this guide when referring to the type of an array.

Collection Types

Arrays

Array Literals

You can initialize an array with an

array literal

, which is a shorthand way to write one or more values as an array collection. An array literal is written as a list of values, separated by commas, surrounded by a pair of square brackets:

[value 1 , value 2 , value 3 ]

The example below creates an array called shoppingList to store String values: var shoppingList: String[] = ["Eggs", "Milk"]

// shoppingList has been initialized with two initial items

The shoppingList variable is declared as “an array of

String values”, written as

String[]

. Because this particular array has specified a value type of String , it is

only

allowed to store String values. Here, the shoppingList array is initialized with two String values ( "Eggs" and "Milk" ), written within an array literal.

Note:

The shoppingList array is declared as a variable (with the var introducer) and not a constant

(with the let introducer) because more items are added to the shopping list in the examples below.

In this case, the array literal contains two

String values and nothing else. This matches the type of the shoppingList variable’s declaration (an array that can only contain String values), and so the assignment of the array literal is permitted as a way to initialize shoppingList with two initial items.

Thanks to Swift’s type inference, you don’t have to write the type of the array if you’re initializing it with an array literal containing values of the same type. The initialization of shoppingList could have been written in a shorter form instead: var shoppingList = ["Eggs", "Milk"]

Because all values in the array literal are of the same type, Swift can infer that String[] is the correct type to use for the shoppingList variable.

Accessing and Modifying an Array

You access and modify an array through its methods and properties, or by using subscript syntax.

To find out the number of items in an array, check its read-only count property:

Collection Types

Arrays println("The shopping list contains \(shoppingList.count) items.")

// prints "The shopping list contains 2 items."

Use the Boolean isEmpty property as a shortcut for checking whether the count property is equal to 0 : if shoppingList.isEmpty { println("The shopping list is empty.")

} else

{ println("The shopping list is not empty.")

}

// prints "The shopping list is not empty."

You can add a new item to the end of an array by calling the array’s append method: shoppingList.append("Flour")

// shoppingList now contains 3 items, and someone is making pancakes

Alternatively, add a new item to the end of an array with the addition assignment operator ( += ): shoppingList += "Baking Powder"

// shoppingList now contains 4 items

You can also append an array of compatible items with the addition assignment operator ( += ): shoppingList += ["Chocolate Spread", "Cheese", "Butter"]

// shoppingList now contains 7 items

Retrieve a value from the array by using

subscript syntax

, passing the index of the value you want to retrieve within square brackets immediately after the name of the array: var firstItem = shoppingList[0]

// firstItem is equal to "Eggs"

Note that the first item in the array has an index of

, not

. Arrays in Swift are always zero-indexed.

Collection Types

Arrays

You can use subscript syntax to change an existing value at a given index: shoppingList[0] = "Six eggs"

// the first item in the list is now equal to "Six eggs" rather than "Eggs"

You can also use subscript syntax to change a range of values at once, even if the replacement set of values has a different length than the range you are replacing. The following example replaces "Chocolate Spread" ,

"Cheese" , and "Butter" with "Bananas" and "Apples" : shoppingList[4...6] = ["Bananas", "Apples"]

// shoppingList now contains 6 items

Note:

You can’t use subscript syntax to append a new item to the end of an array. If you try to use subscript syntax to retrieve or set a value for an index that is outside of an array’s existing bounds, you will trigger a runtime error. However, you can check that an index is valid before using it, by comparing it to the array’s count property. Except when count is 0 (meaning the array is empty), the largest valid index in an array will always be count - 1

, because arrays are indexed from zero.

To insert an item into the array at a specified index, call the array’s insert(atIndex:) method: shoppingList.insert("Maple Syrup", atIndex: 0)

// shoppingList now contains 7 items

// "Maple Syrup" is now the first item in the list

This call to the insert method inserts a new item with a value of "Maple Syrup" at the very beginning of the shopping list, indicated by an index of 0 .

Similarly, you remove an item from the array with the removeAtIndex method. This method removes the item at the specified index and returns the removed item (although you can ignore the returned value if you do not need it): let mapleSyrup = shoppingList.removeAtIndex(0)

// the item that was at index 0 has just been removed

// shoppingList now contains 6 items, and no Maple Syrup

// the mapleSyrup constant is now equal to the removed "Maple Syrup" string

Collection Types

Arrays

Any gaps in an array are closed when an item is removed, and so the value at index 0 is once again equal to

"Six eggs"

: firstItem = shoppingList[0]

// firstItem is now equal to "Six eggs"

If you want to remove the final item from an array, use the removeLast method rather than the removeAtIndex method to avoid the need to query the array’s count property. Like the removeAtIndex method, removeLast returns the removed item: let apples = shoppingList.removeLast()

// the last item in the array has just been removed

// shoppingList now contains 5 items, and no cheese

// the apples constant is now equal to the removed "Apples" string

Iterating Over an Array

You can iterate over the entire set of values in an array with the for in loop: for item in shoppingList { println(item)

}

// Six eggs

// Milk

// Flour

// Baking Powder

// Bananas

If you need the integer index of each item as well as its value, use the global enumerate function to iterate over the array instead. The enumerate function returns a tuple for each item in the array composed of the index and the value for that item. You can decompose the tuple into temporary constants or variables as part of the iteration: for

(index, value) in enumerate(shoppingList) { println("Item \(index + 1): \(value)")

}

Collection Types

Arrays

// Item 1: Six eggs

// Item 2: Milk

// Item 3: Flour

// Item 4: Baking Powder

// Item 5: Bananas

For more about the for in loop, see

For Loops

(page 95).

Creating and Initializing an Array

You can create an empty array of a certain type (without setting any initial values) using initializer syntax: var someInts = Int[]() println("someInts is of type Int[] with \(someInts.count) items.")

// prints "someInts is of type Int[] with 0 items."

Note that the type of the someInts variable is inferred to be

Int[]

, because it is set to the output of an

Int[] initializer.

Alternatively, if the context already provides type information, such as a function argument or an already-typed variable or constant, you can create an empty array with an empty array literal, which is written as [] (an empty pair of square brackets): someInts.append(3)

// someInts now contains 1 value of type Int someInts = []

// someInts is now an empty array, but is still of type Int[]

Swift’s Array type also provides an initializer for creating an array of a certain size with all of its values set to a provided default value. You pass this initializer the number of items to be added to the new array (called count ) and a default value of the appropriate type (called repeatedValue ): var threeDoubles = Double[](count: 3, repeatedValue: 0.0)

// threeDoubles is of type Double[], and equals [0.0, 0.0, 0.0]

Thanks to type inference, you don’t need to specify the type to be stored in the array when using this initializer, because it can be inferred from the default value:

Collection Types

Dictionaries var anotherThreeDoubles = Array(count: 3, repeatedValue: 2.5)

// anotherThreeDoubles is inferred as Double[], and equals [2.5, 2.5, 2.5]

Finally, you can create a new array by adding together two existing arrays of compatible type with the addition operator (

). The new array’s type is inferred from the type of the two arrays you add together: var sixDoubles = threeDoubles + anotherThreeDoubles

// sixDoubles is inferred as Double[], and equals [0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 2.5, 2.5, 2.5]

Dictionaries

dictionary

is a container that stores multiple values of the same type. Each value is associated with a unique

key

, which acts as an identifier for that value within the dictionary. Unlike items in an array, items in a dictionary do not have a specified order. You use a dictionary when you need to look up values based on their identifier, in much the same way that a real-world dictionary is used to look up the definition for a particular word.

Swift dictionaries are specific about the types of keys and values they can store. They differ from Objective-C’s

NSDictionary and

NSMutableDictionary classes, which can use any kind of object as their keys and values and do not provide any information about the nature of these objects. In Swift, the type of keys and values that a particular dictionary can store is always made clear, either through an explicit type annotation or through type inference.

Swift’s dictionary type is written as Dictionary<KeyType, ValueType> , where KeyType is the type of value that can be used as a dictionary key, and ValueType is the type of value that the dictionary stores for those keys.

The only restriction is that

KeyType must be

hashable

—that is, it must provide a way to make itself uniquely representable. All of Swift’s basic types (such as String , Int , Double , and Bool ) are hashable by default, and all of these types can be used as the keys of a dictionary. Enumeration member values without associated values (as described in

Enumerations

(page 148)) are also hashable by default.

Dictionary Literals

You can initialize a dictionary with with a

dictionary literal

, which has a similar syntax to the array literal seen earlier. A dictionary literal is a shorthand way to write one or more key-value pairs as a Dictionary collection.

Collection Types

Dictionaries

key-value pair

is a combination of a key and a value. In a dictionary literal, the key and value in each key-value pair are separated by a colon. The key-value pairs are written as a list, separated by commas, surrounded by a pair of square brackets:

[key 1 : value 1 , key 2 : value 2 , key 3 : value 3 ]

The example below creates a dictionary to store the names of international airports. In this dictionary, the keys are three-letter International Air Transport Association codes, and the values are airport names: var airports: Dictionary<String, String> = ["TYO": "Tokyo", "DUB": "Dublin"]

The airports dictionary is declared as having a type of Dictionary<String, String> , which means “a

Dictionary whose keys are of type

String

, and whose values are also of type

String

”.

Note:

The airports dictionary is declared as a variable (with the var introducer), and not a constant

(with the let introducer), because more airports will be added to the dictionary in the examples below.

The airports dictionary is initialized with a dictionary literal containing two key-value pairs. The first pair has a key of "TYO" and a value of "Tokyo" . The second pair has a key of "DUB" and a value of "Dublin" .

This dictionary literal contains two

String: String pairs. This matches the type of the airports variable declaration (a dictionary with only String keys, and only String values) and so the assignment of the dictionary literal is permitted as a way to initialize the airports dictionary with two initial items.

As with arrays, you don’t have to write the type of the dictionary if you’re initializing it with a dictionary literal whose keys and values have consistent types. The initialization of airports could have been be written in a shorter form instead: var airports = ["TYO": "Tokyo", "DUB": "Dublin"]

Because all keys in the literal are of the same type as each other, and likewise all values are of the same type as each other, Swift can infer that Dictionary<String, String> is the correct type to use for the airports dictionary.

Collection Types

Dictionaries

Accessing and Modifying a Dictionary

You access and modify a dictionary through its methods and properties, or by using subscript syntax. As with an array, you can find out the number of items in a Dictionary by checking its read-only count property: println("The dictionary of airports contains \(airports.count) items.")

// prints "The dictionary of airports contains 2 items."

You can add a new item to a dictionary with subscript syntax. Use a new key of the appropriate type as the subscript index, and assign a new value of the appropriate type: airports["LHR"] = "London"

// the airports dictionary now contains 3 items

You can also use subscript syntax to change the value associated with a particular key: airports["LHR"] = "London Heathrow"

// the value for "LHR" has been changed to "London Heathrow"

As an alternative to subscripting, use a dictionary’s updateValue(forKey:) method to set or update the value for a particular key. Like the subscript examples above, the updateValue(forKey:) method sets a value for a key if none exists, or updates the value if that key already exists. Unlike a subscript, however, the updateValue(forKey:) method returns the

old

value after performing an update. This enables you to check whether or not an update took place.

The updateValue(forKey:) method returns an optional value of the dictionary’s value type. For a dictionary that stores String values, for example, the method returns a value of type String?

, or “optional String ”.

This optional value contains the old value for that key if one existed before the update, or nil if no value existed: if let oldValue = airports.updateValue("Dublin International", forKey: "DUB") { println("The old value for DUB was \(oldValue).")

}

// prints "The old value for DUB was Dublin."

Collection Types

Dictionaries

You can also use subscript syntax to retrieve a value from the dictionary for a particular key. Because it is possible to request a key for which no value exists, a dictionary’s subscript returns an optional value of the dictionary’s value type. If the dictionary contains a value for the requested key, the subscript returns an optional value containing the existing value for that key. Otherwise, the subscript returns nil : if let airportName = airports["DUB"] { println("The name of the airport is \(airportName).")

} else

{ println("That airport is not in the airports dictionary.")

}

// prints "The name of the airport is Dublin International."

You can use subscript syntax to remove a key-value pair from a dictionary by assigning a value of nil for that key: airports["APL"] = "Apple International"

// "Apple International" is not the real airport for APL, so delete it airports["APL"] = nil

// APL has now been removed from the dictionary

Alternatively, remove a key-value pair from a dictionary with the removeValueForKey method. This method removes the key-value pair if it exists and returns the removed value, or returns nil if no value existed: if let removedValue = airports.removeValueForKey("DUB") { println("The removed airport's name is \(removedValue).")

} else

{ println("The airports dictionary does not contain a value for DUB.")

}

// prints "The removed airport's name is Dublin International."

Iterating Over a Dictionary

You can iterate over the key-value pairs in a dictionary with a for in loop. Each item in the dictionary is returned as a (key, value) tuple, and you can decompose the tuple’s members into temporary constants or variables as part of the iteration: for

(airportCode, airportName) in airports {

Collection Types

Dictionaries println("\(airportCode): \(airportName)")

}

// TYO: Tokyo

// LHR: London Heathrow

For more about the for in loop, see

For Loops

(page 95).

You can also retrieve an iteratable collection of a dictionary’s keys or values by accessing its keys and values properties: for airportCode in airports.keys { println("Airport code: \(airportCode)")

}

// Airport code: TYO

// Airport code: LHR for airportName in airports.values { println("Airport name: \(airportName)")

}

// Airport name: Tokyo

// Airport name: London Heathrow

If you need to use a dictionary’s keys or values with an API that takes an Array instance, initialize a new array with the keys or values property: let airportCodes = Array(airports.keys)

// airportCodes is ["TYO", "LHR"] let airportNames = Array(airports.values)

// airportNames is ["Tokyo", "London Heathrow"]

Collection Types

Mutability of Collections

Note:

Swift’s Dictionary type is an unordered collection. The order in which keys, values, and key-value pairs are retrieved when iterating over a dictionary is not specified.

Creating an Empty Dictionary

As with arrays, you can create an empty Dictionary of a certain type by using initializer syntax: var namesOfIntegers = Dictionary<Int, String>()

// namesOfIntegers is an empty Dictionary<Int, String>

This example creates an empty dictionary of type Int , String to store human-readable names of integer values. Its keys are of type Int , and its values are of type String .

If the context already provides type information, create an empty dictionary with an empty dictionary literal, which is written as

[:]

(a colon inside a pair of square brackets): namesOfIntegers[16] = "sixteen"

// namesOfIntegers now contains 1 key-value pair namesOfIntegers = [:]

// namesOfIntegers is once again an empty dictionary of type Int, String

Note:

Behind the scenes, Swift’s array and dictionary types are implemented as

generic collections

For more on generic types and collections, see

Generics

(page 310) .

Mutability of Collections

Arrays and dictionaries store multiple values together in a single collection. If you create an array or a dictionary and assign it to a variable, the collection that is created will be

mutable

. This means that you can change (or

mutate

) the size of the collection after it is created by adding more items to the collection, or by removing existing items from the ones it already contains. Conversely, if you assign an array or a dictionary to a constant, that array or dictionary is

immutable

, and its size cannot be changed.

For dictionaries, immutability also means that you cannot replace the value for an existing key in the dictionary.

An immutable dictionary’s contents cannot be changed once they are set.

Collection Types

Mutability of Collections

Immutability has a slightly different meaning for arrays, however. You are still not allowed to perform any action that has the potential to change the size of an immutable array, but you

are

allowed to set a new value for an existing index in the array. This enables Swift’s Array type to provide optimal performance for array operations when the size of an array is fixed.

The mutability behavior of Swift’s

Array type also affects how array instances are assigned and modified. For more information, see

Assignment and Copy Behavior for Collection Types

(page 164).

Note:

It is good practice to create immutable collections in all cases where the collection’s size does not need to change. Doing so enables the Swift compiler to optimize the performance of the collections you create.

Control Flow

Swift provides all the familiar control flow constructs of C-like languages. These include for and while loops to perform a task multiple times; if and switch statements to execute different branches of code based on certain conditions; and statements such as break and continue to transfer the flow of execution to another point in your code.

In addition to the traditional for condition increment loop found in C, Swift adds a for in loop that makes it easy to iterate over arrays, dictionaries, ranges, strings, and other sequences.

Swift’s switch statement is also considerably more powerful than its counterpart in C. The cases of a switch statement do not “fall through” to the next case in Swift, avoiding common C errors caused by missing break statements. Cases can match many different types of pattern, including range matches, tuples, and casts to a specific type. Matched values in a switch case can be bound to temporary constants or variables for use within the case’s body, and complex matching conditions can be expressed with a where clause for each case.

For Loops

A for loop performs a set of statements a certain number of times. Swift provides two kinds of for loop:

●

● for in performs a set of statements for each item in a range, sequence, collection, or progression.

for

condition

increment performs a set of statements until a specific condition is met, typically by incrementing a counter each time the loop ends.

For-In

You use the for in loop to iterate over collections of items, such as ranges of numbers, items in an array, or characters in a string.

This example prints the first few entries in the five-times-table: for index in

1...5 { println("\(index) times 5 is \(index * 5)")

}

// 1 times 5 is 5

Control Flow

For Loops

// 2 times 5 is 10

// 3 times 5 is 15

// 4 times 5 is 20

// 5 times 5 is 25

The collection of items being iterated is a closed range of numbers from 1 to 5 inclusive, as indicated by the use of the closed range operator ( ...

). The value of index is set to the first number in the range ( 1 ), and the statements inside the loop are executed. In this case, the loop contains only one statement, which prints an entry from the five-times-table for the current value of index

. After the statement is executed, the value of index is updated to contain the second value in the range ( 2 ), and the println function is called again. This process continues until the end of the range is reached.

In the example above, index is a constant whose value is automatically set at the start of each iteration of the loop. As such, it does not have to be declared before it is used. It is implicitly declared simply by its inclusion in the loop declaration, without the need for a let declaration keyword.

Note:

The index constant exists only within the scope of the loop. If you want to check the value of index after the loop completes, or if you want to work with its value as a variable rather than a constant, you must declare it yourself before its use in the loop.

If you don’t need each value from the range, you can ignore the values by using an underscore in place of a variable name: let base = 3 let power = 10 var answer = 1 for _ in

1...power { answer *= base

} println("\(base) to the power of \(power) is \(answer)")

// prints "3 to the power of 10 is 59049"

This example calculates the value of one number to the power of another (in this case,

3 to the power of

It multiplies a starting value of 1 (that is, 3 to the power of 0 ) by 3 , ten times, using a half-closed loop that starts with 0 and ends with 9 . This calculation doesn’t need to know the individual counter values each time

Control Flow

For Loops through the loop—it simply needs to execute the loop the correct number of times. The underscore character

_ (used in place of a loop variable) causes the individual values to be ignored and does not provide access to the current value during each iteration of the loop.

Use the for

in loop with an array to iterate over its items: let names = ["Anna", "Alex", "Brian", "Jack"] for name in names { println("Hello, \(name)!")

}

// Hello, Anna!

// Hello, Alex!

// Hello, Brian!

// Hello, Jack!

You can also iterate over a dictionary to access its key-value pairs. Each item in the dictionary is returned as a

(key, value) tuple when the dictionary is iterated, and you can decompose the

(key, value) tuple’s members as explicitly named constants for use within in the body of the for in loop. Here, the dictionary’s keys are decomposed into a constant called animalName , and the dictionary’s values are decomposed into a constant called legCount

: let numberOfLegs = ["spider": 8, "ant": 6, "cat": 4] for

(animalName, legCount) in numberOfLegs { println("\(animalName)s have \(legCount) legs")

}

// spiders have 8 legs

// ants have 6 legs

// cats have 4 legs

Items in a Dictionary may not necessarily be iterated in the same order as they were inserted. The contents of a Dictionary are inherently unordered, and iterating over them does not guarantee the order in which they will be retrieved. For more on arrays and dictionaries, see

Collection Types

(page 82).)

In addition to arrays and dictionaries, you can also use the for in loop to iterate over the Character values in a string: for character in

"Hello" {

Control Flow

For Loops

}

// H println(character)

// e

// l

// o

For-Condition-Increment

In addition to for in loops, Swift supports traditional C-style for loops with a condition and an incrementer: for var index = 0; index < 3; ++index { println("index is \(index)")

}

// index is 0

// index is 1

// index is 2

Here’s the general form of this loop format: for

initialization ; condition ; increment {

statements

}

Semicolons separate the three parts of the loop’s definition, as in C. However, unlike C, Swift doesn’t need parentheses around the entire “initialization; condition; increment” block.

The loop is executed as follows:

When the loop is first entered, the

initialization expression

is evaluated once, to set up any constants or variables that are needed for the loop.

The

condition expression

is evaluated. If it evaluates to false , the loop ends, and code execution continues after the for loop’s closing brace ( } ). If the expression evaluates to true , code execution continues by executing the statements inside the braces.

Control Flow

While Loops

After all statements are executed, the

increment expression

is evaluated. It might increase or decrease the value of a counter, or set one of the initialized variables to a new value based on the outcome of the statements. After the increment expression has been evaluated, execution returns to step 2, and the condition expression is evaluated again.

The loop format and execution process described above is shorthand for (and equivalent to) the outline below:

initialization

while

condition {

statements increment

}

Constants and variables declared within the initialization expression (such as var index = 0 ) are only valid within the scope of the for loop itself. To retrieve the final value of index after the loop ends, you must declare index before the loop’s scope begins: var index: Int for index = 0; index < 3; ++index { println("index is \(index)")

}

// index is 0

// index is 1

// index is 2 println("The loop statements were executed \(index) times")

// prints "The loop statements were executed 3 times"

Note that the final value of index after this loop is completed is 3 , not 2 . The last time the increment statement

++index is called, it sets index to 3 , which causes index < 3 to equate to false , ending the loop.

While Loops

A while loop performs a set of statements until a condition becomes false . These kinds of loops are best used when the number of iterations is not known before the first iteration begins. Swift provides two kinds of while loop:

Control Flow

While Loops

● while evaluates its condition at the start of each pass through the loop.

● do while evaluates its condition at the end of each pass through the loop.

While

A while loop starts by evaluating a single condition. If the condition is true , a set of statements is repeated until the condition becomes false .

Here’s the general form of a while loop: while

condition {

statements

}

This example plays a simple game of

Snakes and Ladders

(also known as

Chutes and Ladders

24 25

21 22 23

21 22 23 24

20 19

18 17

11 12 13 14

10 9 8 7 6 10 9 8 7 6

1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5

The rules of the game are as follows:

●

The board has 25 squares, and the aim is to land on or beyond square 25.

●

Each turn, you roll a six-sided dice and move by that number of squares, following the horizontal path indicated by the dotted arrow above.

If your turn ends at the bottom of a ladder, you move up that ladder.

●

If your turn ends at the head of a snake, you move down that snake.

100

Control Flow

While Loops

The game board is represented by an array of Int values. Its size is based on a constant called finalSquare , which is used to initialize the array and also to check for a win condition later in the example. The board is initialized with 26 zero

Int values, not 25 (one each at indices

0 through

25 inclusive): let finalSquare = 25 var board = Int[](count: finalSquare + 1, repeatedValue: 0)

Some squares are then set to have more specific values for the snakes and ladders. Squares with a ladder base have a positive number to move you up the board, whereas squares with a snake head have a negative number to move you back down the board: board[03] = +08; board[06] = +11; board[09] = +09; board[10] = +02 board[14] = -10; board[19] = -11; board[22] = -02; board[24] = -08

Square 3 contains the bottom of a ladder that moves you up to square 11. To represent this, board[03] is equal to +08 , which is equivalent to an integer value of 8 (the difference between 3 and 11 ). The unary plus operator ( +i ) balances with the unary minus operator ( -i ), and numbers lower than 10 are padded with zeros so that all board definitions align. (Neither stylistic tweak is strictly necessary, but they lead to neater code.)

The player’s starting square is “square zero”, which is just off the bottom left corner of the board. The first dice roll always moves the player on to the board: var square = 0 var diceRoll = 0 while square < finalSquare {

// roll the dice if

++diceRoll == 7 { diceRoll = 1 }

// move by the rolled amount square += diceRoll if square < board.count {

// if we're still on the board, move up or down for a snake or a ladder square += board[square]

}

} println("Game over!")

101

Control Flow

While Loops

This example uses a very simple approach to dice rolling. Instead of a random number generator, it starts with a diceRoll value of 0 . Each time through the while loop, diceRoll is incremented with the prefix increment operator (

++i

), and is then checked to see if it has become too large. The return value of

++diceRoll is equal to the value of diceRoll

after

it is incremented. Whenever this return value equals 7 , the dice roll has become too large, and is reset to a value of 1 . This gives a sequence of diceRoll values that is always 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 ,

2 and so on.

After rolling the dice, the player moves forward by diceRoll squares. It’s possible that the dice roll may have moved the player beyond square 25, in which case the game is over. To cope with this scenario, the code checks that square is less than the board array’s count property before adding the value stored in board[square] onto the current square value to move the player up or down any ladders or snakes.

Had this check not been performed, board[square] might try to access a value outside the bounds of the board array, which would trigger an error. If square is now equal to 26 , the code would try to check the value of board[26]

, which is larger than the size of the array.

The current while loop execution then ends, and the loop’s condition is checked to see if the loop should be executed again. If the player has moved on or beyond square number 25 , the loop’s condition evaluates to false

, and the game ends.

A while loop is appropriate in this case because the length of the game is not clear at the start of the while loop. Instead, the loop is executed until a particular condition is satisfied.

Do-While

The other variation of the while loop, known as the do while loop, performs a single pass through the loop block first,

before

considering the loop’s condition. It then continues to repeat the loop until the condition is false

Here’s the general form of a do while loop: do

{

statements

} while

condition

Here’s the

Snakes and Ladders

example again, written as a do

while loop rather than a while loop. The values of finalSquare , board , square , and diceRoll are initialized in exactly the same way as with a while loop: let finalSquare = 25

102

Control Flow

Conditional Statements var board = Int[](count: finalSquare + 1, repeatedValue: 0) board[03] = +08; board[06] = +11; board[09] = +09; board[10] = +02 board[14] = -10; board[19] = -11; board[22] = -02; board[24] = -08 var square = 0 var diceRoll = 0

In this version of the game, the

first

action in the loop is to check for a ladder or a snake. No ladder on the board takes the player straight to square 25, and so it is not possible to win the game by moving up a ladder.

Therefore, it is safe to check for a snake or a ladder as the first action in the loop.

At the start of the game, the player is on “square zero”.

board[0] always equals

, and has no effect: do

{

// move up or down for a snake or ladder square += board[square]

// roll the dice if

++diceRoll == 7 { diceRoll = 1 }

// move by the rolled amount square += diceRoll

} while square < finalSquare println("Game over!")

After the code checks for snakes and ladders, the dice is rolled, and the player is moved forward by diceRoll squares. The current loop execution then ends.

The loop’s condition ( while square < finalSquare ) is the same as before, but this time it is not evaluated until the

end

of the first run through the loop. The structure of the do while loop is better suited to this game than the while loop in the previous example. In the do while loop above, square += board[square] is always executed

immediately after

the loop’s while condition confirms that square is still on the board. This behavior removes the need for the array bounds check seen in the earlier version of the game.

Conditional Statements

It is often useful to execute different pieces of code based on certain conditions. You might want to run an extra piece of code when an error occurs, or to display a message when a value becomes too high or too low.

To do this, you make parts of your code

conditional

103

Control Flow

Conditional Statements

Swift provides two ways to add conditional branches to your code, known as the if statement and the switch statement. Typically, you use the if statement to evaluate simple conditions with only a few possible outcomes.

The switch statement is better suited to more complex conditions with multiple possible permutations, and is useful in situations where pattern-matching can help select an appropriate code branch to execute.

If

In its simplest form, the if statement has a single if condition. It executes a set of statements only if that condition is true

: var temperatureInFahrenheit = 30 if temperatureInFahrenheit <= 32 { println("It's very cold. Consider wearing a scarf.")

}

// prints "It's very cold. Consider wearing a scarf."

The preceding example checks whether the temperature is less than or equal to 32 degrees Fahrenheit (the freezing point of water). If it is, a message is printed. Otherwise, no message is printed, and code execution continues after the if statement’s closing brace.

The if statement can provide an alternative set of statements, known as an

else clause

, for when the if condition is false . These statements are indicated by the else keyword: temperatureInFahrenheit = 40 if temperatureInFahrenheit <= 32 { println("It's very cold. Consider wearing a scarf.")

} else

{ println("It's not that cold. Wear a t-shirt.")

}

// prints "It's not that cold. Wear a t-shirt."

One of these two branches is always executed. Because the temperature has increased to 40 degrees Fahrenheit, it is no longer cold enough to advise wearing a scarf, and so the else branch is triggered instead.

You can chain multiple if statements together, to consider additional clauses: temperatureInFahrenheit = 90

104

Control Flow

Conditional Statements if temperatureInFahrenheit <= 32 { println("It's very cold. Consider wearing a scarf.")

} else if temperatureInFahrenheit >= 86 { println("It's really warm. Don't forget to wear sunscreen.")

} else

{ println("It's not that cold. Wear a t-shirt.")

}

// prints "It's really warm. Don't forget to wear sunscreen."

Here, an additional if statement is added to respond to particularly warm temperatures. The final else clause remains, and prints a response for any temperatures that are neither too warm nor too cold.

The final else clause is optional, however, and can be excluded if the set of conditions does not need to be complete: temperatureInFahrenheit = 72 if temperatureInFahrenheit <= 32 { println("It's very cold. Consider wearing a scarf.")

} else if temperatureInFahrenheit >= 86 { println("It's really warm. Don't forget to wear sunscreen.")

}

In this example, the temperature is neither too cold nor too warm to trigger the if or else if conditions, and so no message is printed.

Switch

A switch statement considers a value and compares it against several possible matching patterns. It then executes an appropriate block of code, based on the first pattern that matches successfully. A switch statement provides an alternative to the if statement for responding to multiple potential states.

In its simplest form, a switch statement compares a value against one or more values of the same type: switch

some value to consider { case

value 1 :

respond to value 1

105

Control Flow

Conditional Statements case

value 2 ,

value 3 :

respond to value 2 or 3

default

otherwise, do something else

}

Every switch statement consists of multiple possible

cases

, each of which begins with the case keyword. In addition to comparing against specific values, Swift provides several ways for each case to specify more complex matching patterns. These options are described later in this section.

The body of each switch case is a separate branch of code execution, in a similar manner to the branches of an if statement. The switch statement determines which branch should be selected. This is known as

switching

on the value that is being considered.

Every switch statement must be

exhaustive

. That is, every possible value of the type being considered must be matched by one of the switch cases. If it is not appropriate to provide a switch case for every possible value, you can define a default catch-all case to cover any values that are not addressed explicitly. This catch-all case is indicated by the keyword default , and must always appear last.

This example uses a switch statement to consider a single lowercase character called someCharacter

: let someCharacter: Character = "e" switch someCharacter { case

"a", "e", "i", "o", "u": println("\(someCharacter) is a vowel") case

"b", "c", "d", "f", "g", "h", "j", "k", "l", "m",

"n", "p", "q", "r", "s", "t", "v", "w", "x", "y", "z": println("\(someCharacter) is a consonant") default

: println("\(someCharacter) is not a vowel or a consonant")

}

// prints "e is a vowel"

The switch statement’s first case matches all five lowercase vowels in the English language. Similarly, its second case matches all lowercase English consonants.

106

Control Flow

Conditional Statements

It is not practical to write all other possible characters as part of a switch case, and so this switch statement provides a default case to match all other characters that are not vowels or consonants. This provision ensures that the switch statement is exhaustive.

No Implicit Fallthrough

In contrast with switch statements in C and Objective-C, switch statements in Swift do not fall through the bottom of each case and into the next one by default. Instead, the entire switch statement finishes its execution as soon as the first matching switch case is completed, without requiring an explicit break statement. This makes the switch statement safer and easier to use than in C, and avoids executing more than one switch case by mistake.

Note:

You can still break out of a matched switch case before that case has completed its execution if you need to. See

Break in a Switch Statement

(page 114)

for details.

The body of each case

must

contain at least one executable statement. It is not valid to write the following code, because the first case is empty: let anotherCharacter: Character = "a" switch anotherCharacter { case

"a": case

"A": println("The letter A") default

: println("Not the letter A")

}

// this will report a compile-time error

Unlike a switch statement in C, this switch statement does not match both "a" and "A" . Rather, it reports a compile-time error that case "a": does not contain any executable statements. This approach avoids accidental fallthrough from one case to another, and makes for safer code that is clearer in its intent.

Multiple matches for a single switch case can be separated by commas, and can be written over multiple lines if the list is long: switch

some value to consider { case

value 1 ,

107

Control Flow

Conditional Statements

value 2 :

statements

}

Note:

To opt in to fallthrough behavior for a particular switch case, use the fallthrough keyword, as described in

Fallthrough

(page 115) .

Range Matching

Values in switch cases can be checked for their inclusion in a range. This example uses number ranges to provide a natural-language count for numbers of any size: let count = 3_000_000_000_000 let countedThings = "stars in the Milky Way" var naturalCount: String switch count { case

0: naturalCount = "no" case

1...3: naturalCount = "a few" case

4...9: naturalCount = "several" case

10...99: naturalCount = "tens of" case

100...999: naturalCount = "hundreds of" case

1000...999_999: naturalCount = "thousands of" default

: naturalCount = "millions and millions of"

} println("There are \(naturalCount) \(countedThings).")

// prints "There are millions and millions of stars in the Milky Way."

108

Control Flow

Conditional Statements

Tuples

You can use tuples to test multiple values in the same switch statement. Each element of the tuple can be tested against a different value or range of values. Alternatively, use the underscore (

) identifier to match any possible value.

The example below takes an (x, y) point, expressed as a simple tuple of type (Int, Int) , and categorizes it on the graph that follows the example: let somePoint = (1, 1) switch somePoint { case

(0, 0): println("(0, 0) is at the origin") case

(

, 0): println("(\(somePoint.0), 0) is on the x-axis") case

(0,

): println("(0, \(somePoint.1)) is on the y-axis") case

(-2...2, -2...2): println("(\(somePoint.0), \(somePoint.1)) is inside the box") default

: println("(\(somePoint.0), \(somePoint.1)) is outside of the box")

}

// prints "(1, 1) is inside the box"

The switch statement determines if the point is at the origin (0, 0); on the red x-axis; on the orange y-axis; inside the blue 4-by-4 box centered on the origin; or outside of the box.

109

Control Flow

Conditional Statements

Unlike C, Swift allows multiple switch cases to consider the same value or values. In fact, the point (0, 0) could match all

four

of the cases in this example. However, if multiple matches are possible, the first matching case is always used. The point (0, 0) would match case (0, 0) first, and so all other matching cases would be ignored.

Value Bindings

A switch case can bind the value or values it matches to temporary constants or variables, for use in the body of the case. This is known as

value binding

, because the values are “bound” to temporary constants or variables within the case’s body.

The example below takes an (x, y) point, expressed as a tuple of type (Int, Int) and categorizes it on the graph that follows: let anotherPoint = (2, 0) switch anotherPoint { case

( let x, 0): println("on the x-axis with an x value of \(x)") case

(0, let y): println("on the y-axis with a y value of \(y)") case let

(x, y): println("somewhere else at (\(x), \(y))")

}

// prints "on the x-axis with an x value of 2"

110

Control Flow

Conditional Statements

The switch statement determines if the point is on the red x-axis, on the orange y-axis, or elsewhere, on neither axis.

The three switch cases declare placeholder constants x and y

, which temporarily take on one or both tuple values from anotherPoint . The first case, case (let x, 0) , matches any point with a y value of 0 and assigns the point’s x value to the temporary constant x . Similarly, the second case, case (0, let y) , matches any point with an x value of

0 and assigns the point’s y value to the temporary constant y

Once the temporary constants are declared, they can be used within the case’s code block. Here, they are used as shorthand for printing the values with the println function.

Note that this switch statement does not have a default case. The final case, case let (x, y) , declares a tuple of two placeholder constants that can match any value. As a result, it matches all possible remaining values, and a default case is not needed to make the switch statement exhaustive.

In the example above, x and y are declared as constants with the let keyword, because there is no need to modify their values within the body of the case. However, they could have been declared as variables instead, with the var keyword. If this had been done, a temporary variable would have been created and initialized with the appropriate value. Any changes to that variable would only have an effect within the body of the case.

Where

A switch case can use a where clause to check for additional conditions.

The example below categorizes an (x, y) point on the following graph: let yetAnotherPoint = (1, -1) switch yetAnotherPoint { case let

(x, y) where x == y: println("(\(x), \(y)) is on the line x == y") case let

(x, y) where x == -y: println("(\(x), \(y)) is on the line x == -y") case let

(x, y): println("(\(x), \(y)) is just some arbitrary point")

}

111

Control Flow

Control Transfer Statements

// prints "(1, -1) is on the line x == -y"

The switch statement determines if the point is on the green diagonal line where x == y , on the purple diagonal line where x == -y , or neither.

The three switch cases declare placeholder constants x and y , which temporarily take on the two tuple values from point . These constants are used as part of a where clause, to create a dynamic filter. The switch case matches the current value of point only if the where clause’s condition evaluates to true for that value.

As in the previous example, the final case matches all possible remaining values, and so a default case is not needed to make the switch statement exhaustive.

Control Transfer Statements

Control transfer statements

change the order in which your code is executed, by transferring control from one piece of code to another. Swift has four control transfer statements:

● continue

● break

●

● fallthrough return

The control , break and fallthrough statements are described below. The return statement is described in

Functions

(page 120).

112

Control Flow

Control Transfer Statements

Continue

The continue statement tells a loop to stop what it is doing and start again at the beginning of the next iteration through the loop. It says “I am done with the current loop iteration” without leaving the loop altogether.

Note:

In a for condition increment loop, the incrementer is still evaluated after calling the continue statement. The loop itself continues to work as usual; only the code within the loop’s body is skipped.

The following example removes all vowels and spaces from a lowercase string to create a cryptic puzzle phrase: let puzzleInput = "great minds think alike" var puzzleOutput = "" for character in puzzleInput { switch character { case

"a", "e", "i", "o", "u", " ": continue default

: puzzleOutput += character

}

} println(puzzleOutput)

// prints "grtmndsthnklk"

The code above calls the continue keyword whenever it matches a vowel or a space, causing the current iteration of the loop to end immediately and to jump straight to the start of the next iteration. This behavior enables the switch block to match (and ignore) only the vowel and space characters, rather than requiring the block to match every character that should get printed.

Break

The break statement ends execution of an entire control flow statement immediately. The break statement can be used inside a switch statement or loop statement when you want to terminate the execution of the switch or loop statement earlier than would otherwise be the case.

113

Control Flow

Control Transfer Statements

Break in a Loop Statement

When used inside a loop statement, break ends the loop’s execution immediately, and transfers control to the first line of code after the loop’s closing brace (

}

). No further code from the current iteration of the loop is executed, and no further iterations of the loop are started.

Break in a Switch Statement

When used inside a switch statement, break causes the switch statement to end its execution immediately, and to transfer control to the first line of code after the switch statement’s closing brace ( } ).

This behavior can be used to match and ignore one or more cases in a switch statement. Because Swift’s switch statement is exhaustive and does not allow empty cases, it is sometimes necessary to deliberately match and ignore a case in order to make your intentions explicit. You do this by writing the break statement as the entire body of the case you want to ignore. When that case is matched by the switch statement, the break statement inside the case ends the switch statement’s execution immediately.

Note:

A switch case that only contains a comment is reported as a compile-time error. Comments are not statements and do not cause a switch case to be ignored. Always use a break statement to ignore a switch case.

The following example switches on a

Character value and determines whether it represents a number symbol in one of four languages. Multiple values are covered in a single switch case for brevity: let numberSymbol: Character = " " // Simplified Chinese for the number 3 var possibleIntegerValue: Int?

switch numberSymbol { case

"1", "١", " ", " ": possibleIntegerValue = 1 case

"2", "٢", " ", " ": possibleIntegerValue = 2 case

"3", "٣", " ", " ": possibleIntegerValue = 3 case

"4", "٤", " ", " ": possibleIntegerValue = 4 default

: break

114

Control Flow

Control Transfer Statements

} if let integerValue = possibleIntegerValue { println("The integer value of \(numberSymbol) is \(integerValue).")

} else

{ println("An integer value could not be found for \(numberSymbol).")

}

// prints "The integer value of is 3."

This example checks numberSymbol to determine whether it is a Latin, Arabic, Chinese, or Thai symbol for the numbers 1 to 4 . If a match is found, one of the switch statement’s cases sets an optional Int?

variable called possibleIntegerValue to an appropriate integer value.

After the switch statement completes its execution, the example uses optional binding to determine whether a value was found. The possibleIntegerValue variable has an implicit initial value of nil by virtue of being an optional type, and so the optional binding will succeed only if possibleIntegerValue was set to an actual value by one of the switch statement’s first four cases.

It is not practical to list every possible Character value in the example above, so a default case provides a catchall for any characters that are not matched. This default case does not need to perform any action, and so it is written with a single break statement as its body. As soon as the default statement is matched, the break statement ends the switch statement’s execution, and code execution continues from the if let statement.

Fallthrough

Switch statements in Swift do not fall through the bottom of each case and into the next one. Instead, the entire switch statement completes its execution as soon as the first matching case is completed. By contrast,

C requires you to insert an explicit break statement at the end of every switch case to prevent fallthrough.

Avoiding default fallthrough means that Swift switch statements are much more concise and predictable than their counterparts in C, and thus they avoid executing multiple switch cases by mistake.

If you really need C-style fallthrough behavior, you can opt in to this behavior on a case-by-case basis with the fallthrough keyword. The example below uses fallthrough to create a textual description of a number: let integerToDescribe = 5 var description = "The number \(integerToDescribe) is" switch integerToDescribe { case

2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19:

115

Control Flow

Control Transfer Statements description += " a prime number, and also" fallthrough default

: description += " an integer."

} println(description)

// prints "The number 5 is a prime number, and also an integer."

This example declares a new String variable called description and assigns it an initial value. The function then considers the value of integerToDescribe using a switch statement. If the value of integerToDescribe is one of the prime numbers in the list, the function appends text to the end of description , to note that the number is prime. It then uses the fallthrough keyword to “fall into” the default case as well. The default case adds some extra text to the end of the description, and the switch statement is complete.

If the value of integerToDescribe is

not

in the list of known prime numbers, it is not matched by the first switch case at all. There are no other specific cases, and so integerToDescribe is matched by the catchall default case.

After the switch statement has finished executing, the number’s description is printed using the println function. In this example, the number 5 is correctly identified as a prime number.

Note:

The fallthrough keyword does not check the case conditions for the switch case that it causes execution to fall into. The fallthrough keyword simply causes code execution to move directly to the statements inside the next case (or default case) block, as in C’s standard switch statement behavior.

Labeled Statements

You can nest loops and switch statements inside other loops and switch statements in Swift to create complex control flow structures. However, loops and switch statements can both use the break statement to end their execution prematurely. Therefore, it is sometimes useful to be explicit about which loop or switch statement you want a break statement to terminate. Similarly, if you have multiple nested loops, it can be useful to be explicit about which loop the continue statement should affect.

To achieve these aims, you can mark a loop statement or switch statement with a

statement label

, and use this label with the break statement or continue statement to end or continue the execution of the labeled statement.

116

Control Flow

Control Transfer Statements

A labeled statement is indicated by placing a label on the same line as the statement’s introducer keyword, followed by a colon. Here’s an example of this syntax for a while loop, although the principle is the same for all loops and switch statements:

label name : while

condition {

statements

}

The following example uses the break and continue statements with a labeled while loop for an adapted version of the

Snakes and Ladders

game that you saw earlier in this chapter. This time around, the game has an extra rule:

●

To win, you must land

exactly

on square 25.

If a particular dice roll would take you beyond square 25, you must roll again until you roll the exact number needed to land on square 25.

The game board is the same as before:

24 25

21 22 23

21 22 23 24 25

20 19

18 17 16

13 14

10 9 8 7 6 10 9 8 7 6

1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5

The values of finalSquare , board , square , and diceRoll are initialized in the same way as before: let finalSquare = 25 var board = Int[](count: finalSquare + 1, repeatedValue: 0) board[03] = +08; board[06] = +11; board[09] = +09; board[10] = +02 board[14] = -10; board[19] = -11; board[22] = -02; board[24] = -08

117

Control Flow

Control Transfer Statements var square = 0 var diceRoll = 0

This version of the game uses a while loop and a switch statement to implement the game’s logic. The while loop has a statement label called gameLoop , to indicate that it is the main game loop for the Snakes and Ladders game.

The while loop’s condition is while square != finalSquare

, to reflect that you must land exactly on square 25: gameLoop: while square != finalSquare { if

++diceRoll == 7 { diceRoll = 1 } switch square + diceRoll { case finalSquare:

// diceRoll will move us to the final square, so the game is over break gameLoop case let newSquare where newSquare > finalSquare:

// diceRoll will move us beyond the final square, so roll again continue gameLoop default

// this is a valid move, so find out its effect square += diceRoll square += board[square]

}

} println("Game over!")

The dice is rolled at the start of each loop. Rather than moving the player immediately, a switch statement is used to consider the result of the move, and to work out if the move is allowed:

●

If the dice roll will move the player onto the final square, the game is over. The break gameLoop statement transfers control to the first line of code outside of the while loop, which ends the game.

●

If the dice roll will move the player

beyond

the final square, the move is invalid, and the player needs to roll again. The continue gameLoop statement ends the current while loop iteration and begins the next iteration of the loop.

118

Control Flow

Control Transfer Statements

●

In all other cases, the dice roll is a valid move. The player moves forward by diceRoll squares, and the game logic checks for any snakes and ladders. The loop then ends, and control returns to the while condition to decide whether another turn is required.

Note:

If the break statement above did not use the gameLoop label, it would break out of the switch statement, not the while statement. Using the gameLoop label makes it clear which control statement should be terminated.

Note also that it is not strictly necessary to use the gameLoop label when calling continue gameLoop to jump to the next iteration of the loop. There is only one loop in the game, and so there is no ambiguity as to which loop the continue statement will affect. However, there is no harm in using the gameLoop label with the continue statement. Doing so is consistent with the label’s use alongside the break statement, and helps make the game’s logic clearer to read and understand.

119

Functions

Functions

are self-contained chunks of code that perform a specific task. You give a function a name that identifies what it does, and this name is used to “call” the function to perform its task when needed.

Swift’s unified function syntax is flexible enough to express anything from a simple C-style function with no parameter names to a complex Objective-C-style method with local and external parameter names for each parameter. Parameters can provide default values to simplify function calls and can be passed as in-out parameters, which modify a passed variable once the function has completed its execution.

Every function in Swift has a type, consisting of the function’s parameter types and return type. You can use this type like any other type in Swift, which makes it easy to pass functions as parameters to other functions, and to return functions from functions. Functions can also be written within other functions to encapsulate useful functionality within a nested function scope.

Defining and Calling Functions

When you define a function, you can optionally define one or more named, typed values that the function takes as input (known as

parameters

), and/or a type of value that the function will pass back as output when it is done (known as its

return type

Every function has a

function name

, which describes the task that the function performs. To use a function, you “call” that function with its name and pass it input values (known as

arguments

) that match the types of the function’s parameters. A function’s arguments must always be provided in the same order as the function’s parameter list.

The function in the example below is called greetingForPerson

, because that’s what it does—it takes a person’s name as input and returns a greeting for that person. To accomplish this, you define one input parameter—a String value called personName —and a return type of String , which will contain a greeting for that person: func sayHello(personName: String) -> String { let greeting = "Hello, " + personName + "!" return greeting

}

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Function Parameters and Return Values

All of this information is rolled up into the function’s

definition

, which is prefixed with the func keyword. You indicate the function’s return type with the

return arrow

(a hyphen followed by a right angle bracket), which is followed by the name of the type to return.

The definition describes what the function does, what it expects to receive, and what it returns when it is done.

The definition makes it easy for the function to be called elsewhere in your code in a clear and unambiguous way: println(sayHello("Anna"))

// prints "Hello, Anna!" println(sayHello("Brian"))

// prints "Hello, Brian!"

You call the sayHello function by passing it a

String argument value in parentheses, such as sayHello("Anna") . Because the function returns a String value, sayHello can be wrapped in a call to the println function to print that string and see its return value, as shown above.

The body of the sayHello function starts by defining a new

String constant called greeting and setting it to a simple greeting message for personName . This greeting is then passed back out of the function using the return keyword. As soon as return greeting is called, the function finishes its execution and returns the current value of greeting

You can call the sayHello function multiple times with different input values. The example above shows what happens if it is called with an input value of "Anna" , and an input value of "Brian" . The function returns a tailored greeting in each case.

To simplify the body of this function, combine the message creation and the return statement into one line: func sayHelloAgain(personName: String) -> String { return

"Hello again, " + personName + "!"

} println(sayHelloAgain("Anna"))

// prints "Hello again, Anna!"

Function Parameters and Return Values

Function parameters and return values are extremely flexible in Swift. You can define anything from a simple utility function with a single unnamed parameter to a complex function with expressive parameter names and different parameter options.

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Function Parameters and Return Values

Multiple Input Parameters

Functions can have multiple input parameters, which are written within the function’s parentheses, separated by commas.

This function takes a start and an end index for a half-open range, and works out how many elements the range contains: func halfOpenRangeLength(start: Int, end: Int) -> Int { return end - start

} println(halfOpenRangeLength(1, 10))

// prints "9"

Functions Without Parameters

Functions are not required to define input parameters. Here’s a function with no input parameters, which always returns the same String message whenever it is called: func sayHelloWorld() -> String { return

"hello, world"

} println(sayHelloWorld())

// prints "hello, world"

The function definition still needs parentheses after the function’s name, even though it does not take any parameters. The function name is also followed by an empty pair of parentheses when the function is called.

Functions Without Return Values

Functions are not required to define a return type. Here’s a version of the sayHello function, called waveGoodbye , which prints its own String value rather than returning it: func sayGoodbye(personName: String) { println("Goodbye, \(personName)!")

} sayGoodbye("Dave")

// prints "Goodbye, Dave!"

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Because it does not need to return a value, the function’s definition does not include the return arrow ( -> ) or a return type.

Note:

Strictly speaking, the sayGoodbye function

does

still return a value, even though no return value is defined. Functions without a defined return type return a special value of type Void . This is simply an empty tuple, in effect a tuple with zero elements, which can be written as

()

The return value of a function can be ignored when it is called: func printAndCount(stringToPrint: String) -> Int { println(stringToPrint) return countElements(stringToPrint)

} func printWithoutCounting(stringToPrint: String) { printAndCount(stringToPrint)

} printAndCount("hello, world")

// prints "hello, world" and returns a value of 12 printWithoutCounting("hello, world")

// prints "hello, world" but does not return a value

The first function, printAndCount , prints a string, and then returns its character count as an Int . The second function, printWithoutCounting , calls the first function, but ignores its return value. When the second function is called, the message is still printed by the first function, but the returned value is not used.

Note:

Return values can be ignored, but a function that says it will return a value must always do so. A function with a defined return type cannot allow control to fall out of the bottom of the function without returning a value, and attempting to do so will result in a compile-time error.

Functions with Multiple Return Values

You can use a tuple type as the return type for a function to return multiple values as part of one compound return value.

The example below defines a function called count , which counts the number of vowels, consonants, and other characters in a string, based on the standard set of vowels and consonants used in American English:

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Functions

Function Parameter Names func count(string: String) -> (vowels: Int, consonants: Int, others: Int) { var vowels = 0, consonants = 0, others = 0 for character in string { switch

String(character).lowercaseString { case

"a", "e", "i", "o", "u":

++vowels case

"b", "c", "d", "f", "g", "h", "j", "k", "l", "m",

"n", "p", "q", "r", "s", "t", "v", "w", "x", "y", "z":

++consonants default

++others

}

} return

(vowels, consonants, others)

}

You can use this count function to count the characters in an arbitrary string, and to retrieve the counted totals as a tuple of three named Int values: let total = count("some arbitrary string!") println("\(total.vowels) vowels and \(total.consonants) consonants")

// prints "6 vowels and 13 consonants"

Note that the tuple’s members do not need to be named at the point that the tuple is returned from the function, because their names are already specified as part of the function’s return type.

Function Parameter Names

All of the above functions define

parameter names

for their parameters: func someFunction(parameterName: Int) {

// function body goes here, and can use parameterName

// to refer to the argument value for that parameter

}

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Function Parameter Names

However, these parameter names are only used within the body of the function itself, and cannot be used when calling the function. These kinds of parameter names are known as

local parameter names

, because they are only available for use within the function’s body.

External Parameter Names

Sometimes it’s useful to name each parameter when you

call

a function, to indicate the purpose of each argument you pass to the function.

If you want users of your function to provide parameter names when they call your function, define an

external parameter name

for each parameter, in addition to the local parameter name. You write an external parameter name before the local parameter name it supports, separated by a space: func someFunction(externalParameterName localParameterName: Int) {

// function body goes here, and can use localParameterName

// to refer to the argument value for that parameter

}

Note:

If you provide an external parameter name for a parameter, that external name must

always

be used when calling the function.

As an example, consider the following function, which joins two strings by inserting a third “joiner” string between them: func join(s1: String, s2: String, joiner: String) -> String { return s1 + joiner + s2

}

When you call this function, the purpose of the three strings that you pass to the function is unclear: join("hello", "world", ", ")

// returns "hello, world"

To make the purpose of these

String values clearer, define external parameter names for each join function parameter: func join(string s1: String, toString s2: String, withJoiner joiner: String)

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}

-> String { return s1 + joiner + s2

In this version of the join function, the first parameter has an external name of string and a local name of s1 ; the second parameter has an external name of toString and a local name of s2 ; and the third parameter has an external name of withJoiner and a local name of joiner .

You can now use these external parameter names to call the function in a clear and unambiguous way: join(string: "hello", toString: "world", withJoiner: ", ")

// returns "hello, world"

The use of external parameter names enables this second version of the join function to be called in an expressive, sentence-like manner by users of the function, while still providing a function body that is readable and clear in intent.

Note:

Consider using external parameter names whenever the purpose of a function’s arguments would be unclear to someone reading your code for the first time. You do not need to specify external parameter names if the purpose of each parameter is clear and unambiguous when the function is called.

Shorthand External Parameter Names

If you want to provide an external parameter name for a function parameter, and the local parameter name is already an appropriate name to use, you do not need to write the same name twice for that parameter.

Instead, write the name once, and prefix the name with a hash symbol ( # ). This tells Swift to use that name as both the local parameter name and the external parameter name.

This example defines a function called containsCharacter , which defines external parameter names for both of its parameters by placing a hash symbol before their local parameter names: func containsCharacter(#string: String, #characterToFind: Character) -> Bool { for character in string { if character == characterToFind { return true

}

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Function Parameter Names

}

} return false

This function’s choice of parameter names makes for a clear, readable function body, while also enabling the function to be called without ambiguity: let containsAVee = containsCharacter(string: "aardvark", characterToFind: "v")

// containsAVee equals true, because "aardvark" contains a "v"

Default Parameter Values

You can define a

default value

for any parameter as part of a function’s definition. If a default value is defined, you can omit that parameter when calling the function.

Note:

Place parameters with default values at the end of a function’s parameter list. This ensures that all calls to the function use the same order for their non-default arguments, and makes it clear that the same function is being called in each case.

Here’s a version of the join function from earlier, which provides a default value for its joiner parameter: func join(string s1: String, toString s2: String, withJoiner joiner: String = " ") -> String { return s1 + joiner + s2

}

If a string value for joiner is provided when the join function is called, that string value is used to join the two strings together, as before: join(string: "hello", toString: "world", withJoiner: "-")

// returns "hello-world"

However, if no value of joiner is provided when the function is called, the default value of a single space ( "

) is used instead: join(string: "hello", toString: "world")

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// returns "hello world"

External Names for Parameters with Default Values

In most cases, it is useful to provide (and therefore require) an external name for any parameter with a default value. This ensures that the argument for that parameter is clear in purpose if a value is provided when the function is called.

To make this process easier, Swift provides an automatic external name for any defaulted parameter you define, if you do not provide an external name yourself. The automatic external name is the same as the local name, as if you had written a hash symbol before the local name in your code.

Here’s a version of the join function from earlier, which does not provide external names for any of its parameters, but still provides a default value for its joiner parameter: func join(s1: String, s2: String, joiner: String = " ") -> String { return s1 + joiner + s2

}

In this case, Swift automatically provides an external parameter name of joiner for the defaulted parameter.

The external name must therefore be provided when calling the function, making the parameter’s purpose clear and unambiguous: join("hello", "world", joiner: "-")

// returns "hello-world"

Note:

You can opt out of this behavior by writing an underscore ( _ ) instead of an explicit external name when you define the parameter. However, external names for defaulted parameters are always preferred where appropriate.

Variadic Parameters

variadic parameter

accepts zero or more values of a specified type. You use a variadic parameter to specify that the parameter can be passed a varying number of input values when the function is called. Write variadic parameters by inserting three period characters (

...

) after the parameter’s type name.

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Function Parameter Names

The values passed to a variadic parameter are made available within the function’s body as an array of the appropriate type. For example, a variadic parameter with a name of numbers and a type of Double...

is made available within the function’s body as a constant array called numbers of type

Double[]

The example below calculates the

arithmetic mean

(also known as the

average

) for a list of numbers of any length: func arithmeticMean(numbers: Double...) -> Double { var total: Double = 0 for number in numbers { total += number

} return total / Double(numbers.count)

} arithmeticMean(1, 2, 3, 4, 5)

// returns 3.0, which is the arithmetic mean of these five numbers arithmeticMean(3, 8, 19)

// returns 10.0, which is the arithmetic mean of these three numbers

Note:

A function may have at most one variadic parameter, and it must always appear last in the parameter list, to avoid ambiguity when calling the function with multiple parameters.

If your function has one or more parameters with a default value, and also has a variadic parameter, place the variadic parameter after all the defaulted parameters at the very end of the list.

Constant and Variable Parameters

Function parameters are constants by default. Trying to change the value of a function parameter from within the body of that function results in a compile-time error. This means that you can’t change the value of a parameter by mistake.

However, sometimes it is useful for a function to have a

variable

copy of a parameter’s value to work with.

You can avoid defining a new variable yourself within the function by specifying one or more parameters as

variable parameters

instead. Variable parameters are available as variables rather than as constants, and give a new modifiable copy of the parameter’s value for your function to work with.

Define variable parameters by prefixing the parameter name with the keyword var : func alignRight( var string: String, count: Int, pad: Character) -> String {

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Functions

Function Parameter Names let amountToPad = count - countElements(string) for _ in

1...amountToPad { string = pad + string

} return string

} let originalString = "hello" let paddedString = alignRight(originalString, 10, "-")

// paddedString is equal to "-----hello"

// originalString is still equal to "hello"

This example defines a new function called alignRight

, which aligns an input string to the right edge of a longer output string. Any space on the left is filled with a specified padding character. In this example, the string "hello" is converted to the string "-----hello" .

The alignRight function defines the input parameter string to be a variable parameter. This means that string is now available as a local variable, initialized with the passed-in string value, and can be manipulated within the body of the function.

The function starts by working out how many characters need to be added to the left of string in order to right-align it within the overall string. This value is stored in a local constant called amountToPad . The function then adds amountToPad copies of the pad character to the left of the existing string and returns the result.

It uses the string variable parameter for all its string manipulation.

Note:

The changes you make to a variable parameter do not persist beyond the end of each call to the function, and are not visible outside the function’s body. The variable parameter only exists for the lifetime of that function call.

In-Out Parameters

Variable parameters, as described above, can only be changed within the function itself. If you want a function to modify a parameter’s value, and you want those changes to persist after the function call has ended, define that parameter as an

in-out parameter

instead.

You write an in-out parameter by placing the inout keyword at the start of its parameter definition. An in-out parameter has a value that is passed

to the function, is modified by the function, and is passed back

out

of the function to replace the original value.

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Function Parameter Names

You can only pass a variable as the argument for an in-out parameter. You cannot pass a constant or a literal value as the argument, because constants and literals cannot be modified. You place an ampersand ( & ) directly before a variable’s name when you pass it as an argument to an inout parameter, to indicate that it can be modified by the function.

Note:

In-out parameters cannot have default values, and variadic parameters cannot be marked as inout . If you mark a parameter as inout , it cannot also be marked as var or let .

Here’s an example of a function called swapTwoInts , which has two in-out integer parameters called a and b

: func swapTwoInts( inout a: Int, inout b: Int) { let temporaryA = a a = b b = temporaryA

}

The swapTwoInts function simply swaps the value of b into a

, and the value of a into b

. The function performs this swap by storing the value of a in a temporary constant called temporaryA , assigning the value of b to a , and then assigning temporaryA to b .

You can call the swapTwoInts function with two variables of type

Int to swap their values. Note that the names of someInt and anotherInt are prefixed with an ampersand when they are passed to the swapTwoInts function: var someInt = 3 var anotherInt = 107 swapTwoInts(&someInt, &anotherInt) println("someInt is now \(someInt), and anotherInt is now \(anotherInt)")

// prints "someInt is now 107, and anotherInt is now 3"

The example above shows that the original values of someInt and anotherInt are modified by the swapTwoInts function, even though they were originally defined outside of the function.

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Note:

In-out parameters are not the same as returning a value from a function. The swapTwoInts example above does not define a return type or return a value, but it still modifies the values of someInt and anotherInt

. In-out parameters are an alternative way for a function to have an effect outside of the scope of its function body.

Function Types

Every function has a specific

function type

, made up of the parameter types and the return type of the function.

For example: func addTwoInts(a: Int, b: Int) -> Int { return a + b

} func multiplyTwoInts(a: Int, b: Int) -> Int { return a * b

}

This example defines two simple mathematical functions called addTwoInts and multiplyTwoInts . These functions each take two Int values, and return an Int value, which is the result of performing an appropriate mathematical operation.

The type of both of these functions is

(Int, Int) -> Int

. This can be read as:

“A function type that has two parameters, both of type Int , and that returns a value of type Int .”

Here’s another example, for a function with no parameters or return value: func printHelloWorld() { println("hello, world")

}

The type of this function is

() -> ()

, or “a function that has no parameters, and returns

Void

.” Functions that don’t specify a return value always return Void , which is equivalent to an empty tuple in Swift, shown as

() .

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Function Types

Using Function Types

You use function types just like any other types in Swift. For example, you can define a constant or variable to be of a function type and assign an appropriate function to that variable: var mathFunction: (Int, Int) -> Int = addTwoInts

This can be read as:

“Define a variable called mathFunction

, which has a type of ‘a function that takes two

Int values, and returns an Int value.’ Set this new variable to refer to the function called addTwoInts .”

The addTwoInts function has the same type as the mathFunction variable, and so this assignment is allowed by Swift’s type-checker.

You can now call the assigned function with the name mathFunction

: println("Result: \(mathFunction(2, 3))")

// prints "Result: 5"

A different function with the same matching type can be assigned to the same variable, in the same way as for non-function types: mathFunction = multiplyTwoInts println("Result: \(mathFunction(2, 3))")

// prints "Result: 6"

As with any other type, you can leave it to Swift to infer the function type when you assign a function to a constant or variable: let anotherMathFunction = addTwoInts

// anotherMathFunction is inferred to be of type (Int, Int) -> Int

Function Types as Parameter Types

You can use a function type such as

(Int, Int) -> Int as a parameter type for another function. This enables you to leave some aspects of a function’s implementation for the function’s caller to provide when the function is called.

Here’s an example to print the results of the math functions from above:

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Functions

Function Types func printMathResult(mathFunction: (Int, Int) -> Int, a: Int, b: Int) { println("Result: \(mathFunction(a, b))")

} printMathResult(addTwoInts, 3, 5)

// prints "Result: 8"

This example defines a function called printMathResult

, which has three parameters. The first parameter is called mathFunction , and is of type (Int, Int) -> Int . You can pass any function of that type as the argument for this first parameter. The second and third parameters are called a and b , and are both of type

Int

. These are used as the two input values for the provided math function.

When printMathResult is called, it is passed the addTwoInts function, and the integer values 3 and 5 . It calls the provided function with the values 3 and 5 , and prints the result of 8 .

The role of printMathResult is to print the result of a call to a math function of an appropriate type. It doesn’t matter what that function’s implementation actually does—it matters only that the function is of the correct type. This enables printMathResult to hand off some of its functionality to the caller of the function in a type-safe way.

Function Types as Return Types

You can use a function type as the return type of another function. You do this by writing a complete function type immediately after the return arrow ( -> ) of the returning function.

The next example defines two simple functions called stepForward and stepBackward

. The stepForward function returns a value one more than its input value, and the stepBackward function returns a value one less than its input value. Both functions have a type of (Int) -> Int : func stepForward(input: Int) -> Int { return input + 1

} func stepBackward(input: Int) -> Int { return input - 1

}

Here’s a function called chooseStepFunction , whose return type is “a function of type (Int) -> Int ”.

chooseStepFunction returns the stepForward function or the stepBackward function based on a Boolean parameter called backwards :

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Functions

Nested Functions func chooseStepFunction(backwards: Bool) -> (Int) -> Int { return backwards ? stepBackward : stepForward

}

You can now use chooseStepFunction to obtain a function that will step in one direction or the other: var currentValue = 3 let moveNearerToZero = chooseStepFunction(currentValue > 0)

// moveNearerToZero now refers to the stepBackward() function

The preceding example works out whether a positive or negative step is needed to move a variable called currentValue progressively closer to zero.

currentValue has an initial value of 3 , which means that currentValue > 0 returns true , causing chooseStepFunction to return the stepBackward function.

A reference to the returned function is stored in a constant called moveNearerToZero .

Now that moveNearerToZero refers to the correct function, it can be used to count to zero: println("Counting to zero:")

// Counting to zero: while currentValue != 0 { println("\(currentValue)... ") currentValue = moveNearerToZero(currentValue)

} println("zero!")

// 3...

// 2...

// 1...

// zero!

Nested Functions

All of the functions you have encountered so far in this chapter have been examples of

global functions

, which are defined at a global scope. You can also define functions inside the bodies of other functions, known as

nested functions

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Nested Functions

Nested functions are hidden from the outside world by default, but can still be called and used by their enclosing function. An enclosing function can also return one of its nested functions to allow the nested function to be used in another scope.

You can rewrite the chooseStepFunction example above to use and return nested functions: func chooseStepFunction(backwards: Bool) -> (Int) -> Int { func stepForward(input: Int) -> Int { return input + 1 } func stepBackward(input: Int) -> Int { return input - 1 } return backwards ? stepBackward : stepForward

} var currentValue = -4 let moveNearerToZero = chooseStepFunction(currentValue > 0)

// moveNearerToZero now refers to the nested stepForward() function while currentValue != 0 { println("\(currentValue)... ") currentValue = moveNearerToZero(currentValue)

} println("zero!")

// -4...

// -3...

// -2...

// -1...

// zero!

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Closures

are self-contained blocks of functionality that can be passed around and used in your code. Closures in Swift are similar to blocks in C and Objective-C and to lambdas in other programming languages.

Closures can capture and store references to any constants and variables from the context in which they are defined. This is known as

closing

over those constants and variables, hence the name “closures”. Swift handles all of the memory management of capturing for you.

Note:

Don’t worry if you are not familiar with the concept of “capturing”. It is explained in detail below in

Capturing Values

(page 144)

Global and nested functions, as introduced in

Functions

(page 120), are actually special cases of closures.

Closures take one of three forms:

●

Global functions are closures that have a name and do not capture any values.

●

Nested functions are closures that have a name and can capture values from their enclosing function.

Closure expressions are unnamed closures written in a lightweight syntax that can capture values from their surrounding context.

Swift’s closure expressions have a clean, clear style, with optimizations that encourage brief, clutter-free syntax in common scenarios. These optimizations include:

●

Inferring parameter and return value types from context

●

Implicit returns from single-expression closures

Shorthand argument names

●

Trailing closure syntax

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Closures

Closure Expressions

Nested functions, as introduced in

Nested Functions

(page 135), are a convenient means of naming and defining

self-contained blocks of code as part of a larger function. However, it is sometimes useful to write shorter versions of function-like constructs without a full declaration and name. This is particularly true when you work with functions that take other functions as one or more of their arguments.

Closure expressions

are a way to write inline closures in a brief, focused syntax. Closure expressions provide several syntax optimizations for writing closures in their simplest form without loss of clarity or intent. The closure expression examples below illustrate these optimizations by refining a single example of the sort function over several iterations, each of which expresses the same functionality in a more succinct way.

The Sort Function

Swift’s standard library provides a function called sort , which sorts an array of values of a known type, based on the output of a sorting closure that you provide. Once it completes the sorting process, the sort function returns a new array of the same type and size as the old one, with its elements in the correct sorted order.

The closure expression examples below use the sort function to sort an array of String values in reverse alphabetical order. Here’s the initial array to be sorted: let names = ["Chris", "Alex", "Ewa", "Barry", "Daniella"]

The sort function takes two arguments:

●

An array of values of a known type.

●

A closure that takes two arguments of the same type as the array’s contents, and returns a Bool value to say whether the first value should appear before or after the second value once the values are sorted. The sorting closure needs to return true if the first value should appear

before

the second value, and false otherwise.

This example is sorting an array of String values, and so the sorting closure needs to be a function of type

(String, String) -> Bool .

One way to provide the sorting closure is to write a normal function of the correct type, and to pass it in as the sort function’s second parameter: func backwards(s1: String, s2: String) -> Bool { return s1 > s2

}

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Closure Expressions var reversed = sort(names, backwards)

// reversed is equal to ["Ewa", "Daniella", "Chris", "Barry", "Alex"]

If the first string ( s1

) is greater than the second string ( s2

), the backwards function will return true

, indicating that s1 should appear before s2 in the sorted array. For characters in strings, “greater than” means “appears later in the alphabet than”. This means that the letter "B" is “greater than” the letter "A" , and the string "Tom" is greater than the string

"Tim"

. This gives a reverse alphabetical sort, with

"Barry" being placed before

"Alex" , and so on.

However, this is a rather long-winded way to write what is essentially a single-expression function ( a > b ). In this example, it would be preferable to write the sorting closure inline, using closure expression syntax.

Closure Expression Syntax

Closure expression syntax has the following general form:

{ (parameters ) -> return type in

statements

}

Closure expression syntax can use constant parameters, variable parameters, and inout parameters. Default values cannot be provided. Variadic parameters can be used if you name the variadic parameter and place it last in the parameter list. Tuples can also be used as parameter types and return types.

The example below shows a closure expression version of the backwards function from earlier: reversed = sort(names, { (s1: String, s2: String) -> Bool in return s1 > s2

})

Note that the declaration of parameters and return type for this inline closure is identical to the declaration from the backwards function. In both cases, it is written as

(s1: String, s2: String) -> Bool

. However, for the inline closure expression, the parameters and return type are written

inside

the curly braces, not outside of them.

The start of the closure’s body is introduced by the in keyword. This keyword indicates that the definition of the closure’s parameters and return type has finished, and the body of the closure is about to begin.

Because the body of the closure is so short, it can even be written on a single line:

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Closures

Closure Expressions reversed = sort(names, { (s1: String, s2: String) -> Bool in return s1 > s2 } )

This illustrates that the overall call to the sort function has remained the same. A pair of parentheses still wrap the entire set of arguments for the function. However, one of those arguments is now an inline closure.

Inferring Type From Context

Because the sorting closure is passed as an argument to a function, Swift can infer the types of its parameters and the type of the value it returns from the type of the sort function’s second parameter. This parameter is expecting a function of type (String, String) -> Bool . This means that the String , String , and Bool types do not need to be written as part of the closure expression’s definition. Because all of the types can be inferred, the return arrow (

) and the parentheses around the names of the parameters can also be omitted: reversed = sort(names, { s1, s2 in return s1 > s2 } )

It is always possible to infer parameter types and return type when passing a closure to a function as an inline closure expression. As a result, you rarely need to write an inline closure in its fullest form.

Nonetheless, you can make the types explicit if you wish, and doing so is encouraged if it avoids ambiguity for readers of your code. In the case of the sort function, the purpose of the closure is clear from the fact that sorting is taking place, and it is safe for a reader to assume that the closure is likely to be working with String values, because it is assisting with the sorting of an array of strings.

Implicit Returns from Single-Expression Closures

Single-expression closures can implicitly return the result of their single expression by omitting the return keyword from their declaration, as in this version of the previous example: reversed = sort(names, { s1, s2 in s1 > s2 } )

Here, the function type of the sort function’s second argument makes it clear that a Bool value must be returned by the closure. Because the closure’s body contains a single expression ( s1 > s2

) that returns a

Bool value, there is no ambiguity, and the return keyword can be omitted.

Shorthand Argument Names

Swift automatically provides shorthand argument names to inline closures, which can be used to refer to the values of the closure’s arguments by the names $0 , $1 , $2 , and so on.

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Closures

Trailing Closures

If you use these shorthand argument names within your closure expression, you can omit the closure’s argument list from its definition, and the number and type of the shorthand argument names will be inferred from the expected function type. The in keyword can also be omitted, because the closure expression is made up entirely of its body: reversed = sort(names, { $0 > $1 } )

Here, $0 and $1 refer to the closure’s first and second String arguments.

Operator Functions

There’s actually an even

shorter

way to write the closure expression above. Swift’s

String type defines its string-specific implementation of the greater-than operator ( > ) as a function that has two parameters of type

String , and returns a value of type Bool . This exactly matches the function type needed for the sort function’s second parameter. Therefore, you can simply pass in the greater-than operator, and Swift will infer that you want to use its string-specific implementation: reversed = sort(names, >)

For more about operator functions, see

Operator Functions

(page 338).

Trailing Closures

If you need to pass a closure expression to a function as the function’s final argument and the closure expression is long, it can be useful to write it as a

trailing closure

instead. A trailing closure is a closure expression that is written outside of (and

after

) the parentheses of the function call it supports: func someFunctionThatTakesAClosure(closure: () -> ()) {

// function body goes here

}

// here's how you call this function without using a trailing closure: someFunctionThatTakesAClosure({

// closure's body goes here

})

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Closures

Trailing Closures

// here's how you call this function with a trailing closure instead: someFunctionThatTakesAClosure() {

// trailing closure's body goes here

}

Note:

If a closure expression is provided as the function’s only argument and you provide that expression as a trailing closure, you do not need to write a pair of parentheses () after the function’s name when you call the function.

The string-sorting closure from the

Closure Expression Syntax

(page 139) section above can be written outside of the sort function’s parentheses as a trailing closure: reversed = sort(names) { $0 > $1 }

Trailing closures are most useful when the closure is sufficiently long that it is not possible to write it inline on a single line. As an example, Swift’s Array type has a map method which takes a closure expression as its single argument. The closure is called once for each item in the array, and returns an alternative mapped value

(possibly of some other type) for that item. The nature of the mapping and the type of the returned value is left up to the closure to specify.

After applying the provided closure to each array element, the map method returns a new array containing all of the new mapped values, in the same order as their corresponding values in the original array.

Here’s how you can use the map method with a trailing closure to convert an array of Int values into an array of String values. The array [16, 58, 510] is used to create the new array ["OneSix", "FiveEight",

"FiveOneZero"]

: let digitNames = [

0: "Zero", 1: "One", 2: "Two", 3: "Three", 4: "Four",

5: "Five", 6: "Six", 7: "Seven", 8: "Eight", 9: "Nine"

] let numbers = [16, 58, 510]

The code above creates a dictionary of mappings between the integer digits and English-language versions of their names. It also defines an array of integers, ready to be converted into strings.

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Closures

Trailing Closures

You can now use the numbers array to create an array of String values, by passing a closure expression to the array’s map method as a trailing closure. Note that the call to numbers.map

does not need to include any parentheses after map , because the map method has only one parameter, and that parameter is provided as a trailing closure: let strings = numbers.map {

( var number) -> String in var output = "" while number > 0 { output = digitNames[number % 10]! + output number /= 10

} return output

}

// strings is inferred to be of type String[]

// its value is ["OneSix", "FiveEight", "FiveOneZero"]

The map function calls the closure expression once for each item in the array. You do not need to specify the type of the closure’s input parameter, number , because the type can be inferred from the values in the array to be mapped.

In this example, the closure’s number parameter is defined as a

variable parameter

, as described in

Constant and Variable Parameters

(page 129), so that the parameter’s value can be modified within the closure body, rather than declaring a new local variable and assigning the passed number value to it. The closure expression also specifies a return type of String , to indicate the type that will be stored in the mapped output array.

The closure expression builds a string called output each time it is called. It calculates the last digit of number by using the remainder operator ( number % 10

), and uses this digit to look up an appropriate string in the digitNames dictionary.

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Closures

Capturing Values

Note:

The call to the digitNames dictionary’s subscript is followed by an exclamation mark ( !

), because dictionary subscripts return an optional value to indicate that the dictionary lookup can fail if the key does not exist. In the example above, it is guaranteed that number % 10 will always be a valid subscript key for the digitNames dictionary, and so an exclamation mark is used to force-unwrap the String value stored in the subscript’s optional return value.

The string retrieved from the digitNames dictionary is added to the

front

of output , effectively building a string version of the number in reverse. (The expression number % 10 gives a value of

6 for

8 for

, and

0 for 510 .)

The number variable is then divided by 10 . Because it is an integer, it is rounded down during the division, so

16 becomes

58 becomes

, and

510 becomes

The process is repeated until number /= 10 is equal to 0 , at which point the output string is returned by the closure, and is added to the output array by the map function.

The use of trailing closure syntax in the example above neatly encapsulates the closure’s functionality immediately after the function that closure supports, without needing to wrap the entire closure within the map function’s outer parentheses.

Capturing Values

A closure can

capture

constants and variables from the surrounding context in which it is defined. The closure can then refer to and modify the values of those constants and variables from within its body, even if the original scope that defined the constants and variables no longer exists.

The simplest form of a closure in Swift is a nested function, written within the body of another function. A nested function can capture any of its outer function’s arguments and can also capture any constants and variables defined within the outer function.

Here’s an example of a function called makeIncrementor

, which contains a nested function called incrementor . The nested incrementor function captures two values, runningTotal and amount , from its surrounding context. After capturing these values, incrementor is returned by makeIncrementor as a closure that increments runningTotal by amount each time it is called.

func makeIncrementor(forIncrement amount: Int) -> () -> Int { var runningTotal = 0 func incrementor() -> Int {

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Closures

Capturing Values

} runningTotal += amount return runningTotal

} return incrementor

The return type of makeIncrementor is () -> Int . This means that it returns a

function

, rather than a simple value. The function it returns has no parameters, and returns an Int value each time it is called. To learn how functions can return other functions, see

Function Types as Return Types

(page 134).

The makeIncrementor function defines an integer variable called runningTotal

, to store the current running total of the incrementor that will be returned. This variable is initialized with a value of 0 .

The makeIncrementor function has a single Int parameter with an external name of forIncrement , and a local name of amount

. The argument value passed to this parameter specifies how much runningTotal should be incremented by each time the returned incrementor function is called.

makeIncrementor defines a nested function called incrementor , which performs the actual incrementing.

This function simply adds amount to runningTotal , and returns the result.

When considered in isolation, the nested incrementor function might seem unusual: func incrementor() -> Int { runningTotal += amount return runningTotal

}

The incrementor function doesn’t have any parameters, and yet it refers to runningTotal and amount from within its function body. It does this by capturing the

existing

values of runningTotal and amount from its surrounding function and using them within its own function body.

Because it does not modify amount , incrementor actually captures and stores a

copy

of the value stored in amount . This value is stored along with the new incrementor function.

However, because it modifies the runningTotal variable each time it is called, incrementor captures a

reference

to the current runningTotal variable, and not just a copy of its initial value. Capturing a reference ensures sure that runningTotal does not disappear when the call to makeIncrementor ends, and ensures that runningTotal will continue to be available the next time that the incrementor function is called.

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Capturing Values

Note:

Swift determines what should be captured by reference and what should be copied by value.

You don’t need to annotate amount or runningTotal to say that they can be used within the nested incrementor function. Swift also handles all memory management involved in disposing of runningTotal when it is no longer needed by the incrementor function.

Here’s an example of makeIncrementor in action: let incrementByTen = makeIncrementor(forIncrement: 10)

This example sets a constant called incrementByTen to refer to an incrementor function that adds

10 to its runningTotal variable each time it is called. Calling the function multiple times shows this behavior in action: incrementByTen()

// returns a value of 10 incrementByTen()

// returns a value of 20 incrementByTen()

// returns a value of 30

If you create another incrementor, it will have its own stored reference to a new, separate runningTotal variable. In the example below, incrementBySeven captures a reference to a new runningTotal variable, and this variable is unconnected to the one captured by incrementByTen

: let incrementBySeven = makeIncrementor(forIncrement: 7) incrementBySeven()

// returns a value of 7 incrementByTen()

// returns a value of 40

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Closures

Closures Are Reference Types

Note:

If you assign a closure to a property of a class instance, and the closure captures that instance by referring to the instance or its members, you will create a strong reference cycle between the closure and the instance. Swift uses

capture lists

to break these strong reference cycles. For more information, see

Strong Reference Cycles for Closures

(page 250)

Closures Are Reference Types

In the example above, incrementBySeven and incrementByTen are constants, but the closures these constants refer to are still able to increment the runningTotal variables that they have captured. This is because functions and closures are

reference types

Whenever you assign a function or a closure to a constant or a variable, you are actually setting that constant or variable to be a

reference

to the function or closure. In the example above, it is the choice of closure that incrementByTen

refers to

that is constant, and not the contents of the closure itself.

This also means that if you assign a closure to two different constants or variables, both of those constants or variables will refer to the same closure: let alsoIncrementByTen = incrementByTen alsoIncrementByTen()

// returns a value of 50

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Enumerations

enumeration

defines a common type for a group of related values and enables you to work with those values in a type-safe way within your code.

If you are familiar with C, you will know that C enumerations assign related names to a set of integer values.

Enumerations in Swift are much more flexible, and do not have to provide a value for each member of the enumeration. If a value (known as a “raw” value)

provided for each enumeration member, the value can be a string, a character, or a value of any integer or floating-point type.

Alternatively, enumeration members can specify associated values of

any

type to be stored along with each different member value, much as unions or variants do in other languages. You can define a common set of related members as part of one enumeration, each of which has a different set of values of appropriate types associated with it.

Enumerations in Swift are first-class types in their own right. They adopt many features traditionally supported only by classes, such as computed properties to provide additional information about the enumeration’s current value, and instance methods to provide functionality related to the values the enumeration represents.

Enumerations can also define initializers to provide an initial member value; can be extended to expand their functionality beyond their original implementation; and can conform to protocols to provide standard functionality.

For more on these capabilities, see

Properties

(page 170),

Methods

(page 185),

Enumeration Syntax

You introduce enumerations with the enum keyword and place their entire definition within a pair of braces: enum

SomeEnumeration {

// enumeration definition goes here

}

Here’s an example for the four main points of a compass:

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Enumerations

Enumeration Syntax enum

CompassPoint { case

North case

South case

East case

West

}

The values defined in an enumeration (such as

North

South

East

, and

West

) are the

member values

(or

members

) of that enumeration. The case keyword indicates that a new line of member values is about to be defined.

Note:

Unlike C and Objective-C, Swift enumeration members are not assigned a default integer value when they are created. In the

CompassPoints example above,

North

South

East and

West do not implicitly equal 0 , 1 , 2 and 3 . Instead, the different enumeration members are fully-fledged values in their own right, with an explicitly-defined type of CompassPoint .

Multiple member values can appear on a single line, separated by commas: enum

Planet { case

Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune

}

Each enumeration definition defines a brand new type. Like other types in Swift, their names (such as

CompassPoint and Planet ) should start with a capital letter. Give enumeration types singular rather than plural names, so that they read as self-evident: var directionToHead = CompassPoint.West

The type of directionToHead is inferred when it is initialized with one of the possible values of CompassPoint .

Once directionToHead is declared as a CompassPoint , you can set it to a different CompassPoint value using a shorter dot syntax: directionToHead = .East

The type of directionToHead is already known, and so you can drop the type when setting its value. This makes for highly readable code when working with explicitly-typed enumeration values.

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Enumerations

Matching Enumeration Values with a Switch Statement

You can match individual enumeration values with a switch statement: directionToHead = .South

switch directionToHead { case

.North: println("Lots of planets have a north") case

.South: println("Watch out for penguins") case

.East: println("Where the sun rises") case

.West: println("Where the skies are blue")

}

// prints "Watch out for penguins"

You can read this code as:

“Consider the value of directionToHead . In the case where it equals .North

, print "Lots of planets have a north"

. In the case where it equals

.South

, print

"Watch out for penguins"

.”

…and so on.

As described in

Control Flow

(page 95), a

switch statement must be exhaustive when considering an enumeration’s members. If the case for .West

is omitted, this code does not compile, because it does not consider the complete list of

CompassPoint members. Requiring exhaustiveness ensures that enumeration members are not accidentally omitted.

When it is not appropriate to provide a case for every enumeration member, you can provide a default case to cover any members that are not addressed explicitly: let somePlanet = Planet.Earth

switch somePlanet { case

.Earth: println("Mostly harmless") default

: println("Not a safe place for humans")

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Enumerations

Associated Values

}

// prints "Mostly harmless"

Associated Values

The examples in the previous section show how the members of an enumeration are a defined (and typed) value in their own right. You can set a constant or variable to

Planet.Earth

, and check for this value later.

However, it is sometimes useful to be able to store

associated values

of other types alongside these member values. This enables you to store additional custom information along with the member value, and permits this information to vary each time you use that member in your code.

You can define Swift enumerations to store associated values of any given type, and the value types can be different for each member of the enumeration if needed. Enumerations similar to these are known as

discriminated unions

tagged unions

, or

variants

in other programming languages.

For example, suppose an inventory tracking system needs to track products by two different types of barcode.

Some products are labeled with 1D barcodes in UPC-A format, which uses the numbers 0 to 9 . Each barcode has a “number system” digit, followed by ten “identifier” digits. These are followed by a “check” digit to verify that the code has been scanned correctly:

Other products are labeled with 2D barcodes in QR code format, which can use any ISO 8859-1 character and can encode a string up to 2,953 characters long:

It would be convenient for an inventory tracking system to be able to store UPC-A barcodes as a tuple of three integers, and QR code barcodes as a string of any length.

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Enumerations

Associated Values

In Swift, an enumeration to define product barcodes of either type might look like this: enum

Barcode { case

UPCA(Int, Int, Int) case

QRCode(String)

}

This can be read as:

“Define an enumeration type called

Barcode

, which can take either a value of

UPCA with an associated value of type ( Int , Int , Int ), or a value of QRCode with an associated value of type String .”

This definition does not provide any actual Int or String values—it just defines the

type

of associated values that

Barcode constants and variables can store when they are equal to

Barcode.UPCA

Barcode.QRCode

New barcodes can then be created using either type: var productBarcode = Barcode.UPCA(8, 85909_51226, 3)

This example creates a new variable called productBarcode and assigns it a value of Barcode.UPCA

with an associated tuple value of (8, 8590951226, 3) . The provided “identifier” value has an underscore within its integer literal— 85909_51226 —to make it easier to read as a barcode.

The same product can be assigned a different type of barcode: productBarcode = .QRCode("ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOP")

At this point, the original Barcode.UPCA

and its integer values are replaced by the new Barcode.QRCode

and its string value. Constants and variables of type Barcode can store either a .UPCA

or a .QRCode

(together with their associated values), but they can only store one of them at any given time.

The different barcode types can be checked using a switch statement, as before. This time, however, the associated values can be extracted as part of the switch statement. You extract each associated value as a constant (with the let prefix) or a variable (with the var prefix) for use within the switch case’s body: switch productBarcode { case

.UPCA( let numberSystem, let identifier, let check): println("UPC-A with value of \(numberSystem), \(identifier), \(check).")

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Raw Values case

.QRCode( let productCode): println("QR code with value of \(productCode).")

}

// prints "QR code with value of ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOP."

If all of the associated values for a enumeration member are extracted as constants, or if all are extracted as variables, you can place a single var or let annotation before the member name, for brevity: switch productBarcode { case let

.UPCA(numberSystem, identifier, check): println("UPC-A with value of \(numberSystem), \(identifier), \(check).") case let

.QRCode(productCode): println("QR code with value of \(productCode).")

}

// prints "QR code with value of ABCDEFGHIJKLMNOP."

Raw Values

The barcode example in

Associated Values

(page 151) shows how members of an enumeration can declare that they store associated values of different types. As an alternative to associated values, enumeration members can come prepopulated with default values (called

raw values

), which are all of the same type.

Here’s an example that stores raw ASCII values alongside named enumeration members: enum

ASCIIControlCharacter: Character { case

Tab = "\t" case

LineFeed = "\n" case

CarriageReturn = "\r"

}

Here, the raw values for an enumeration called ASCIIControlCharacter are defined to be of type Character , and are set to some of the more common ASCII control characters.

Character values are described in

Strings and Characters

(page 71).

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Enumerations

Raw Values

Note that raw values are

not

the same as associated values. Raw values are set to prepopulated values when you first define the enumeration in your code, like the three ASCII codes above. The raw value for a particular enumeration member is always the same. Associated values are set when you create a new constant or variable based on one of the enumeration’s members, and can be different each time you do so.

Raw values can be strings, characters, or any of the integer or floating-point number types. Each raw value must be unique within its enumeration declaration. When integers are used for raw values, they auto-increment if no value is specified for some of the enumeration members.

The enumeration below is a refinement of the earlier Planet enumeration, with raw integer values to represent each planet’s order from the sun: enum

Planet: Int { case

Mercury = 1, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune

}

Auto-incrementation means that Planet.Venus

has a raw value of 2 , and so on.

Access the raw value of an enumeration member with its toRaw method: let earthsOrder = Planet.Earth.toRaw()

// earthsOrder is 3

Use an enumeration’s fromRaw method to try to find an enumeration member with a particular raw value.

This example identifies Uranus from its raw value of

: let possiblePlanet = Planet.fromRaw(7)

// possiblePlanet is of type Planet? and equals Planet.Uranus

Not all possible Int values will find a matching planet, however. Because of this, the fromRaw method returns an

optional

enumeration member. In the example above, possiblePlanet is of type

Planet?

, or “optional

Planet .”

If you try to find a Planet with a position of 9 , the optional Planet value returned by fromRaw will be nil : let positionToFind = 9 if let somePlanet = Planet.fromRaw(positionToFind) { switch somePlanet {

154

Enumerations

Raw Values case

.Earth: println("Mostly harmless") default

: println("Not a safe place for humans")

}

} else

{ println("There isn't a planet at position \(positionToFind)")

}

// prints "There isn't a planet at position 9"

This example uses optional binding to try to access a planet with a raw value of

. The statement if let somePlanet = Planet.fromRaw(9) retrieves an optional Planet , and sets somePlanet to the contents of that optional Planet if it can be retrieved. In this case, it is not possible to retrieve a planet with a position of

, and so the else branch is executed instead.

155

Classes and Structures

Classes

and

structures

are general-purpose, flexible constructs that become the building blocks of your program’s code. You define properties and methods to add functionality to your classes and structures by using exactly the same syntax as for constants, variables, and functions.

Unlike other programming languages, Swift does not require you to create separate interface and implementation files for custom classes and structures. In Swift, you define a class or a structure in a single file, and the external interface to that class or structure is automatically made available for other code to use.

Note:

An instance of a

class

is traditionally known as an

object

. However, Swift classes and structures are much closer in functionality than in other languages, and much of this chapter describes functionality that can apply to instances of

either

a class or a structure type. Because of this, the more general term

instance

is used.

Comparing Classes and Structures

Classes and structures in Swift have many things in common. Both can:

●

Define properties to store values

Define methods to provide functionality

●

Define subscripts to provide access to their values using subscript syntax

Define initializers to set up their initial state

●

Be extended to expand their functionality beyond a default implementation

Conform to protocols to provide standard functionality of a certain kind

For more information, see

Properties

(page 170),

Methods

(page 185),

Subscripts

(page 195),

Initialization

(page

209),

Extensions

(page 278), and

Protocols

(page 287).

Classes have additional capabilities that structures do not:

●

Inheritance enables one class to inherit the characteristics of another.

●

Type casting enables you to check and interpret the type of a class instance at runtime.

Deinitializers enable an instance of a class to free up any resources it has assigned.

156

Classes and Structures

Comparing Classes and Structures

●

Reference counting allows more than one reference to a class instance.

For more information, see

Inheritance

(page 200),

Type Casting

(page 267),

Initialization

(page 209), and

Automatic

Reference Counting

(page 237).

Note:

Structures are always copied when they are passed around in your code, and do not use reference counting.

Definition Syntax

Classes and structures have a similar definition syntax. You introduce classes with the class keyword and structures with the struct keyword. Both place their entire definition within a pair of braces: class

SomeClass {

// class definition goes here

} struct

SomeStructure {

// structure definition goes here

}

Note:

Whenever you define a new class or structure, you effectively define a brand new Swift type.

Give types UpperCamelCase names (such as SomeClass and SomeStructure here) to match the capitalization of standard Swift types (such as String , Int , and Bool ). Conversely, always give properties and methods lowerCamelCase names (such as frameRate and incrementCount

) to differentiate them from type names.

Here’s an example of a structure definition and a class definition: struct

Resolution { var width = 0 var height = 0

} class

VideoMode { var resolution = Resolution() var interlaced = false var frameRate = 0.0

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Classes and Structures

Comparing Classes and Structures

} var name: String?

The example above defines a new structure called

Resolution

, to describe a pixel-based display resolution.

This structure has two stored properties called width and height . Stored properties are constants or variables that are bundled up and stored as part of the class or structure. These two properties are inferred to be of type

Int by setting them to an initial integer value of 0 .

The example above also defines a new class called

VideoMode

, to describe a specific video mode for video display. This class has four variable stored properties. The first, resolution , is initialized with a new

Resolution structure instance, which infers a property type of Resolution . For the other three properties, new

VideoMode instances will be initialized with an interlaced setting of false

(meaning “non-interlaced video”), a playback frame rate of 0.0

, and an optional String value called name . The name property is automatically given a default value of nil , or “no name value”, because it is of an optional type.

Class and Structure Instances

The

Resolution structure definition and the

VideoMode class definition only describe what a

Resolution or VideoMode will look like. They themselves do not describe a specific resolution or video mode. To do that, you need to create an instance of the structure or class.

The syntax for creating instances is very similar for both structures and classes: let someResolution = Resolution() let someVideoMode = VideoMode()

Structures and classes both use initializer syntax for new instances. The simplest form of initializer syntax uses the type name of the class or structure followed by empty parentheses, such as Resolution() or VideoMode() .

This creates a new instance of the class or structure, with any properties initialized to their default values. Class and structure initialization is described in more detail in

Initialization

(page 209).

Accessing Properties

You can access the properties of an instance using

dot syntax

. In dot syntax, you write the property name immediately after the instance name, separated by a period ( .

), without any spaces: println("The width of someResolution is \(someResolution.width)")

// prints "The width of someResolution is 0"

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Classes and Structures

Structures and Enumerations Are Value Types

In this example, someResolution.width

refers to the width property of someResolution , and returns its default initial value of

You can drill down into sub-properties, such as the width property in the resolution property of a

VideoMode : println("The width of someVideoMode is \(someVideoMode.resolution.width)")

// prints "The width of someVideoMode is 0"

You can also use dot syntax to assign a new value to a variable property: someVideoMode.resolution.width = 1280 println("The width of someVideoMode is now \(someVideoMode.resolution.width)")

// prints "The width of someVideoMode is now 1280"

Note:

Unlike Objective-C, Swift enables you to set sub-properties of a structure property directly.

In the last example above, the width property of the resolution property of someVideoMode is set directly, without your needing to set the entire resolution property to a new value.

Memberwise Initializers for Structure Types

All structures have an automatically-generated

memberwise initializer

, which you can use to initialize the member properties of new structure instances. Initial values for the properties of the new instance can be passed to the memberwise initializer by name: let vga = Resolution(width: 640, height: 480)

Unlike structures, class instances do not receive a default memberwise initializer. Initializers are described in more detail in

Initialization

(page 209).

Structures and Enumerations Are Value Types

value type

is a type that is

copied

when it is assigned to a variable or constant, or when it is passed to a function.

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Classes and Structures

Structures and Enumerations Are Value Types

You’ve actually been using value types extensively throughout the previous chapters. In fact, all of the basic types in Swift—integers, floating-point numbers, Booleans, strings, arrays and dictionaries—are value types, and are implemented as structures behind the scenes.

All structures and enumerations are value types in Swift. This means that any structure and enumeration instances you create—and any value types they have as properties—are always copied when they are passed around in your code.

Consider this example, which uses the Resolution structure from the previous example: let hd = Resolution(width: 1920, height: 1080) var cinema = hd

This example declares a constant called hd and sets it to a Resolution instance initialized with the width and height of full HD video (

1920 pixels wide by

1080 pixels high).

It then declares a variable called cinema and sets it to the current value of hd . Because Resolution is a structure, a

copy

of the existing instance is made, and this new copy is assigned to cinema . Even though hd and cinema now have the same width and height, they are two completely different instances behind the scenes.

Next, the width property of cinema is amended to be the width of the slightly-wider 2K standard used for digital cinema projection ( 2048 pixels wide and 1080 pixels high): cinema.width = 2048

Checking the width property of cinema shows that it has indeed changed to be 2048 : println("cinema is now \(cinema.width) pixels wide")

// prints "cinema is now 2048 pixels wide"

However, the width property of the original hd instance still has the old value of

1920

: println("hd is still \(hd.width) pixels wide")

// prints "hd is still 1920 pixels wide"

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Classes and Structures

Classes Are Reference Types

When cinema was given the current value of hd , the

values

stored in hd were copied into the new cinema instance. The end result is two completely separate instances, which just happened to contain the same numeric values. Because they are separate instances, setting the width of cinema to

2048 doesn’t affect the width stored in hd .

The same behavior applies to enumerations: enum

CompassPoint { case

North, South, East, West

} var currentDirection = CompassPoint.West

let rememberedDirection = currentDirection currentDirection = .East

if rememberedDirection == .West { println("The remembered direction is still .West")

}

// prints "The remembered direction is still .West"

When rememberedDirection is assigned the value of currentDirection

, it is actually set to a copy of that value. Changing the value of currentDirection thereafter does not affect the copy of the original value that was stored in rememberedDirection .

Classes Are Reference Types

Unlike value types,

reference types

are

not

copied when they are assigned to a variable or constant, or when they are passed to a function. Rather than a copy, a reference to the same existing instance is used instead.

Here’s an example, using the VideoMode class defined above: let tenEighty = VideoMode() tenEighty.resolution = hd tenEighty.interlaced = true tenEighty.name = "1080i" tenEighty.frameRate = 25.0

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Classes and Structures

Classes Are Reference Types

This example declares a new constant called tenEighty and sets it to refer to a new instance of the VideoMode class. The video mode is assigned a copy of the HD resolution of

1920 by

1080 from before. It is set to be interlaced, and is given a name of "1080i" . Finally, it is set to a frame rate of 25.0

frames per second.

Next, tenEighty is assigned to a new constant, called alsoTenEighty , and the frame rate of alsoTenEighty is modified: let alsoTenEighty = tenEighty alsoTenEighty.frameRate = 30.0

Because classes are reference types, tenEighty and alsoTenEighty actually both refer to the

same

VideoMode instance. Effectively, they are just two different names for the same single instance.

Checking the frameRate property of tenEighty shows that it correctly reports the new frame rate of

30.0

from the underlying VideoMode instance: println("The frameRate property of tenEighty is now \(tenEighty.frameRate)")

// prints "The frameRate property of tenEighty is now 30.0"

Note that tenEighty and alsoTenEighty are declared as

constants

, rather than variables. However, you can still change tenEighty.frameRate

and alsoTenEighty.frameRate

because the values of the tenEighty and alsoTenEighty constants themselves do not actually change.

tenEighty and alsoTenEighty themselves do not “store” the VideoMode instance—instead, they both

refer

to a VideoMode instance behind the scenes. It is the frameRate property of the underlying VideoMode that is changed, not the values of the constant references to that

VideoMode

Identity Operators

Because classes are reference types, it is possible for multiple constants and variables to refer to the same single instance of a class behind the scenes. (The same is not true for structures and enumerations, because they are value types and are always copied when they are assigned to a constant or variable, or passed to a function.)

It can sometimes be useful to find out if two constants or variables refer to exactly the same instance of a class.

To enable this, Swift provides two identity operators:

●

Identical to ( === )

●

Not identical to ( !== )

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Classes and Structures

Choosing Between Classes and Structures

Use these operators to check whether two constants or variables refer to the same single instance: if tenEighty === alsoTenEighty { println("tenEighty and alsoTenEighty refer to the same Resolution instance.")

}

// prints "tenEighty and alsoTenEighty refer to the same Resolution instance."

Note that “identical to” (represented by three equals signs, or

===

) does not mean the same thing as “equal to” (represented by two equals signs, or == ):

●

“Identical to” means that two constants or variables of class type refer to exactly the same class instance.

“Equal to” means that two instances are considered “equal” or “equivalent” in value, for some appropriate meaning of “equal”, as defined by the type’s designer.

When you define your own custom classes and structures, it is your responsibility to decide what qualifies as two instances being “equal”. The process of defining your own implementations of the “equal to” and “not equal to” operators is described in

Equivalence Operators

(page 341).

Pointers

If you have experience with C, C++, or Objective-C, you may know that these languages use

pointers

to refer to addresses in memory. A Swift constant or variable that refers to an instance of some reference type is similar to a pointer in C, but is not a direct pointer to an address in memory, and does not require you to write an asterisk (

) to indicate that you are creating a reference. Instead, these references are defined like any other constant or variable in Swift.

Choosing Between Classes and Structures

You can use both classes and structures to define custom data types to use as the building blocks of your program’s code.

However, structure instances are always passed by

value

, and class instances are always passed by

reference

This means that they are suited to different kinds of tasks. As you consider the data constructs and functionality that you need for a project, decide whether each data construct should be defined as a class or as a structure.

As a general guideline, consider creating a structure when one or more of these conditions apply:

●

The structure’s primary purpose is to encapsulate a few relatively simple data values.

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Assignment and Copy Behavior for Collection Types

●

It is reasonable to expect that the encapsulated values will be copied rather than referenced when you assign or pass around an instance of that structure.

●

Any properties stored by the structure are themselves value types, which would also be expected to be copied rather than referenced.

The structure does not need to inherit properties or behavior from another existing type.

Examples of good candidates for structures include:

●

The size of a geometric shape, perhaps encapsulating a width property and a height property, both of type

Double

A way to refer to ranges within a series, perhaps encapsulating a start property and a length property, both of type Int .

A point in a 3D coordinate system, perhaps encapsulating x

, y and z properties, each of type

Double

In all other cases, define a class, and create instances of that class to be managed and passed by reference. In practice, this means that most custom data constructs should be classes, not structures.

Assignment and Copy Behavior for Collection Types

Swift’s Array and Dictionary types are implemented as structures. However, arrays have slightly different copying behavior from dictionaries and other structures when they are assigned to a constant or variable, and when they are passed to a function or method.

The behavior described for Array and Dictionary below is different again from the behavior of NSArray and NSDictionary in Foundation, which are implemented as classes, not structures.

NSArray and

NSDictionary instances are always assigned and passed around as a reference to an existing instance, rather than as a copy.

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Assignment and Copy Behavior for Collection Types

Note:

The descriptions below refer to the “copying” of arrays, dictionaries, strings, and other values.

Where copying is mentioned, the behavior you see in your code will always be as if a copy took place. However, Swift only performs an

actual

copy behind the scenes when it is absolutely necessary to do so. Swift manages all value copying to ensure optimal performance, and you should not avoid assignment to try to preempt this optimization.

Assignment and Copy Behavior for Dictionaries

Whenever you assign a Dictionary instance to a constant or variable, or pass a Dictionary instance as an argument to a function or method call, the dictionary is

copied

at the point that the assignment or call takes place. This process is described in

Structures and Enumerations Are Value Types

(page 159).

If the keys and/or values stored in the Dictionary instance are value types (structures or enumerations), they too are copied when the assignment or call takes place. Conversely, if the keys and/or values are reference types (classes or functions), the references are copied, but not the class instances or functions that they refer to. This copy behavior for a dictionary’s keys and values is the same as the copy behavior for a structure’s stored properties when the structure is copied.

The example below defines a dictionary called ages

, which stores the names and ages of four people. The ages dictionary is then assigned to a new variable called copiedAges and is copied when this assignment takes place. After the assignment, ages and copiedAges are two separate dictionaries.

var ages = ["Peter": 23, "Wei": 35, "Anish": 65, "Katya": 19] var copiedAges = ages

The keys for this dictionary are of type String , and the values are of type Int . Both types are value types in

Swift, and so the keys and values are also copied when the dictionary copy takes place.

You can prove that the ages dictionary has been copied by changing an age value in one of the dictionaries and checking the corresponding value in the other. If you set the value for "Peter" in the copiedAges dictionary to 24 , the ages dictionary still returns the old value of 23 from before the copy took place: copiedAges["Peter"] = 24 println(ages["Peter"])

// prints "23"

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Assignment and Copy Behavior for Arrays

The assignment and copy behavior for Swift’s Array type is more complex than for its Dictionary type.

Array provides C-like performance when you work with an array’s contents and copies an array’s contents only when copying is necessary.

If you assign an Array instance to a constant or variable, or pass an Array instance as an argument to a function or method call, the contents of the array are

not

copied at the point that the assignment or call takes place. Instead, both arrays share the same sequence of element values. When you modify an element value through one array, the result is observable through the other.

For arrays, copying only takes place when you perform an action that has the potential to modify the

length

of the array. This includes appending, inserting, or removing items, or using a ranged subscript to replace a range of items in the array. If and when array copying does take place, the copy behavior for an array’s contents is the same as for a dictionary’s keys and values, as described in

Assignment and Copy Behavior for

Dictionaries

(page 165).

The example below assigns a new array of Int values to a variable called a . This array is also assigned to two further variables called b and c

: var a = [1, 2, 3] var b = a var c = a

You can retrieve the first value in the array with subscript syntax on either a , b , or c : println(a[0])

// 1 println(b[0])

// 1 println(c[0])

// 1

If you set an item in the array to a new value with subscript syntax, all three of a , b , and c will return the new value. Note that the array is not copied when you set a new value with subscript syntax, because setting a single value with subscript syntax does not have the potential to change the array’s length: a[0] = 42 println(a[0])

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// 42 println(b[0])

// 42 println(c[0])

// 42

However, if you append a new item to a , you

modify the array’s length. This prompts Swift to create a new copy of the array at the point that you append the new value. Henceforth, a is a separate, independent copy of the array.

If you change a value in a after the copy is made, a will return a different value from b and c

, which both still reference the original array contents from before the copy took place: a.append(4) a[0] = 777 println(a[0])

// 777 println(b[0])

// 42 println(c[0])

// 42

Ensuring That an Array Is Unique

It can be useful to ensure that you have a unique copy of an array before performing an action on that array’s contents, or before passing that array to a function or method. You ensure the uniqueness of an array reference by calling the unshare method on a variable of array type. (The unshare method cannot be called on a constant array.)

If multiple variables currently refer to the same array, and you call the unshare method on one of those variables, the array is copied, so that the variable has its own independent copy of the array. However, no copying takes place if the variable is already the only reference to the array.

At the end of the previous example, b and c both reference the same array. Call the unshare method on b to make it become a unique copy: b.unshare()

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If you change the first value in b after calling the unshare method, all three arrays will now report a different value: b[0] = -105 println(a[0])

// 777 println(b[0])

// -105 println(c[0])

// 42

Checking Whether Two Arrays Share the Same Elements

Check whether two arrays or subarrays share the same storage and elements by comparing them with the identity operators ( === and !== ).

The example below uses the “identical to” operator (

===

) to check whether b and c still share the same array elements: if b === c { println("b and c still share the same array elements.")

} else

{ println("b and c now refer to two independent sets of array elements.")

}

// prints "b and c now refer to two independent sets of array elements."

Alternatively, use the identity operators to check whether two subarrays share the same elements. The example below compares two identical subarrays from b and confirms that they refer to the same elements: if b[0...1] === b[0...1] { println("These two subarrays share the same elements.")

} else

{ println("These two subarrays do not share the same elements.")

}

// prints "These two subarrays share the same elements."

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Assignment and Copy Behavior for Collection Types

Forcing a Copy of an Array

Force an explicit copy of an array by calling the array’s copy method. This method performs a shallow copy of the array and returns a new array containing the copied items.

The example below defines an array called names

, which stores the names of seven people. A new variable called copiedNames is set to the result of calling the copy method on the names array: var names = ["Mohsen", "Hilary", "Justyn", "Amy", "Rich", "Graham", "Vic"] var copiedNames = names.copy()

You can prove that the names array has been copied by changing an item in one of the arrays and checking the corresponding item in the other. If you set the first item in the copiedNames array to "Mo" rather than

"Mohsen"

, the names array still returns the old value of

"Mohsen" from before the copy took place: copiedNames[0] = "Mo" println(names[0])

// prints "Mohsen"

Note:

If you simply need to be sure that your reference to an array’s contents is the only reference in existence, call the unshare method, not the copy method. The unshare method does not make a copy of the array unless it is necessary to do so. The copy method always copies the array, even if it is already unshared.

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Properties

Properties

associate values with a particular class, structure, or enumeration. Stored properties store constant and variable values as part of an instance, whereas computed properties calculate (rather than store) a value.

Computed properties are provided by classes, structures, and enumerations. Stored properties are provided only by classes and structures.

Stored and computed properties are usually associated with instances of a particular type. However, properties can also be associated with the type itself. Such properties are known as type properties.

In addition, you can define property observers to monitor changes in a property’s value, which you can respond to with custom actions. Property observers can be added to stored properties you define yourself, and also to properties that a subclass inherits from its superclass.

Stored Properties

In its simplest form, a stored property is a constant or variable that is stored as part of an instance of a particular class or structure. Stored properties can be either

variable stored properties

(introduced by the var keyword) or

constant stored properties

(introduced by the let keyword).

You can provide a default value for a stored property as part of its definition, as described in

Default Property

Values

(page 210). You can also set and modify the initial value for a stored property during initialization. This is true even for constant stored properties, as described in

Modifying Constant Properties During

Initialization

(page 213).

The example below defines a structure called FixedLengthRange , which describes a range of integers whose range length cannot be changed once it is created: struct

FixedLengthRange { var firstValue: Int let length: Int

} var rangeOfThreeItems = FixedLengthRange(firstValue: 0, length: 3)

// the range represents integer values 0, 1, and 2 rangeOfThreeItems.firstValue = 6

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Properties

Stored Properties

// the range now represents integer values 6, 7, and 8

Instances of FixedLengthRange have a variable stored property called firstValue and a constant stored property called length . In the example above, length is initialized when the new range is created and cannot be changed thereafter, because it is a constant property.

Stored Properties of Constant Structure Instances

If you create an instance of a structure and assign that instance to a constant, you cannot modify the instance’s properties, even if they were declared as variable properties: let rangeOfFourItems = FixedLengthRange(firstValue: 0, length: 4)

// this range represents integer values 0, 1, 2, and 3 rangeOfFourItems.firstValue = 6

// this will report an error, even thought firstValue is a variable property

Because rangeOfFourItems is declared as a constant (with the let keyword), it is not possible to change its firstValue property, even though firstValue is a variable property.

This behavior is due to structures being

value types

. When an instance of a value type is marked as a constant, so are all of its properties.

The same is not true for classes, which are

reference types

. If you assign an instance of a reference type to a constant, you can still change that instance’s variable properties.

Lazy Stored Properties

lazy stored property

is a property whose initial value is not calculated until the first time it is used. You indicate a lazy stored property by writing the

@lazy attribute before its declaration.

Note:

You must always declare a lazy property as a variable (with the var keyword), because its initial value may not be retrieved until after instance initialization completes. Constant properties must always have a value

before

initialization completes, and therefore cannot be declared as lazy.

Lazy properties are useful when the initial value for a property is dependent on outside factors whose values are not known until after an instance’s initialization is complete. Lazy properties are also useful when the initial value for a property requires complex or computationally expensive setup that should not be performed unless or until it is needed.

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Stored Properties

The example below uses a lazy stored property to avoid unnecessary initialization of a complex class. This example defines two classes called DataImporter and DataManager , neither of which is shown in full: class

DataImporter {

DataImporter is a class to import data from an external file.

The class is assumed to take a non-trivial amount of time to initialize.

*/ var fileName = "data.txt"

// the DataImporter class would provide data importing functionality here

} class

DataManager {

@lazy var importer = DataImporter() var data = String[]()

// the DataManager class would provide data management functionality here

} let manager = DataManager() manager.data += "Some data" manager.data += "Some more data"

// the DataImporter instance for the importer property has not yet been created

The DataManager class has a stored property called data , which is initialized with a new, empty array of

String values. Although the rest of its functionality is not shown, the purpose of this

DataManager class is to manage and provide access to this array of String data.

Part of the functionality of the DataManager class is the ability to import data from a file. This functionality is provided by the

DataImporter class, which is assumed to take a non-trivial amount of time to initialize. This might be because a DataImporter instance needs to open a file and read its contents into memory when the DataImporter instance is initialized.

It is possible for a

DataManager instance to manage its data without ever importing data from a file, so there is no need to create a new DataImporter instance when the DataManager itself is created. Instead, it makes more sense to create the DataImporter instance if and when it is first used.

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Computed Properties

Because it is marked with the @lazy attribute, the DataImporter instance for the importer property is only created when the importer property is first accessed, such as when its fileName property is queried: println(manager.importer.fileName)

// the DataImporter instance for the importer property has now been created

// prints "data.txt"

Stored Properties and Instance Variables

If you have experience with Objective-C, you may know that it provides

two

ways to store values and references as part of a class instance. In addition to properties, you can use instance variables as a backing store for the values stored in a property.

Swift unifies these concepts into a single property declaration. A Swift property does not have a corresponding instance variable, and the backing store for a property is not accessed directly. This approach avoids confusion about how the value is accessed in different contexts and simplifies the property’s declaration into a single, definitive statement. All information about the property—including its name, type, and memory management characteristics—is defined in a single location as part of the type’s definition.

Computed Properties

In addition to stored properties, classes, structures, and enumerations can define

computed properties

, which do not actually store a value. Instead, they provide a getter and an optional setter to retrieve and set other properties and values indirectly.

struct

Point { var x = 0.0, y = 0.0

} struct

Size { var width = 0.0, height = 0.0

} struct

Rect { var origin = Point() var size = Size() var center: Point { get

{ let centerX = origin.x + (size.width / 2)

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Properties

Computed Properties let centerY = origin.y + (size.height / 2) return

Point(x: centerX, y: centerY)

} set

(newCenter) { origin.x = newCenter.x - (size.width / 2) origin.y = newCenter.y - (size.height / 2)

}

} var square = Rect(origin: Point(x: 0.0, y: 0.0), size: Size(width: 10.0, height: 10.0)) let initialSquareCenter = square.center

square.center = Point(x: 15.0, y: 15.0) println("square.origin is now at (\(square.origin.x), \(square.origin.y))")

// prints "square.origin is now at (10.0, 10.0)"

This example defines three structures for working with geometric shapes:

●

Point encapsulates an

(x, y) coordinate.

Size encapsulates a width and a height .

●

Rect defines a rectangle by an origin point and a size.

The

Rect structure also provides a computed property called center

. The current center position of a

Rect can always be determined from its origin and size , and so you don’t need to store the center point as an explicit Point value. Instead, Rect defines a custom getter and setter for a computed variable called center , to enable you to work with the rectangle’s center as if it were a real stored property.

The preceding example creates a new Rect variable called square . The square variable is initialized with an origin point of (0, 0) , and a width and height of 10 . This square is represented by the blue square in the diagram below.

The square variable’s center property is then accessed through dot syntax ( square.center

), which causes the getter for center to be called, to retrieve the current property value. Rather than returning an existing value, the getter actually calculates and returns a new Point to represent the center of the square. As can be seen above, the getter correctly returns a center point of

(5, 5)

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Computed Properties

The center property is then set to a new value of (15, 15) , which moves the square up and to the right, to the new position shown by the orange square in the diagram below. Setting the center property calls the setter for center , which modifies the x and y values of the stored origin property, and moves the square to its new position.

Shorthand Setter Declaration

If a computed property’s setter does not define a name for the new value to be set, a default name of newValue is used. Here’s an alternative version of the Rect structure, which takes advantage of this shorthand notation: struct

AlternativeRect { var origin = Point() var size = Size() var center: Point { get

{ let centerX = origin.x + (size.width / 2) let centerY = origin.y + (size.height / 2) return

Point(x: centerX, y: centerY)

} set

{ origin.x = newValue.x - (size.width / 2)

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Computed Properties

}

} origin.y = newValue.y - (size.height / 2)

Read-Only Computed Properties

A computed property with a getter but no setter is known as a

read-only computed property

. A read-only computed property always returns a value, and can be accessed through dot syntax, but cannot be set to a different value.

Note:

You must declare computed properties—including read-only computed properties—as variable properties with the var keyword, because their value is not fixed. The let keyword is only used for constant properties, to indicate that their values cannot be changed once they are set as part of instance initialization.

You can simplify the declaration of a read-only computed property by removing the get keyword and its braces: struct

Cuboid { var width = 0.0, height = 0.0, depth = 0.0

var volume: Double { return width * height * depth

}

} let fourByFiveByTwo = Cuboid(width: 4.0, height: 5.0, depth: 2.0) println("the volume of fourByFiveByTwo is \(fourByFiveByTwo.volume)")

// prints "the volume of fourByFiveByTwo is 40.0"

This example defines a new structure called Cuboid , which represents a 3D rectangular box with width , height

, and depth properties. This structure also has a read-only computed property called volume

, which calculates and returns the current volume of the cuboid. It doesn’t make sense for volume to be settable, because it would be ambiguous as to which values of width , height , and depth should be used for a particular volume value. Nonetheless, it is useful for a

Cuboid to provide a read-only computed property to enable external users to discover its current calculated volume.

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Property Observers

Property observers

observe and respond to changes in a property’s value. Property observers are called every time a property’s value is set, even if the new value is the same as the property’s current value.

You can add property observers to any stored properties you define, apart from lazy stored properties. You can also add property observers to any inherited property (whether stored or computed) by overriding the property within a subclass. Property overriding is described in

Overriding

(page 203).

Note:

You don’t need to define property observers for non-overridden computed properties, because you can observe and respond to changes to their value from directly within the computed property’s setter.

You have the option to define either or both of these observers on a property:

● willSet is called just before the value is stored.

● didSet is called immediately after the new value is stored.

If you implement a willSet observer, it is passed the new property value as a constant parameter. You can specify a name for this parameter as part of your willSet implementation. If you choose not to write the parameter name and parentheses within your implementation, the parameter will still be made available with a default parameter name of newValue .

Similarly, if you implement a didSet observer, it will be passed a constant parameter containing the old property value. You can name the parameter if you wish, or use the default parameter name of oldValue

Note:

willSet and didSet observers are not called when a property is first initialized. They are only called when the property’s value is set outside of an initialization context.

Here’s an example of willSet and didSet in action. The example below defines a new class called

StepCounter , which tracks the total number of steps that a person takes while walking. This class might be used with input data from a pedometer or other step counter to keep track of a person’s exercise during their daily routine.

class

StepCounter { var totalSteps: Int = 0 { willSet

(newTotalSteps) { println("About to set totalSteps to \(newTotalSteps)")

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Property Observers

} didSet

{ if totalSteps > oldValue { println("Added \(totalSteps - oldValue) steps")

}

} let stepCounter = StepCounter() stepCounter.totalSteps = 200

// About to set totalSteps to 200

// Added 200 steps stepCounter.totalSteps = 360

// About to set totalSteps to 360

// Added 160 steps stepCounter.totalSteps = 896

// About to set totalSteps to 896

// Added 536 steps

The

StepCounter class declares a totalSteps property of type

Int

. This is a stored property with willSet and didSet observers.

The willSet and didSet observers for totalSteps are called whenever the property is assigned a new value. This is true even if the new value is the same as the current value.

This example’s willSet observer uses a custom parameter name of newTotalSteps for the upcoming new value. In this example, it simply prints out the value that is about to be set.

The didSet observer is called after the value of totalSteps is updated. It compares the new value of totalSteps against the old value. If the total number of steps has increased, a message is printed to indicate how many new steps have been taken. The didSet observer does not provide a custom parameter name for the old value, and the default name of oldValue is used instead.

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Properties

Global and Local Variables

Note:

If you assign a value to a property within its own didSet observer, the new value that you assign will replace the one that was just set.

Global and Local Variables

The capabilities described above for computing and observing properties are also available to

global variables

and

local variables

. Global variables are variables that are defined outside of any function, method, closure, or type context. Local variables are variables that are defined within a function, method, or closure context.

The global and local variables you have encountered in previous chapters have all been

stored variables

. Stored variables, like stored properties, provide storage for a value of a certain type and allow that value to be set and retrieved.

However, you can also define

computed variables

and define observers for stored variables, in either a global or local scope. Computed variables calculate rather than store a value, and are written in the same way as computed properties.

Note:

Global constants and variables are always computed lazily, in a similar manner to

Lazy Stored

Properties

(page 171) . Unlike lazy stored properties, global constants and variables do not need to be marked with the @lazy attribute.

Local constants and variables are never computed lazily.

Type Properties

Instance properties are properties that belong to an instance of a particular type. Every time you create a new instance of that type, it has its own set of property values, separate from any other instance.

You can also define properties that belong to the type itself, not to any one instance of that type. There will only ever be one copy of these properties, no matter how many instances of that type you create. These kinds of properties are called

type properties

Type properties are useful for defining values that are universal to

all

instances of a particular type, such as a constant property that all instances can use (like a static constant in C), or a variable property that stores a value that is global to all instances of that type (like a static variable in C).

For value types (that is, structures and enumerations), you can define stored and computed type properties.

For classes, you can define computed type properties only.

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Properties

Type Properties

Stored type properties for value types can be variables or constants. Computed type properties are always declared as variable properties, in the same way as computed instance properties.

Note:

Unlike stored instance properties, you must always give stored type properties a default value.

This is because the type itself does not have an initializer that can assign a value to a stored type property at initialization time.

Type Property Syntax

In C and Objective-C, you define static constants and variables associated with a type as

global

static variables.

In Swift, however, type properties are written as part of the type’s definition, within the type’s outer curly braces, and each type property is explicitly scoped to the type it supports.

You define type properties for value types with the static keyword, and type properties for class types with the class keyword. The example below shows the syntax for stored and computed type properties: struct

SomeStructure { static var storedTypeProperty = "Some value." static var computedTypeProperty: Int {

// return an Int value here

}

} enum

SomeEnumeration { static var storedTypeProperty = "Some value." static var computedTypeProperty: Int {

// return an Int value here

}

} class

SomeClass { class var computedTypeProperty: Int {

// return an Int value here

}

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Type Properties

Note:

The computed type property examples above are for read-only computed type properties, but you can also define read-write computed type properties with the same syntax as for computed instance properties.

Querying and Setting Type Properties

Type properties are queried and set with dot syntax, just like instance properties. However, type properties are queried and set on the

type

, not on an instance of that type. For example: println(SomeClass.computedTypeProperty)

// prints "42" println(SomeStructure.storedTypeProperty)

// prints "Some value."

SomeStructure.storedTypeProperty = "Another value." println(SomeStructure.storedTypeProperty)

// prints "Another value."

The examples that follow use two stored type properties as part of a structure that models an audio level meter for a number of audio channels. Each channel has an integer audio level between 0 and 10 inclusive.

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Properties

Type Properties

The figure below illustrates how two of these audio channels can be combined to model a stereo audio level meter. When a channel’s audio level is 0 , none of the lights for that channel are lit. When the audio level is 10 , all of the lights for that channel are lit. In this figure, the left channel has a current level of

, and the right channel has a current level of 7 :

Left Right

The audio channels described above are represented by instances of the

AudioChannel structure: struct

AudioChannel { static let thresholdLevel = 10 static var maxInputLevelForAllChannels = 0 var currentLevel: Int = 0 { didSet

{ if currentLevel > AudioChannel.thresholdLevel {

// cap the new audio level to the threshold level currentLevel = AudioChannel.thresholdLevel

} if currentLevel > AudioChannel.maxInputLevelForAllChannels {

// store this as the new overall maximum input level

AudioChannel.maxInputLevelForAllChannels = currentLevel

}

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}

The AudioChannel structure defines two stored type properties to support its functionality. The first, thresholdLevel , defines the maximum threshold value an audio level can take. This is a constant value of

10 for all

AudioChannel instances. If an audio signal comes in with a higher value than

, it will be capped to this threshold value (as described below).

The second type property is a variable stored property called maxInputLevelForAllChannels . This keeps track of the maximum input value that has been received by

any

AudioChannel instance. It starts with an initial value of

The AudioChannel structure also defines a stored instance property called currentLevel , which represents the channel’s current audio level on a scale of 0 to 10 .

The currentLevel property has a didSet property observer to check the value of currentLevel whenever it is set. This observer performs two checks:

●

If the new value of currentLevel is greater than the allowed thresholdLevel , the property observer caps currentLevel to thresholdLevel .

●

If the new value of currentLevel (after any capping) is higher than any value previously received by

any

AudioChannel instance, the property observer stores the new currentLevel value in the maxInputLevelForAllChannels static property.

Note:

In the first of these two checks, the didSet observer sets currentLevel to a different value.

This does not, however, cause the observer to be called again.

You can use the AudioChannel structure to create two new audio channels called leftChannel and rightChannel

, to represent the audio levels of a stereo sound system: var leftChannel = AudioChannel() var rightChannel = AudioChannel()

If you set the currentLevel of the

left

channel to

, you can see that the maxInputLevelForAllChannels type property is updated to equal 7 : leftChannel.currentLevel = 7 println(leftChannel.currentLevel)

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Type Properties

// prints "7" println(AudioChannel.maxInputLevelForAllChannels)

// prints "7"

If you try to set the currentLevel of the

right

channel to 11 , you can see that the right channel’s currentLevel property is capped to the maximum value of 10 , and the maxInputLevelForAllChannels type property is updated to equal

: rightChannel.currentLevel = 11 println(rightChannel.currentLevel)

// prints "10" println(AudioChannel.maxInputLevelForAllChannels)

// prints "10"

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Methods

Methods

are functions that are associated with a particular type. Classes, structures, and enumerations can all define instance methods, which encapsulate specific tasks and functionality for working with an instance of a given type. Classes, structures, and enumerations can also define type methods, which are associated with the type itself. Type methods are similar to class methods in Objective-C.

The fact that structures and enumerations can define methods in Swift is a major difference from C and

Objective-C. In Objective-C, classes are the only types that can define methods. In Swift, you can choose whether to define a class, structure, or enumeration, and still have the flexibility to define methods on the type you create.

Instance Methods

Instance methods

are functions that belong to instances of a particular class, structure, or enumeration. They support the functionality of those instances, either by providing ways to access and modify instance properties, or by providing functionality related to the instance’s purpose. Instance methods have exactly the same syntax as functions, as described in

Functions

(page 120).

You write an instance method within the opening and closing braces of the type it belongs to. An instance method has implicit access to all other instance methods and properties of that type. An instance method can be called only on a specific instance of the type it belongs to. It cannot be called in isolation without an existing instance.

Here’s an example that defines a simple

Counter class, which can be used to count the number of times an action occurs: class

Counter { var count = 0 func increment() { count++

} func incrementBy(amount: Int) { count += amount

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Methods

Instance Methods

}

} func reset() { count = 0

}

The

Counter class defines three instance methods:

●

● increment increments the counter by 1 .

incrementBy(amount: Int) increments the counter by an specified integer amount.

reset resets the counter to zero.

The Counter class also declares a variable property, count , to keep track of the current counter value.

You call instance methods with the same dot syntax as properties: let counter = Counter()

// the initial counter value is 0 counter.increment()

// the counter's value is now 1 counter.incrementBy(5)

// the counter's value is now 6 counter.reset()

// the counter's value is now 0

Local and External Parameter Names for Methods

Function parameters can have both a local name (for use within the function’s body) and an external name

(for use when calling the function), as described in

External Parameter Names

(page 125). The same is true for method parameters, because methods are just functions that are associated with a type. However, the default behavior of local names and external names is different for functions and methods.

Methods in Swift are very similar to their counterparts in Objective-C. As in Objective-C, the name of a method in Swift typically refers to the method’s first parameter using a preposition such as with , for , or by , as seen in the incrementBy method from the preceding Counter class example. The use of a preposition enables the method to be read as a sentence when it is called. Swift makes this established method naming convention easy to write by using a different default approach for method parameters than it uses for function parameters.

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Methods

Instance Methods

Specifically, Swift gives the

first

parameter name in a method a local parameter name by default, and gives the second and subsequent parameter names both local

and

external parameter names by default. This convention matches the typical naming and calling convention you will be familiar with from writing Objective-C methods, and makes for expressive method calls without the need to qualify your parameter names.

Consider this alternative version of the Counter class, which defines a more complex form of the incrementBy method: class

Counter { var count: Int = 0 func incrementBy(amount: Int, numberOfTimes: Int) { count += amount * numberOfTimes

}

This incrementBy method has two parameters— amount and numberOfTimes . By default, Swift treats amount as a local name only, but treats numberOfTimes as both a local

and

an external name. You call the method as follows: let counter = Counter() counter.incrementBy(5, numberOfTimes: 3)

// counter value is now 15

You don’t need to define an external parameter name for the first argument value, because its purpose is clear from the function name incrementBy . The second argument, however, is qualified by an external parameter name to make its purpose clear when the method is called.

This default behavior effectively treats the method as if you had written a hash symbol ( # ) before the numberOfTimes parameter: func incrementBy(amount: Int, #numberOfTimes: Int) { count += amount * numberOfTimes

}

The default behavior described above mean that method definitions in Swift are written with the same grammatical style as Objective-C, and are called in a natural, expressive way.

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Methods

Instance Methods

Modifying External Parameter Name Behavior for Methods

Sometimes it’s useful to provide an external parameter name for a method’s first parameter, even though this is not the default behavior. You can either add an explicit external name yourself, or you can prefix the first parameter’s name with a hash symbol to use the local name as an external name too.

Conversely, if you do not want to provide an external name for the second or subsequent parameter of a method, override the default behavior by using an underscore character ( _ ) as an explicit external parameter name for that parameter.

The self Property

Every instance of a type has an implicit property called self

, which is exactly equivalent to the instance itself.

You use this implicit self property to refer to the current instance within its own instance methods.

The increment method in the example above could have been written like this: func increment() { self

.count++

}

In practice, you don’t need to write self in your code very often. If you don’t explicitly write self , Swift assumes that you are referring to a property or method of the current instance whenever you use a known property or method name within a method. This assumption is demonstrated by the use of count

(rather than self.count

) inside the three instance methods for Counter .

The main exception to this rule occurs when a parameter name for an instance method has the same name as a property of that instance. In this situation, the parameter name takes precedence, and it becomes necessary to refer to the property in a more qualified way. You use the implicit self property to distinguish between the parameter name and the property name.

Here, self disambiguates between a method parameter called x and an instance property that is also called x : struct

Point { var x = 0.0, y = 0.0

func isToTheRightOfX(x: Double) -> Bool { return self

.x > x

}

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Methods

Instance Methods let somePoint = Point(x: 4.0, y: 5.0) if somePoint.isToTheRightOfX(1.0) { println("This point is to the right of the line where x == 1.0")

}

// prints "This point is to the right of the line where x == 1.0"

Without the self prefix, Swift would assume that both uses of x referred to the method parameter called x .

Modifying Value Types from Within Instance Methods

Structures and enumerations are

value types

. By default, the properties of a value type cannot be modified from within its instance methods.

However, if you need to modify the properties of your structure or enumeration within a particular method, you can opt in to

mutating

behavior for that method. The method can then mutate (that is, change) its properties from within the method, and any changes that it makes are written back to the original structure when the method ends. The method can also assign a completely new instance to its implicit self property, and this new instance will replace the existing one when the method ends.

You can opt in to this behavior by placing the mutating keyword before the func keyword for that method: struct

Point { var x = 0.0, y = 0.0

mutating func moveByX(deltaX: Double, y deltaY: Double) { x += deltaX y += deltaY

}

} var somePoint = Point(x: 1.0, y: 1.0) somePoint.moveByX(2.0, y: 3.0) println("The point is now at (\(somePoint.x), \(somePoint.y))")

// prints "The point is now at (3.0, 4.0)"

The Point structure above defines a mutating moveByX method, which moves a Point instance by a certain amount. Instead of returning a new point, this method actually modifies the point on which it is called. The mutating keyword is added to its definition to enable it to modify its properties.

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Methods

Instance Methods

Note that you cannot call a mutating method on a constant of structure type, because its properties cannot be changed, even if they are variable properties, as described in

Stored Properties of Constant Structure

Instances

(page 171): let fixedPoint = Point(x: 3.0, y: 3.0) fixedPoint.moveByX(2.0, y: 3.0)

// this will report an error

Assigning to self Within a Mutating Method

Mutating methods can assign an entirely new instance to the implicit self property. The

Point example shown above could have been written in the following way instead: struct

Point { var x = 0.0, y = 0.0

mutating func moveByX(deltaX: Double, y deltaY: Double) { self

= Point(x: x + deltaX, y: y + deltaY)

}

This version of the mutating moveByX method creates a brand new structure whose x and y values are set to the target location. The end result of calling this alternative version of the method will be exactly the same as for calling the earlier version.

Mutating methods for enumerations can set the implicit self parameter to be a different member from the same enumeration: enum

TriStateSwitch { case

Off, Low, High mutating func next() { switch self

{ case

Off: self

= Low case

Low: self

= High case

High:

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Methods

Type Methods self

= Off

}

} var ovenLight = TriStateSwitch.Low

ovenLight.next()

// ovenLight is now equal to .High

ovenLight.next()

// ovenLight is now equal to .Off

This example defines an enumeration for a three-state switch. The switch cycles between three different power states ( Off , Low and High ) every time its next method is called.

Type Methods

Instance methods, as described above, are methods that are called on an instance of a particular type. You can also define methods that are called on the type itself. These kinds of methods are called

type methods

. You indicate type methods for classes by writing the keyword class before the method’s func keyword, and type methods for structures and enumerations by writing the keyword static before the method’s func keyword.

Note:

In Objective-C, you can define type-level methods only for Objective-C classes. In Swift, you can define type-level methods for all classes, structures, and enumerations. Each type method is explicitly scoped to the type it supports.

Type methods are called with dot syntax, like instance methods. However, you call type methods on the type, not on an instance of that type. Here’s how you call a type method on a class called SomeClass : class

SomeClass { class func someTypeMethod() {

// type method implementation goes here

}

SomeClass.someTypeMethod()

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Methods

Type Methods

Within the body of a type method, the implicit self property refers to the type itself, rather than an instance of that type. For structures and enumerations, this means that you can use self to disambiguate between static properties and static method parameters, just as you do for instance properties and instance method parameters.

More generally, any unqualified method and property names that you use within the body of a type method will refer to other type-level methods and properties. A type method can call another type method with the other method’s name, without needing to prefix it with the type name. Similarly, type methods on structures and enumerations can access static properties by using the static property’s name without a type name prefix.

The example below defines a structure called LevelTracker , which tracks a player’s progress through the different levels or stages of a game. It is a single-player game, but can store information for multiple players on a single device.

All of the game’s levels (apart from level one) are locked when the game is first played. Every time a player finishes a level, that level is unlocked for all players on the device. The LevelTracker structure uses static properties and methods to keep track of which levels of the game have been unlocked. It also tracks the current level for an individual player.

struct

LevelTracker { static var highestUnlockedLevel = 1 static func unlockLevel(level: Int) { if level > highestUnlockedLevel { highestUnlockedLevel = level }

} static func levelIsUnlocked(level: Int) -> Bool { return level <= highestUnlockedLevel

} var currentLevel = 1 mutating func advanceToLevel(level: Int) -> Bool { if

LevelTracker.levelIsUnlocked(level) {

} else

{ return false

} currentLevel = level return true

}

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Methods

Type Methods

The LevelTracker structure keeps track of the highest level that any player has unlocked. This value is stored in a static property called highestUnlockedLevel

LevelTracker also defines two type functions to work with the highestUnlockedLevel property. The first is a type function called unlockLevel , which updates the value of highestUnlockedLevel whenever a new level is unlocked. The second is a convenience type function called levelIsUnlocked

, which returns true if a particular level number is already unlocked. (Note that these type methods can access the highestUnlockedLevel static property without your needing to write it as

LevelTracker.highestUnlockedLevel

In addition to its static property and type methods, LevelTracker tracks an individual player’s progress through the game. It uses an instance property called currentLevel to track the level that a player is currently playing.

To help manage the currentLevel property,

LevelTracker defines an instance method called advanceToLevel . Before updating currentLevel , this method checks whether the requested new level is already unlocked. The advanceToLevel method returns a Boolean value to indicate whether or not it was actually able to set currentLevel

The LevelTracker structure is used with the Player class, shown below, to track and update the progress of an individual player: class

Player { var tracker = LevelTracker() let playerName: String func completedLevel(level: Int) {

LevelTracker.unlockLevel(level + 1) tracker.advanceToLevel(level + 1)

} init

(name: String) { playerName = name

}

The

Player class creates a new instance of

LevelTracker to track that player’s progress. It also provides a method called completedLevel , which is called whenever a player completes a particular level. This method unlocks the next level for all players and updates the player’s progress to move them to the next level. (The

Boolean return value of advanceToLevel is ignored, because the level is known to have been unlocked by the call to

LevelTracker.unlockLevel

on the previous line.)

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Methods

Type Methods

You can create a instance of the Player class for a new player, and see what happens when the player completes level one: var player = Player(name: "Argyrios") player.completedLevel(1) println("highest unlocked level is now \(LevelTracker.highestUnlockedLevel)")

// prints "highest unlocked level is now 2"

If you create a second player, whom you try to move to a level that is not yet unlocked by any player in the game, the attempt to set the player’s current level fails: player = Player(name: "Beto") if player.tracker.advanceToLevel(6) { println("player is now on level 6")

} else

{ println("level 6 has not yet been unlocked")

}

// prints "level 6 has not yet been unlocked"

194

Subscripts

Classes, structures, and enumerations can define

subscripts

, which are shortcuts for accessing the member elements of a collection, list, or sequence. You use subscripts to set and retrieve values by index without needing separate methods for setting and retrieval. For example, you access elements in an Array instance as someArray[index] and elements in a

Dictionary instance as someDictionary[key]

You can define multiple subscripts for a single type, and the appropriate subscript overload to use is selected based on the type of index value you pass to the subscript. Subscripts are not limited to a single dimension, and you can define subscripts with multiple input parameters to suit your custom type’s needs.

Subscript Syntax

Subscripts enable you to query instances of a type by writing one or more values in square brackets after the instance name. Their syntax is similar to both instance method syntax and computed property syntax. You write subscript definitions with the subscript keyword, and specify one or more input parameters and a return type, in the same way as instance methods. Unlike instance methods, subscripts can be read-write or read-only. This behavior is communicated by a getter and setter in the same way as for computed properties: subscript

(index: Int) -> Int { get

{

// return an appropriate subscript value here

} set

(newValue) {

// perform a suitable setting action here

}

The type of newValue is the same as the return value of the subscript. As with computed properties, you can choose not to specify the setter’s (newValue) parameter. A default parameter called newValue is provided to your setter if you do not provide one yourself.

As with read-only computed properties, you can drop the get keyword for read-only subscripts:

195

Subscripts

Subscript Usage subscript

(index: Int) -> Int {

// return an appropriate subscript value here

}

Here’s an example of a read-only subscript implementation, which defines a

TimesTable structure to represent an

-times-table of integers: struct

TimesTable { let multiplier: Int subscript

(index: Int) -> Int { return multiplier * index

}

} let threeTimesTable = TimesTable(multiplier: 3) println("six times three is \(threeTimesTable[6])")

// prints "six times three is 18"

In this example, a new instance of TimesTable is created to represent the three-times-table. This is indicated by passing a value of 3 to the structure’s initializer as the value to use for the instance’s multiplier parameter.

You can query the threeTimesTable instance by calling its subscript, as shown in the call to threeTimesTable[6] . This requests the sixth entry in the three-times-table, which returns a value of 18 , or

3 times 6 .

Note:

-times-table is based on a fixed mathematical rule. It is not appropriate to set threeTimesTable[someIndex] to a new value, and so the subscript for TimesTable is defined as a read-only subscript.

Subscript Usage

The exact meaning of “subscript” depends on the context in which it is used. Subscripts are typically used as a shortcut for accessing the member elements in a collection, list, or sequence. You are free to implement subscripts in the most appropriate way for your particular class or structure’s functionality.

196

Subscripts

Subscript Options

For example, Swift’s Dictionary type implements a subscript to set and retrieve the values stored in a

Dictionary instance. You can set a value in a dictionary by providing a key of the dictionary’s key type within subscript braces, and assigning a value of the dictionary’s value type to the subscript: var numberOfLegs = ["spider": 8, "ant": 6, "cat": 4] numberOfLegs["bird"] = 2

The example above defines a variable called numberOfLegs and initializes it with a dictionary literal containing three key-value pairs. The type of the numberOfLegs dictionary is inferred to be

Dictionary<String,

Int> . After creating the dictionary, this example uses subscript assignment to add a String key of "bird" and an Int value of 2 to the dictionary.

For more information about

Dictionary subscripting, see

Accessing and Modifying a Dictionary

(page 90).

Note:

Swift’s Dictionary type implements its key-value subscripting as a subscript that takes and receives an

optional

type. For the numberOfLegs dictionary above, the key-value subscript takes and returns a value of type Int?

, or “optional int”. The Dictionary type uses an optional subscript type to model the fact that not every key will have a value, and to give a way to delete a value for a key by assigning a nil value for that key.

Subscript Options

Subscripts can take any number of input parameters, and these input parameters can be of any type. Subscripts can also return any type. Subscripts can use variable parameters and variadic parameters, but cannot use in-out parameters or provide default parameter values.

A class or structure can provide as many subscript implementations as it needs, and the appropriate subscript to be used will be inferred based on the types of the value or values that are contained within the subscript braces at the point that the subscript is used. This definition of multiple subscripts is known as

subscript overloading

While it is most common for a subscript to take a single parameter, you can also define a subscript with multiple parameters if it is appropriate for your type. The following example defines a Matrix structure, which represents a two-dimensional matrix of Double values. The Matrix structure’s subscript takes two integer parameters: struct

Matrix { let rows: Int, columns: Int var grid: Double[]

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Subscripts

Subscript Options

} init

(rows: Int, columns: Int) { self

.rows = rows self

.columns = columns grid = Array(count: rows * columns, repeatedValue: 0.0)

} func indexIsValidForRow(row: Int, column: Int) -> Bool { return row >= 0 && row < rows && column >= 0 && column < columns

} subscript

(row: Int, column: Int) -> Double { get

{

} set

{ assert(indexIsValidForRow(row, column: column), "Index out of range") return grid[(row * columns) + column] assert(indexIsValidForRow(row, column: column), "Index out of range") grid[(row * columns) + column] = newValue

}

Matrix provides an initializer that takes two parameters called rows and columns

, and creates an array that is large enough to store rows * columns values of type Double . Each position in the matrix is given an initial value of 0.0

. To achieve this, the array’s size, and an initial cell value of 0.0

, are passed to an array initializer that creates and initializes a new array of the correct size. This initializer is described in more detail in

Creating and Initializing an Array

(page 87).

You can construct a new

Matrix instance by passing an appropriate row and column count to its initializer: var matrix = Matrix(rows: 2, columns: 2)

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Subscripts

Subscript Options

The preceding example creates a new Matrix instance with two rows and two columns. The grid array for this

Matrix instance is effectively a flattened version of the matrix, as read from top left to bottom right: grid =

0.0, 0.0, 0.0, 0.0

column

0 1

0.0,

0.0

Values in the matrix can be set by passing row and column values into the subscript, separated by a comma: matrix[0, 1] = 1.5

matrix[1, 0] = 3.2

These two statements call the subscript’s setter to set a value of

1.5

in the top right position of the matrix

(where row is 0 and column is 1 ), and 3.2

in the bottom left position (where row is 1 and column is 0 ):

0.0

3.2

1.5

0.0

The Matrix subscript’s getter and setter both contain an assertion to check that the subscript’s row and column values are valid. To assist with these assertions, Matrix includes a convenience method called indexIsValid

, which checks whether the requested row or column is outside the bounds of the matrix: func indexIsValidForRow(row: Int, column: Int) -> Bool { return row >= 0 && row < rows && column >= 0 && column < columns

}

An assertion is triggered if you try to access a subscript that is outside of the matrix bounds: let someValue = matrix[2, 2]

// this triggers an assert, because [2, 2] is outside of the matrix bounds

199

Inheritance

A class can

inherit

methods, properties, and other characteristics from another class. When one class inherits from another, the inheriting class is known as a

subclass

, and the class it inherits from is known as its

superclass

Inheritance is a fundamental behavior that differentiates classes from other types in Swift.

Classes in Swift can call and access methods, properties, and subscripts belonging to their superclass and can provide their own overriding versions of those methods, properties, and subscripts to refine or modify their behavior. Swift helps to ensure your overrides are correct by checking that the override definition has a matching superclass definition.

Classes can also add property observers to inherited properties in order to be notified when the value of a property changes. Property observers can be added to any property, regardless of whether it was originally defined as a stored or computed property.

Defining a Base Class

Any class that does not inherit from another class is known as a

base class

Note:

Swift classes do not inherit from a universal base class. Classes you define without specifying a superclass automatically become base classes for you to build upon.

The example below defines a base class called Vehicle . This base class declares two properties

( numberOfWheels and maxPassengers ) that are universal to all vehicles. These properties are used by a method called description

, which returns a

String description of the vehicle’s characteristics: class

Vehicle { var numberOfWheels: Int var maxPassengers: Int func description() -> String { return

"\(numberOfWheels) wheels; up to \(maxPassengers) passengers"

} init

() {

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Inheritance

Subclassing

}

} numberOfWheels = 0 maxPassengers = 1

The Vehicle class also defines an

initializer

to set up its properties. Initializers are described in detail in

Initialization

(page 209), but a brief introduction is required here in order to illustrate how inherited properties can be modified by subclasses.

You use initializers to create a new instance of a type. Although initializers are not methods, they are written in a very similar syntax to instance methods. An initializer prepares a new instance for use, and ensures that all properties of the instance have valid initial values.

In its simplest form, an initializer is like an instance method with no parameters, written using the init keyword: init

() {

// perform some initialization here

}

To create a new instance of Vehicle , call this initializer with

initializer syntax

, written as TypeName followed by empty parentheses: let someVehicle = Vehicle()

The initializer for

Vehicle sets some initial property values ( numberOfWheels = 0 and maxPassengers

= 1 ) for an arbitrary vehicle.

The Vehicle class defines common characteristics for an arbitrary vehicle, but is not much use in itself. To make it more useful, you need to refine it to describe more specific kinds of vehicle.

Subclassing

Subclassing

is the act of basing a new class on an existing class. The subclass inherits characteristics from the existing class, which you can refine. You can also add new characteristics to the subclass.

To indicate that a class has a superclass, write the superclass name after the original class name, separated by a colon:

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Inheritance

Subclassing class

SomeClass: SomeSuperclass {

// class definition goes here

}

The next example defines a second, more specific vehicle called

Bicycle

. This new class is based on the existing capabilities of Vehicle . You indicate this by placing the name of the class the subclass builds upon

( Vehicle ) after its own name ( Bicycle ), separated by a colon.

This can be read as:

“Define a new class called

Bicycle

, which inherits the characteristics of

Vehicle

”: class

Bicycle: Vehicle { init

() { super

init

() numberOfWheels = 2

}

Bicycle is a subclass of Vehicle , and Vehicle is the superclass of Bicycle . The new Bicycle class automatically gains all characteristics of Vehicle , such as its maxPassengers and numberOfWheels properties.

You can tailor those characteristics and add new ones to better match the requirements of the Bicycle class.

The Bicycle class also defines an initializer to set up its tailored characteristics. The initializer for Bicycle calls super.init() , the initializer for the Bicycle class’s superclass, Vehicle , and ensures that all of the inherited properties are initialized by Vehicle before Bicycle tries to modify them.

Note:

Unlike Objective-C, initializers are not inherited by default in Swift. For more information, see

Initializer Inheritance and Overriding

(page 223)

The default value of maxPassengers provided by Vehicle is already correct for a bicycle, and so it is not changed within the initializer for

Bicycle

. The original value of numberOfWheels is not correct, however, and is replaced with a new value of 2 .

As well as inheriting the properties of Vehicle , Bicycle also inherits its methods. If you create an instance of

Bicycle

, you can call its inherited description method to see how its properties have been updated:

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Inheritance

Overriding let bicycle = Bicycle() println("Bicycle: \(bicycle.description())")

// Bicycle: 2 wheels; up to 1 passengers

Subclasses can themselves be subclassed: class

Tandem: Bicycle { init

() { super

init

() maxPassengers = 2

}

This example creates a subclass of Bicycle for a two-seater bicycle known as a “tandem”.

Tandem inherits the two properties from Bicycle , which in turn inherits these properties from Vehicle .

Tandem doesn’t change the number of wheels—it’s still a bicycle, after all—but it does update maxPassengers to have the correct value for a tandem.

Note:

Subclasses are only allowed to modify

variable

properties of superclasses during initialization.

You can’t modify inherited constant properties of subclasses.

Creating an instance of Tandem and printing its description shows how its properties have been updated: let tandem = Tandem() println("Tandem: \(tandem.description())")

// Tandem: 2 wheels; up to 2 passengers

Note that the description method is also inherited by

Tandem

. Instance methods of a class are inherited by any and all subclasses of that class.

Overriding

A subclass can provide its own custom implementation of an instance method, class method, instance property, or subscript that it would otherwise inherit from a superclass. This is known as

overriding

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Inheritance

Overriding

To override a characteristic that would otherwise be inherited, you prefix your overriding definition with the override keyword. Doing so clarifies that you intend to provide an override and have not provided a matching definition by mistake. Overriding by accident can cause unexpected behavior, and any overrides without the override keyword are diagnosed as an error when your code is compiled.

The override keyword also prompts the Swift compiler to check that your overriding class’s superclass (or one of its parents) has a declaration that matches the one you provided for the override. This check ensures that your overriding definition is correct.

Accessing Superclass Methods, Properties, and Subscripts

When you provide a method, property, or subscript override for a subclass, it is sometimes useful to use the existing superclass implementation as part of your override. For example, you can refine the behavior of that existing implementation or store a modified value in an existing inherited variable.

Where this is appropriate, you access the superclass version of a method, property, or subscript by using the super prefix:

●

An overridden method named someMethod can call the superclass version of someMethod by calling super.someMethod() within the overriding method implementation.

●

An overridden property called someProperty can access the superclass version of someProperty as super.someProperty

within the overriding getter or setter implementation.

●

An overridden subscript for someIndex can access the superclass version of the same subscript as super[someIndex] from within the overriding subscript implementation.

Overriding Methods

You can override an inherited instance or class method to provide a tailored or alternative implementation of the method within your subclass.

The following example defines a new subclass of Vehicle called Car , which overrides the description method it inherits from Vehicle : class

Car: Vehicle { var speed: Double = 0.0

init

() { super

init

() maxPassengers = 5 numberOfWheels = 4

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Inheritance

Overriding

}

} override func description() -> String { return super

.description() + "; "

+ "traveling at \(speed) mph"

}

Car declares a new stored Double property called speed . This property defaults to 0.0

, meaning “zero miles per hour”.

Car also has a custom initializer, which sets the maximum number of passengers to 5 , and the default number of wheels to

Car overrides its inherited description method by providing a method with the same declaration as the description method from Vehicle . The overriding method definition is prefixed with the override keyword.

Rather than providing a completely custom implementation of description

, the overriding method actually starts by calling super.description

to retrieve the description provided by Vehicle . It then appends some additional information about the car’s current speed.

If you create a new instance of Car , and print the output of its description method, you can see that the description has indeed changed: let car = Car() println("Car: \(car.description())")

// Car: 4 wheels; up to 5 passengers; traveling at 0.0 mph

Overriding Properties

You can override an inherited instance or class property to provide your own custom getter and setter for that property, or to add property observers to enable the overriding property to observe when the underlying property value changes.

Overriding Property Getters and Setters

You can provide a custom getter (and setter, if appropriate) to override

any

inherited property, regardless of whether the inherited property is implemented as a stored or computed property at its source. The stored or computed nature of an inherited property is not known by a subclass—it only knows that the inherited property

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Inheritance

Overriding has a certain name and type. You must always state both the name and the type of the property you are overriding, to enable the compiler to check that your override matches a superclass property with the same name and type.

You can present an inherited read-only property as a read-write property by providing both a getter and a setter in your subclass property override. You cannot, however, present an inherited read-write property as a read-only property.

Note:

If you provide a setter as part of a property override, you must also provide a getter for that override. If you don’t want to modify the inherited property’s value within the overriding getter, you can simply pass through the inherited value by returning super.someProperty

from the getter, as in the SpeedLimitedCar example below.

The following example defines a new class called SpeedLimitedCar , which is a subclass of Car . The

SpeedLimitedCar class represents a car that has been fitted with a speed-limiting device, which prevents the car from traveling faster than 40mph. You implement this limitation by overriding the inherited speed property: class

SpeedLimitedCar: Car { override var speed: Double { get

{

}

} return super

.speed

} set

{ super

.speed = min(newValue, 40.0)

}

Whenever you set the speed property of a SpeedLimitedCar instance, the property’s setter implementation checks the new value and limits it to 40mph. It does this by setting the underlying speed property of its superclass to be the smaller of newValue and

40.0

. The smaller of these two values is determined by passing them to the min function, which is a global function provided by the Swift standard library. The min function takes two or more values and returns the smallest one of those values.

If you try to set the speed property of a SpeedLimitedCar instance to more than 40mph, and then print the output of its description method, you see that the speed has been limited:

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Inheritance

Overriding let limitedCar = SpeedLimitedCar() limitedCar.speed = 60.0

println("SpeedLimitedCar: \(limitedCar.description())")

// SpeedLimitedCar: 4 wheels; up to 5 passengers; traveling at 40.0 mph

Overriding Property Observers

You can use property overriding to add property observers to an inherited property. This enables you to be notified when the value of the inherited property changes, regardless of how that property was originally implemented. For more information on property observers, see

Property Observers

(page 177).

Note:

You cannot add property observers to inherited constant stored properties or inherited read-only computed properties. The value of these properties cannot be set, and so it is not appropriate to provide a willSet or didSet implementation as part of an override.

Note also that you cannot provide both an overriding setter and an overriding property observer. If you want to observe changes to a property’s value, and you are already providing a custom setter for that property, you can simply observe any value changes from within the custom setter.

The following example defines a new class called

AutomaticCar

, which is a subclass of

Car

. The

AutomaticCar class represents a car with an automatic gearbox, which automatically selects an appropriate gear to use based on the current speed.

AutomaticCar also provides a custom description method to print the current gear.

class

AutomaticCar: Car { var gear = 1 override var speed: Double { didSet

{ gear = Int(speed / 10.0) + 1

}

} override func description() -> String { return super

.description() + " in gear \(gear)"

}

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Inheritance

Preventing Overrides

Whenever you set the speed property of an AutomaticCar instance, the property’s didSet observer automatically sets the gear property to an appropriate choice of gear for the new speed. Specifically, the property observer chooses a gear which is the new speed value divided by 10 , rounded down to the nearest integer, plus 1 . A speed of 10.0

produces a gear of 1 , and a speed of 35.0

produces a gear of 4 : let automatic = AutomaticCar() automatic.speed = 35.0

println("AutomaticCar: \(automatic.description())")

// AutomaticCar: 4 wheels; up to 5 passengers; traveling at 35.0 mph in gear 4

Preventing Overrides

You can prevent a method, property, or subscript from being overridden by marking it as

final

. Do this by writing the @final attribute before its introducer keyword (such as @final var , @final func , @final class func

, and

@final subscript

Any attempts to override a final method, property, or subscript in a subclass are reported as a compile-time error. Methods, properties or subscripts that you add to a class in an extension can also be marked as final within the extension’s definition.

You can mark an entire class as final by writing the @final attribute before the class keyword in its class definition ( @final class ). Any attempts to subclass a final class will be reported as a compile-time error.

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Initialization

Initialization

is the process of preparing an instance of a class, structure, or enumeration for use. This process involves setting an initial value for each stored property on that instance and performing any other setup or initialization that is required before the new instance is ready to for use.

You implement this initialization process by defining

initializers

, which are like special methods that can be called to create a new instance of a particular type. Unlike Objective-C initializers, Swift initializers do not return a value. Their primary role is to ensure that new instances of a type are correctly initialized before they are used for the first time.

Instances of class types can also implement a

deinitializer

, which performs any custom cleanup just before an instance of that class is deallocated. For more information about deinitializers, see

Deinitialization

(page 233).

Setting Initial Values for Stored Properties

Classes and structures

must

set all of their stored properties to an appropriate initial value by the time an instance of that class or structure is created. Stored properties cannot be left in an indeterminate state.

You can set an initial value for a stored property within an initializer, or by assigning a default property value as part of the property’s definition. These actions are described in the following sections.

Note:

When you assign a default value to a stored property, or set its initial value within an initializer, the value of that property is set directly, without calling any property observers.

Initializers

Initializers

are called to create a new instance of a particular type. In its simplest form, an initializer is like an instance method with no parameters, written using the init keyword.

The example below defines a new structure called Fahrenheit to store temperatures expressed in the

Fahrenheit scale. The

Fahrenheit structure has one stored property, temperature

, which is of type

Double

: struct

Fahrenheit { var temperature: Double

209

Initialization

Customizing Initialization init

() { temperature = 32.0

}

} var f = Fahrenheit() println("The default temperature is \(f.temperature)° Fahrenheit")

// prints "The default temperature is 32.0° Fahrenheit"

The structure defines a single initializer, init , with no parameters, which initializes the stored temperature with a value of 32.0

(the freezing point of water when expressed in the Fahrenheit scale).

Default Property Values

You can set the initial value of a stored property from within an initializer, as shown above. Alternatively, specify a

default property value

as part of the property’s declaration. You specify a default property value by assigning an initial value to the property when it is defined.

Note:

If a property always takes the same initial value, provide a default value rather than setting a value within an initializer. The end result is the same, but the default value ties the property’s initialization more closely to its declaration. It makes for shorter, clearer initializers and enables you to infer the type of the property from its default value. The default value also makes it easier for you to take advantage of default initializers and initializer inheritance, as described later in this chapter.

You can write the Fahrenheit structure from above in a simpler form by providing a default value for its temperature property at the point that the property is declared: struct

Fahrenheit { var temperature = 32.0

}

Customizing Initialization

You can customize the initialization process with input parameters and optional property types, or by modifying constant properties during initialization, as described in the following sections.

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Initialization

Customizing Initialization

Initialization Parameters

You can provide

initialization parameters

as part of an initializer’s definition, to define the types and names of values that customize the initialization process. Initialization parameters have the same capabilities and syntax as function and method parameters.

The following example defines a structure called Celsius , which stores temperatures expressed in the Celsius scale. The

Celsius structure implements two custom initializers called init(fromFahrenheit:) and init(fromKelvin:) , which initialize a new instance of the structure with a value from a different temperature scale: struct

Celsius { var temperatureInCelsius: Double = 0.0

init

(fromFahrenheit fahrenheit: Double) { temperatureInCelsius = (fahrenheit - 32.0) / 1.8

} init

(fromKelvin kelvin: Double) { temperatureInCelsius = kelvin - 273.15

}

} let boilingPointOfWater = Celsius(fromFahrenheit: 212.0)

// boilingPointOfWater.temperatureInCelsius is 100.0

let freezingPointOfWater = Celsius(fromKelvin: 273.15)

// freezingPointOfWater.temperatureInCelsius is 0.0

The first initializer has a single initialization parameter with an external name of fromFahrenheit and a local name of fahrenheit . The second initializer has a single initialization parameter with an external name of fromKelvin and a local name of kelvin

. Both initializers convert their single argument into a value in the

Celsius scale and store this value in a property called temperatureInCelsius .

Local and External Parameter Names

As with function and method parameters, initialization parameters can have both a local name for use within the initializer’s body and an external name for use when calling the initializer.

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Initialization

Customizing Initialization

However, initializers do not have an identifying function name before their parentheses in the way that functions and methods do. Therefore, the names and types of an initializer’s parameters play a particularly important role in identifying which initializer should be called. Because of this, Swift provides an automatic external name for

every

parameter in an initializer if you don’t provide an external name yourself. This automatic external name is the same as the local name, as if you had written a hash symbol before every initialization parameter.

Note:

If you do not want to provide an external name for a parameter in an initializer, provide an underscore (

) as an explicit external name for that parameter to override the default behavior described above.

The following example defines a structure called Color , with three constant properties called red , green , and blue . These properties store a value between 0.0

and 1.0

to indicate the amount of red, green, and blue in the color.

Color provides an initializer with three appropriately named parameters of type

Double

: struct

Color { let red = 0.0, green = 0.0, blue = 0.0

init

(red: Double, green: Double, blue: Double) { self

.red

= red self

.green = green self

.blue

= blue

}

Whenever you create a new

Color instance, you call its initializer using external names for each of the three color components: let magenta = Color(red: 1.0, green: 0.0, blue: 1.0)

Note that it is not possible to call this initializer without using the external names. External names must always be used in an intializer if they are defined, and omitting them is a compile-time error: let veryGreen = Color(0.0, 1.0, 0.0)

// this reports a compile-time error - external names are required

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Initialization

Customizing Initialization

Optional Property Types

If your custom type has a stored property that is logically allowed to have “no value”—perhaps because its value cannot be set during initialization, or because it is allowed to have “no value” at some later point—declare the property with an

optional

type. Properties of optional type are automatically initialized with a value of nil , indicating that the property is deliberately intended to have “no value yet” during initialization.

The following example defines a class called

SurveyQuestion

, with an optional

String property called response : class

SurveyQuestion { var text: String var response: String?

init

(text: String) { self

.text = text

} func ask() { println(text)

}

} let cheeseQuestion = SurveyQuestion(text: "Do you like cheese?") cheeseQuestion.ask()

// prints "Do you like cheese?" cheeseQuestion.response = "Yes, I do like cheese."

The response to a survey question cannot be known until it is asked, and so the response property is declared with a type of String?

, or “optional String ”. It is automatically assigned a default value of nil , meaning

“no string yet”, when a new instance of SurveyQuestion is initialized.

Modifying Constant Properties During Initialization

You can modify the value of a constant property at any point during initialization, as long as it is set to a definite value by the time initialization finishes.

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Initialization

Default Initializers

Note:

For class instances, a constant property can only be modified during initialization by the class that introduces it. It cannot be modified by a subclass.

You can revise the SurveyQuestion example from above to use a constant property rather than a variable property for the text property of the question, to indicate that the question does not change once an instance of

SurveyQuestion is created. Even though the text property is now a constant, it can still be set within the class’s initializer: class

SurveyQuestion { let text: String var response: String?

init

(text: String) { self

.text = text

} func ask() { println(text)

}

} let beetsQuestion = SurveyQuestion(text: "How about beets?") beetsQuestion.ask()

// prints "How about beets?" beetsQuestion.response = "I also like beets. (But not with cheese.)"

Default Initializers

Swift provides a

default initializer

for any structure or base class that provides default values for all of its properties and does not provide at least one initializer itself. The default initializer simply creates a new instance with all of its properties set to their default values.

This example defines a class called ShoppingListItem , which encapsulates the name, quantity, and purchase state of an item in a shopping list: class

ShoppingListItem { var name: String?

var quantity = 1

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Initialization

Initializer Delegation for Value Types var purchased = false

} var item = ShoppingListItem()

Because all properties of the ShoppingListItem class have default values, and because it is a base class with no superclass, ShoppingListItem automatically gains a default initializer implementation that creates a new instance with all of its properties set to their default values. (The name property is an optional

String property, and so it automatically receives a default value of nil , even though this value is not written in the code.) The example above uses the default initializer for the ShoppingListItem class to create a new instance of the class with initializer syntax, written as

ShoppingListItem()

, and assigns this new instance to a variable called item .

Memberwise Initializers for Structure Types

In addition to the default initializers mentioned above, structure types automatically receive a

memberwise initializer

if they provide default values for all of their stored properties and do not define any of their own custom initializers.

The memberwise initializer is a shorthand way to initialize the member properties of new structure instances.

Initial values for the properties of the new instance can be passed to the memberwise initializer by name.

The example below defines a structure called Size with two properties called width and height . Both properties are inferred to be of type

Double by assigning a default value of

0.0

Because both stored properties have a default value, the Size structure automatically receives an init(width:height:) memberwise initializer, which you can use to initialize a new Size instance: struct

Size { var width = 0.0, height = 0.0

} let twoByTwo = Size(width: 2.0, height: 2.0)

Initializer Delegation for Value Types

Initializers can call other initializers to perform part of an instance’s initialization. This process, known as

initializer delegation

, avoids duplicating code across multiple initializers.

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Initialization

Initializer Delegation for Value Types

The rules for how initializer delegation works, and for what forms of delegation are allowed, are different for value types and class types. Value types (structures and enumerations) do not support inheritance, and so their initializer delegation process is relatively simple, because they can only delegate to another initializer that they provide themselves. Classes, however, can inherit from other classes, as described in

Inheritance

(page 200).

This means that classes have additional responsibilities for ensuring that all stored properties they inherit are assigned a suitable value during initialization. These responsibilities are described in

Class Inheritance and

Initialization

(page 218) below.

For value types, you use self.init

to refer to other initializers from the same value type when writing your own custom initializers. You can only call self.init

from within an initializer.

Note that if you define a custom initializer for a value type, you will no longer have access to the default initializer (or the memberwise structure initializer, if it is a structure) for that type. This constraint prevents a situation in which you provide a more complex initializer that performs additional essential setup is circumvented by someone accidentally using one of the automatic initializers instead.

Note:

If you want your custom value type to be initializable with the default initializer and memberwise initializer, and also with your own custom initializers, write your custom initializers in an extension rather than as part of the value type’s original implementation. For more information, see

Extensions

(page 278) .

The following example defines a custom Rect structure to represent a geometric rectangle. The example requires two supporting structures called

Size and

Point

, both of which provide default values of

0.0

for all of their properties: struct

Size { var width = 0.0, height = 0.0

} struct

Point { var x = 0.0, y = 0.0

}

You can initialize the

Rect structure below in one of three ways—by using its default zero-initialized origin and size property values, by providing a specific origin point and size, or by providing a specific center point and size. These initialization options are represented by three custom initializers that are part of the Rect structure’s definition: struct

Rect {

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Initialization

Initializer Delegation for Value Types

} var origin = Point() var size = Size() init

() {} init

(origin: Point, size: Size) { self

.origin = origin self

.size = size

} init

(center: Point, size: Size) { let originX = center.x - (size.width / 2) let originY = center.y - (size.height / 2) self

init

(origin: Point(x: originX, y: originY), size: size)

}

The first Rect initializer, init() , is functionally the same as the default initializer that the structure would have received if it did not have its own custom initializers. This initializer has an empty body, represented by an empty pair of curly braces {} , and does not perfom any initialization. Calling this initializer returns a Rect instance whose origin and size properties are both initialized with the default values of

Point(x: 0.0, y: 0.0) and Size(width: 0.0, height: 0.0) from their property definitions: let basicRect = Rect()

// basicRect's origin is (0.0, 0.0) and its size is (0.0, 0.0)

The second

Rect initializer, init(origin:size:)

, is functionally the same as the memberwise initializer that the structure would have received if it did not have its own custom initializers. This initializer simply assigns the origin and size argument values to the appropriate stored properties: let originRect = Rect(origin: Point(x: 2.0, y: 2.0), size: Size(width: 5.0, height: 5.0))

// originRect's origin is (2.0, 2.0) and its size is (5.0, 5.0)

The third

Rect initializer, init(center:size:)

, is slightly more complex. It starts by calculating an appropriate origin point based on a center point and a size value. It then calls (or

delegates

) to the init(origin:size:) initializer, which stores the new origin and size values in the appropriate properties:

217

Initialization

Class Inheritance and Initialization let centerRect = Rect(center: Point(x: 4.0, y: 4.0), size: Size(width: 3.0, height: 3.0))

// centerRect's origin is (2.5, 2.5) and its size is (3.0, 3.0)

The init(center:size:) initializer could have assigned the new values of origin and size to the appropriate properties itself. However, it is more convenient (and clearer in intent) for the init(center:size:) initializer to take advantage of an existing initializer that already provides exactly that functionality.

Note:

For an alternative way to write this example without defining the init() and init(origin:size:) initializers yourself, see

Extensions

(page 278)

Class Inheritance and Initialization

All of a class’s stored properties—including any properties the class inherits from its superclass—

must

be assigned an initial value during initialization.

Swift defines two kinds of initializers for class types to help ensure all stored properties receive an initial value.

These are known as designated initializers and convenience initializers.

Designated Initializers and Convenience Initializers

Designated initializers

are the primary initializers for a class. A designated initializer fully initializes all properties introduced by that class and calls an appropriate superclass initializer to continue the initialization process up the superclass chain.

Classes tend to have very few designated initializers, and it is quite common for a class to have only one.

Designated initializers are “funnel” points through which initialization takes place, and through which the initialization process continues up the superclass chain.

Every class must have at least one designated initializer. In some cases, this requirement is satisfied by inheriting one or more designated initializers from a superclass, as described in

Automatic Initializer Inheritance

(page

224) below.

Convenience initializers

are secondary, supporting initializers for a class. You can define a convenience initializer to call a designated initializer from the same class as the convenience initializer with some of the designated initializer’s parameters set to default values. You can also define a convenience initializer to create an instance of that class for a specific use case or input value type.

218

Initialization

Class Inheritance and Initialization

You do not have to provide convenience initializers if your class does not require them. Create convenience initializers whenever a shortcut to a common initialization pattern will save time or make initialization of the class clearer in intent.

Initializer Chaining

To simplify the relationships between designated and convenience initializers, Swift applies the following three rules for delegation calls between initializers:

Rule 1

Designated initializers must call a designated initializer from their immediate superclass.

Rule 2

Convenience initializers must call another initializer available in the

same

class.

Rule 3

Convenience initializers must ultimately end up calling a designated initializer.

A simple way to remember this is:

●

Designated initializers must always delegate

●

Convenience initializers must always delegate

across

These rules are illustrated in the figure below:

Designated

Superclass

Convenience Convenience

Designated

Subclass

Designated Convenience

Here, the superclass has a single designated initializer and two convenience initializers. One convenience initializer calls another convenience initializer, which in turn calls the single designated initializer. This satisfies rules 2 and 3 from above. The superclass does not itself have a further superclass, and so rule 1 does not apply.

The subclass in this figure has two designated initializers and one convenience initializer. The convenience initializer must call one of the two designated initializers, because it can only call another initializer from the same class. This satisfies rules 2 and 3 from above. Both designated initializers must call the single designated initializer from the superclass, to satisfy rule 1 from above.

219

Initialization

Class Inheritance and Initialization

Note:

These rules don’t affect how users of your classes

create

instances of each class. Any initializer in the diagram above can be used to create a fully-initialized instance of the class they belong to.

The rules only affect how you write the class’s implementation.

The figure below shows a more complex class hierarchy for four classes. It illustrates how the designated initializers in this hierarchy act as “funnel” points for class initialization, simplifying the interrelationships among classes in the chain:

Designated Convenience Convenience

Convenience Designated Convenience

Designated Designated Convenience

Two-Phase Initialization

Class initialization in Swift is a two-phase process. In the first phase, each stored property is assigned an initial value by the class that introduced it. Once the initial state for every stored property has been determined, the second phase begins, and each class is given the opportunity to customize its stored properties further before the new instance is considered ready for use.

The use of a two-phase initialization process makes initialization safe, while still giving complete flexibility to each class in a class hierarchy. Two-phase initialization prevents property values from being accessed before they are initialized, and prevents property values from being set to a different value by another initializer unexpectedly.

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Initialization

Class Inheritance and Initialization

Note:

Swift’s two-phase initialization process is similar to initialization in Objective-C. The main difference is that during phase 1, Objective-C assigns zero or null values (such as 0 or nil ) to every property. Swift’s initialization flow is more flexible in that it lets you set custom initial values, and can cope with types for which

0 or nil is not a valid default value.

Swift’s compiler performs four helpful safety-checks to make sure that two-phase initialization is completed without error:

Safety check 1

A designated initializer must ensure that all of the properties introduced by its class are initialized before it delegates up to a superclass initializer.

As mentioned above, the memory for an object is only considered fully initialized once the initial state of all of its stored properties is known. In order for this rule to be satisfied, a designated initializer must make sure that all its own properties are initialized before it hands off up the chain.

Safety check 2

A designated initializer must delegate up to a superclass initializer before assigning a value to an inherited property. If it doesn’t, the new value the designated initializer assigns will be overwritten by the superclass as part of its own initialization.

Safety check 3

A convenience initializer must delegate to another initializer before assigning a value to

any

property

(including properties defined by the same class). If it doesn’t, the new value the convenience initializer assigns will be overwritten by its own class’s designated initializer.

Safety check 4

An initializer cannot call any instance methods, read the values of any instance properties, or refer to self as a value until after the first phase of initialization is complete.

The class instance is not fully valid until the first phase ends. Properties can only be accessed, and methods can only be called, once the class instance is known to be valid at the end of the first phase.

Here’s how two-phase initialization plays out, based on the four safety checks above:

Phase 1

●

A designated or convenience initializer is called on a class.

Memory for a new instance of that class is allocated. The memory is not yet initialized.

●

A designated initializer for that class confirms that all stored properties introduced by that class have a value. The memory for these stored properties is now initialized.

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Initialization

Class Inheritance and Initialization

●

The designated initializer hands off to a superclass initializer to perform the same task for its own stored properties.

●

This continues up the class inheritance chain until the top of the chain is reached.

Once the top of the chain is reached, and the final class in the chain has ensured that all of its stored properties have a value, the instance’s memory is considered to be fully initialized, and phase 1 is complete.

Phase 2

●

Working back down from the top of the chain, each designated initializer in the chain has the option to customize the instance further. Initializers are now able to access self and can modify its properties, call its instance methods, and so on.

●

Finally, any convenience initializers in the chain have the option to customize the instance and to work with self .

Here’s how phase 1 looks for an initialization call for a hypothetical subclass and superclass:

Superclass

Safety check 1

Subclass

Safety check 1 Called

In this example, initialization begins with a call to a convenience initializer on the subclass. This convenience initializer cannot yet modify any properties. It delegates across to a designated initializer from the same class.

The designated initializer makes sure that all of the subclass’s properties have a value, as per safety check 1. It then calls a designated initializer on its superclass to continue the initialization up the chain.

The superclass’s designated initializer makes sure that all of the superclass properties have a value. There are no further superclasses to initialize, and so no further delegation is needed.

As soon as all properties of the superclass have an initial value, its memory is considered fully initialized, and

Phase 1 is complete.

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Initialization

Class Inheritance and Initialization

Here’s how phase 2 looks for the same initialization call:

Superclass

Customize

Subclass

Customize Customize

The superclass’s designated initializer now has an opportunity to customize the instance further (although it does not have to).

Once the superclass’s designated initializer is finished, the subclass’s designated initializer can perform additional customization (although again, it does not have to).

Finally, once the subclass’s designated initializer is finished, the convenience initializer that was originally called can perform additional customization.

Initializer Inheritance and Overriding

Unlike subclasses in Objective-C, Swift subclasses do not not inherit their superclass initializers by default.

Swift’s approach prevents a situation in which a simple initializer from a superclass is automatically inherited by a more specialized subclass and is used to create a new instance of the subclass that is not fully or correctly initialized.

If you want your custom subclass to present one or more of the same initializers as its superclass—perhaps to perform some customization during initialization—you can provide an overriding implementation of the same initializer within your custom subclass.

If the initializer you are overriding is a

designated

initializer, you can override its implementation in your subclass and call the superclass version of the initializer from within your overriding version.

If the initializer you are overriding is a

convenience

initializer, your override must call another designated initializer from its own subclass, as per the rules described above in

Initializer Chaining

(page 219).

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Initialization

Class Inheritance and Initialization

Note:

Unlike methods, properties, and subscripts, you do not need to write the override keyword when overriding an initializer.

Automatic Initializer Inheritance

As mentioned above, subclasses do not not inherit their superclass initializers by default. However, superclass initializers

are

automatically inherited if certain conditions are met. In practice, this means that you do not need to write initializer overrides in many common scenarios, and can inherit your superclass initializers with minimal effort whenever it is safe to do so.

Assuming that you provide default values for any new properties you introduce in a subclass, the following two rules apply:

Rule 1

If your subclass doesn’t define any designated initializers, it automatically inherits all of its superclass designated initializers.

Rule 2

If your subclass provides an implementation of

all

of its superclass designated initializers—either by inheriting them as per rule 1, or by providing a custom implementation as part of its definition—then it automatically inherits all of the superclass convenience initializers.

These rules apply even if your subclass adds further convenience initializers.

Note:

A subclass can implement a superclass designated initializer as a subclass convenience initializer as part of satisfying rule 2.

Syntax for Designated and Convenience Initializers

Designated initializers for classes are written in the same way as simple initializers for value types: init

(parameters ) {

statements

}

Convenience initializers are written in the same style, but with the convenience keyword placed before the init keyword, separated by a space:

224

Initialization

Class Inheritance and Initialization convenience init

(parameters ) {

statements

}

Designated and Convenience Initializers in Action

The following example shows designated initializers, convenience initializers, and automatic initializer inheritance in action. This example defines a hierarchy of three classes called Food , RecipeIngredient , and

ShoppingListItem , and demonstrates how their initializers interact.

The base class in the hierarchy is called

Food

, which is a simple class to encapsulate the name of a foodstuff.

The Food class introduces a single String property called name and provides two initializers for creating Food instances: class

Food { var name: String init

(name: String) { self

.name = name

} convenience init

() { self

init

(name: "[Unnamed]")

}

The figure below shows the initializer chain for the Food class:

Convenience

Safety check 1 init()

class Food

var name: String

Designated

init(name)

Classes do not have a default memberwise initializer, and so the Food class provides a designated initializer that takes a single argument called name

. This initializer can be used to create a new

Food instance with a specific name: let namedMeat = Food(name: "Bacon")

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Initialization

Class Inheritance and Initialization

// namedMeat's name is "Bacon"

The init(name: String) initializer from the Food class is provided as a

designated

initializer, because it ensures that all stored properties of a new Food instance are fully initialized. The Food class does not have a superclass, and so the init(name: String) initializer does not need to call super.init() to complete its initialization.

The Food class also provides a

convenience

initializer, init() , with no arguments. The init() initializer provides a default placeholder name for a new food by delegating across to the Food class’s init(name:

String) with a name value of

[Unnamed]

: let mysteryMeat = Food()

// mysteryMeat's name is "[Unnamed]"

The second class in the hierarchy is a subclass of Food called RecipeIngredient . The RecipeIngredient class models an ingredient in a cooking recipe. It introduces an

Int property called quantity

(in addition to the name property it inherits from Food ) and defines two initializers for creating RecipeIngredient instances: class

RecipeIngredient: Food { var quantity: Int init

(name: String, quantity: Int) {

} convenience init

(name: String) { self

init

(name: name, quantity: 1)

} self

.quantity = quantity super

init

(name: name)

}

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Initialization

Class Inheritance and Initialization

The figure below shows the initializer chain for the RecipeIngredient class:

Convenience

Safety check 1 init()

class Food

var name: String

Designated

init(name)

Inherited

Safety check 1 init()

class RecipeIngredient: Food

var quantity: Int

Convenience

init(name)

Designated

init(name, quantity)

The RecipeIngredient class has a single designated initializer, init(name: String, quantity: Int) , which can be used to populate all of the properties of a new RecipeIngredient instance. This initializer starts by assigning the passed quantity argument to the quantity property, which is the only new property introduced by RecipeIngredient . After doing so, the initializer delegates up to the init(name: String) initializer of the Food class. This process satisfies safety check 1 from

Two-Phase Initialization

(page 220) above.

RecipeIngredient also defines a convenience initializer, init(name: String)

, which is used to create a

RecipeIngredient instance by name alone. This convenience initializer assumes a quantity of 1 for any

RecipeIngredient instance that is created without an explicit quantity. The definition of this convenience initializer makes

RecipeIngredient instances quicker and more convenient to create, and avoids code duplication when creating several single-quantity RecipeIngredient instances. This convenience initializer simply delegates across to the class’s designated initializer.

Note that the init(name: String) convenience initializer provided by RecipeIngredient takes the same parameters as the init(name: String)

designated

initializer from

Food

. Even though

RecipeIngredient provides this initializer as a convenience initializer, RecipeIngredient has nonetheless provided an implementation of all of its superclass’s designated initializers. Therefore, RecipeIngredient automatically inherits all of its superclass’s convenience initializers too.

In this example, the superclass for

RecipeIngredient is

Food

, which has a single convenience initializer called init() . This initializer is therefore inherited by RecipeIngredient . The inherited version of init() functions in exactly the same way as the Food version, except that it delegates to the RecipeIngredient version of init(name: String) rather than the

Food version.

All three of these initializers can be used to create new RecipeIngredient instances:

227

Initialization

Class Inheritance and Initialization let oneMysteryItem = RecipeIngredient() let oneBacon = RecipeIngredient(name: "Bacon") let sixEggs = RecipeIngredient(name: "Eggs", quantity: 6)

The third and final class in the hierarchy is a subclass of

RecipeIngredient called

ShoppingListItem

. The

ShoppingListItem class models a recipe ingredient as it appears in a shopping list.

Every item in the shopping list starts out as “unpurchased”. To represent this fact, ShoppingListItem introduces a Boolean property called purchased

, with a default value of false

ShoppingListItem also adds a computed description property, which provides a textual description of a ShoppingListItem instance: class

ShoppingListItem: RecipeIngredient { var purchased = false var description: String { var output = "\(quantity) x \(name.lowercaseString)" output += purchased ? " ✔" : " ✘" return output

}

Note:

ShoppingListItem does not define an initializer to provide an initial value for purchased , because items in a shopping list (as modeled here) always start out unpurchased.

Because it provides a default value for all of the properties it introduces and does not define any initializers itself,

ShoppingListItem automatically inherits

all

of the designated and convenience initializers from its superclass.

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Initialization

Class Inheritance and Initialization

The figure below shows the overall initializer chain for all three classes:

Convenience

Safety check 1 init()

class Food

var name: String

Designated

init(name)

Inherited

Safety check 1 init()

class RecipeIngredient: Food

var quantity: Int

Convenience

init(name)

Designated

init(name, quantity)

class ShoppingListItem: RecipeIngredient

var purchased = false

Inherited

Safety check 1 init()

Inherited

init(name)

Inherited

init(name, quantity)

You can use all three of the inherited initializers to create a new

ShoppingListItem instance: var breakfastList = [

ShoppingListItem(),

ShoppingListItem(name: "Bacon"),

ShoppingListItem(name: "Eggs", quantity: 6),

] breakfastList[0].name = "Orange juice" breakfastList[0].purchased = true for item in breakfastList { println(item.description)

}

// 1 x orange juice ✔

// 1 x bacon ✘

// 6 x eggs ✘

229

Initialization

Setting a Default Property Value with a Closure or Function

Here, a new array called breakfastList is created from an array literal containing three new

ShoppingListItem instances. The type of the array is inferred to be

ShoppingListItem[]

. After the array is created, the name of the ShoppingListItem at the start of the array is changed from "[Unnamed]" to

"Orange juice" and it is marked as having been purchased. Printing the description of each item in the array shows that their default states have been set as expected.

Setting a Default Property Value with a Closure or Function

If a stored property’s default value requires some customization or setup, you can use a closure or global function to provide a customized default value for that property. Whenever a new instance of the type that the property belongs to is initialized, the closure or function is called, and its return value is assigned as the property’s default value.

These kinds of closures or functions typically create a temporary value of the same type as the property, tailor that value to represent the desired initial state, and then return that temporary value to be used as the property’s default value.

Here’s a skeleton outline of how a closure can be used to provide a default property value: class

SomeClass { let someProperty: SomeType = {

// create a default value for someProperty inside this closure

// someValue must be of the same type as SomeType return someValue

}()

}

Note that the closure’s end curly brace is followed by an empty pair of parentheses. This tells Swift to execute the closure immediately. If you omit these parentheses, you are trying to assign the closure itself to the property, and not the return value of the closure.

230

Initialization

Setting a Default Property Value with a Closure or Function

Note:

If you use a closure to initialize a property, remember that the rest of the instance has not yet been initialized at the point that the closure is executed. This means that you cannot access any other property values from within your closure, even if those properties have default values. You also cannot use the implicit self property, or call any of the instance’s methods.

The example below defines a structure called Checkerboard , which models a board for the game of

Checkers

(also known as

Draughts

The game of

Checkers

is played on a ten-by-ten board, with alternating black and white squares. To represent this game board, the Checkerboard structure has a single property called boardColors , which is an array of 100 Bool values. A value of true in the array represents a black square and a value of false represents a white square. The first item in the array represents the top left square on the board and the last item in the array represents the bottom right square on the board.

The boardColors array is initialized with a closure to set up its color values: struct

Checkerboard { let boardColors: Bool[] = { var temporaryBoard = Bool[]() var isBlack = false for i in

1...10 { for j in

1...10 { temporaryBoard.append(isBlack) isBlack = !isBlack

}

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Initialization

Setting a Default Property Value with a Closure or Function

}

}() func squareIsBlackAtRow(row: Int, column: Int) -> Bool { return boardColors[(row * 10) + column]

} isBlack = !isBlack

} return temporaryBoard

Whenever a new

Checkerboard instance is created, the closure is executed, and the default value of boardColors is calculated and returned. The closure in the example above calculates and sets the appropriate color for each square on the board in a temporary array called temporaryBoard , and returns this temporary array as the closure’s return value once its setup is complete. The returned array value is stored in boardColors and can be queried with the squareIsBlackAtRow utility function: let board = Checkerboard() println(board.squareIsBlackAtRow(0, column: 1))

// prints "true" println(board.squareIsBlackAtRow(9, column: 9))

// prints "false"

232

Deinitialization

deinitializer

is called immediately before a class instance is deallocated. You write deinitializers with the deinit keyword, similar to how intializers are written with the init keyword. Deinitializers are only available on class types.

How Deinitialization Works

Swift automatically deallocates your instances when they are no longer needed, to free up resources. Swift handles the memory management of instances through

automatic reference counting

(

ARC

), as described in

Automatic Reference Counting

(page 237). Typically you don’t need to perform manual clean-up when your

instances are deallocated. However, when you are working with your own resources, you might need to perform some additional clean-up yourself. For example, if you create a custom class to open a file and write some data to it, you might need to close the file before the class instance is deallocated.

Class definitions can have at most one deinitializer per class. The deinitializer does not take any parameters and is written without parentheses: deinit

{

// perform the deinitialization

}

Deinitializers are called automatically, just before instance deallocation takes place. You are not allowed to call a deinitializer yourself. Superclass deinitializers are inherited by their subclasses, and the superclass deinitializer is called automatically at the end of a subclass deinitializer implementation. Superclass deinitializers are always called, even if a subclass does not provide its own deinitializer.

Because an instance is not deallocated until after its deinitializer is called, a deinitializer can access all properties of the instance it is called on and can modify its behavior based on those properties (such as looking up the name of a file that needs to be closed).

233

Deinitialization

Deinitializers in Action

Here’s an example of a deinitializer in action. This example defines two new types, Bank and Player , for a simple game. The Bank structure manages a made-up currency, which can never have more than 10,000 coins in circulation. There can only ever be one Bank in the game, and so the Bank is implemented as a structure with static properties and methods to store and manage its current state: struct

Bank { static var coinsInBank = 10_000 static func vendCoins( var numberOfCoinsToVend: Int) -> Int { numberOfCoinsToVend = min(numberOfCoinsToVend, coinsInBank) coinsInBank -= numberOfCoinsToVend return numberOfCoinsToVend

} static func receiveCoins(coins: Int) { coinsInBank += coins

}

Bank keeps track of the current number of coins it holds with its coinsInBank property. It also offers two methods— vendCoins and receiveCoins —to handle the distribution and collection of coins.

vendCoins checks that there are enough coins in the bank before distributing them. If there are not enough coins, Bank returns a smaller number than the number that was requested (and returns zero if no coins are left in the bank).

vendCoins declares numberOfCoinsToVend as a variable parameter, so that the number can be modified within the method’s body without the need to declare a new variable. It returns an integer value to indicate the actual number of coins that were provided.

The receiveCoins method simply adds the received number of coins back into the bank’s coin store.

The Player class describes a player in the game. Each player has a certain number of coins stored in their purse at any time. This is represented by the player’s coinsInPurse property: class

Player { var coinsInPurse: Int init

(coins: Int) { coinsInPurse = Bank.vendCoins(coins)

}

234

Deinitialization

Deinitializers in Action

} func winCoins(coins: Int) { coinsInPurse += Bank.vendCoins(coins)

} deinit

{

Bank.receiveCoins(coinsInPurse)

}

Each Player instance is initialized with a starting allowance of a specified number of coins from the bank during initialization, although a Player instance may receive fewer than that number if not enough coins are available.

The

Player class defines a winCoins method, which retrieves a certain number of coins from the bank and adds them to the player’s purse. The Player class also implements a deinitializer, which is called just before a Player instance is deallocated. Here, the deinitializer simply returns all of the player’s coins to the bank: var playerOne: Player? = Player(coins: 100) println("A new player has joined the game with \(playerOne!.coinsInPurse) coins")

// prints "A new player has joined the game with 100 coins" println("There are now \(Bank.coinsInBank) coins left in the bank")

// prints "There are now 9900 coins left in the bank"

A new Player instance is created, with a request for 100 coins if they are available. This Player instance is stored in an optional Player variable called playerOne . An optional variable is used here, because players can leave the game at any point. The optional lets you track whether there is currently a player in the game.

Because playerOne is an optional, it is qualified with an exclamation mark (

) when its coinsInPurse property is accessed to print its default number of coins, and whenever its winCoins method is called: playerOne!.winCoins(2_000) println("PlayerOne won 2000 coins & now has \(playerOne!.coinsInPurse) coins")

// prints "PlayerOne won 2000 coins & now has 2100 coins" println("The bank now only has \(Bank.coinsInBank) coins left")

// prints "The bank now only has 7900 coins left"

Here, the player has won 2,000 coins. The player’s purse now contains 2,100 coins, and the bank has only 7,900 coins left.

235

Deinitialization

Deinitializers in Action playerOne = nil println("PlayerOne has left the game")

// prints "PlayerOne has left the game" println("The bank now has \(Bank.coinsInBank) coins")

// prints "The bank now has 10000 coins"

The player has now left the game. This is indicated by setting the optional playerOne variable to nil , meaning

“no Player instance.” At the point that this happens, the playerOne variable’s reference to the Player instance is broken. No other properties or variables are still referring to the

Player instance, and so it is deallocated in order to free up its memory. Just before this happens, its deinitializer is called automatically, and its coins are returned to the bank.

236

Automatic Reference Counting

Swift uses

Automatic Reference Counting

(ARC) to track and manage your app’s memory usage. In most cases, this means that memory management “just works” in Swift, and you do not need to think about memory management yourself. ARC automatically frees up the memory used by class instances when those instances are no longer needed.

However, in a few cases ARC requires more information about the relationships between parts of your code in order to manage memory for you. This chapter describes those situations and shows how you enable ARC to manage all of your app’s memory.

Note:

Reference counting only applies to instances of classes. Structures and enumerations are value types, not reference types, and are not stored and passed by reference.

How ARC Works

Every time you create a new instance of a class, ARC allocates a chunk of memory to store information about that instance. This memory holds information about the type of the instance, together with the values of any stored properties associated with that instance.

Additionally, when an instance is no longer needed, ARC frees up the memory used by that instance so that the memory can be used for other purposes instead. This ensures that class instances do not take up space in memory when they are no longer needed.

However, if ARC were to deallocate an instance that was still in use, it would no longer be possible to access that instance’s properties, or call that instance’s methods. Indeed, if you tried to access the instance, your app would most likely crash.

To make sure that instances don’t disappear while they are still needed, ARC tracks how many properties, constants, and variables are currently referring to each class instance. ARC will not deallocate an instance as long as at least one active reference to that instance still exists.

To make this possible, whenever you assign a class instance to a property, constant, or variable, that property, constant, or variable makes a

strong reference

to the instance. The reference is called a “strong“ reference because it keeps a firm hold on that instance, and does not allow it to be deallocated for as long as that strong reference remains.

237

Automatic Reference Counting

ARC in Action

Here’s an example of how Automatic Reference Counting works. This example starts with a simple class called

Person , which defines a stored constant property called name : class

Person { let name: String init

(name: String) { self

.name = name println("\(name) is being initialized")

} deinit

{ println("\(name) is being deinitialized")

}

The Person class has an initializer that sets the instance’s name property and prints a message to indicate that initialization is underway. The

Person class also has a deinitializer that prints a message when an instance of the class is deallocated.

The next code snippet defines three variables of type Person?

, which are used to set up multiple references to a new Person instance in subsequent code snippets. Because these variables are of an optional type

(

Person?

, not

Person

), they are automatically initialized with a value of nil

, and do not currently reference a Person instance.

var reference1: Person?

var reference2: Person?

var reference3: Person?

You can now create a new

Person instance and assign it to one of these three variables: reference1 = Person(name: "John Appleseed")

// prints "John Appleseed is being initialized"

Note that the message

"John Appleseed is being initialized" is printed at the point that you call the Person class’s initializer. This confirms that initialization has taken place.

238

Automatic Reference Counting

Strong Reference Cycles Between Class Instances

Because the new Person instance has been assigned to the reference1 variable, there is now a strong reference from reference1 to the new

Person instance. Because there is at least one strong reference, ARC makes sure that this Person is kept in memory and is not deallocated.

If you assign the same Person instance to two more variables, two more strong references to that instance are established: reference2 = reference1 reference3 = reference1

There are now

three

strong references to this single Person instance.

If you break two of these strong references (including the original reference) by assigning nil to two of the variables, a single strong reference remains, and the Person instance is not deallocated: reference1 = nil reference2 = nil

ARC does not deallocate the Person instance until the third and final strong reference is broken, at which point it is clear that you are no longer using the Person instance: reference3 = nil

// prints "John Appleseed is being deinitialized"

Strong Reference Cycles Between Class Instances

In the examples above, ARC is able to track the number of references to the new Person instance you create and to deallocate that Person instance when it is no longer needed.

However, it is possible to write code in which an instance of a class

never

gets to a point where it has zero strong references. This can happen if two class instances hold a strong reference to each other, such that each instance keeps the other alive. This is known as a

strong reference cycle

You resolve strong reference cycles by defining some of the relationships between classes as weak or unowned references instead of as strong references. This process is described in

Resolving Strong Reference Cycles

Between Class Instances

(page 242). However, before you learn how to resolve a strong reference cycle, it is useful to understand how such a cycle is caused.

239

Automatic Reference Counting

Strong Reference Cycles Between Class Instances

Here’s an example of how a strong reference cycle can be created by accident. This example defines two classes called Person and Apartment , which model a block of apartments and its residents: class

Person { let name: String init

(name: String) { self

.name = name } var apartment: Apartment?

deinit

{ println("\(name) is being deinitialized") }

} class

Apartment { let number: Int init

(number: Int) { self

.number = number } var tenant: Person?

deinit

{ println("Apartment #\(number) is being deinitialized") }

}

Every Person instance has a name property of type String and an optional apartment property that is initially nil

. The apartment property is optional, because a person may not always have an apartment.

Similarly, every Apartment instance has a number property of type Int and has an optional tenant property that is initially nil . The tenant property is optional because an apartment may not always have a tenant.

Both of these classes also define a deinitializer, which prints the fact that an instance of that class is being deinitialized. This enables you to see whether instances of

Person and

Apartment are being deallocated as expected.

This next code snippet defines two variables of optional type called john and number73 , which will be set to a specific Apartment and Person instance below. Both of these variables have an initial value of nil , by virtue of being optional: var john: Person?

var number73: Apartment?

You can now create a specific Person instance and Apartment instance and assign these new instances to the john and number73 variables:

240

Automatic Reference Counting

Strong Reference Cycles Between Class Instances john = Person(name: "John Appleseed") number73 = Apartment(number: 73)

Here’s how the strong references look after creating and assigning these two instances. The john variable now has a strong reference to the new Person instance, and the number73 variable has a strong reference to the new

Apartment instance: var john

strong

var number73

strong

<Person instance>

<Apartment instance>

number: 73 tenant: nil

You can now link the two instances together so that the person has an apartment, and the apartment has a tenant. Note that an exclamation mark (

) is used to unwrap and access the instances stored inside the john and number73 optional variables, so that the properties of those instances can be set: john!.apartment = number73 number73!.tenant = john

Here’s how the strong references look after you link the two instances together: var john

strong

var number73

strong

<Person instance>

<Apartment instance> strong

<Apartment instance>

number: 73 tenant:

<Person instance> strong

Unfortunately, linking these two instances creates a strong reference cycle between them. The

Person instance now has a strong reference to the Apartment instance, and the Apartment instance has a strong reference to the Person instance. Therefore, when you break the strong references held by the john and number73 variables, the reference counts do not drop to zero, and the instances are not deallocated by ARC:

241

Automatic Reference Counting

Resolving Strong Reference Cycles Between Class Instances john = nil number73 = nil

Note that neither deinitializer was called when you set these two variables to nil . The strong reference cycle prevents the Person and Apartment instances from ever being deallocated, causing a memory leak in your app.

Here’s how the strong references look after you set the john and number73 variables to nil

: var john var number73

<Person instance>

<Apartment instance> strong strong

<Apartment instance>

number: 73 tenant:

<Person instance>

The strong references between the Person instance and the Apartment instance remain and cannot be broken.

Resolving Strong Reference Cycles Between Class Instances

Swift provides two ways to resolve strong reference cycles when you work with properties of class type: weak references and unowned references.

Weak and unowned references enable one instance in a reference cycle to refer to the other instance

without

keeping a strong hold on it. The instances can then refer to each other without creating a strong reference cycle.

Use a weak reference whenever it is valid for that reference to become nil at some point during its lifetime.

Conversely, use an unowned reference when you know that the reference will never be nil once it has been set during initialization.

242

Automatic Reference Counting

Resolving Strong Reference Cycles Between Class Instances

Weak References

weak reference

is a reference that does not keep a strong hold on the instance it refers to, and so does not stop ARC from disposing of the referenced instance. This behavior prevents the reference from becoming part of a strong reference cycle. You indicate a weak reference by placing the weak keyword before a property or variable declaration.

Use a weak reference to avoid reference cycles whenever it is possible for that reference to have “no value” at some point in its life. If the reference will

always

have a value, use an unowned reference instead, as described in

Unowned References

(page 246). In the

Apartment example above, it is appropriate for an apartment to be able to have “no tenant” at some point in its lifetime, and so a weak reference is an appropriate way to break the reference cycle in this case.

Note:

Weak references must be declared as variables, to indicate that their value can change at runtime. A weak reference cannot be declared as a constant.

Because weak references are allowed to have “no value”, you must declare every weak reference as having an optional type. Optional types are the preferred way to represent the possibility for “no value” in Swift.

Because a weak reference does not keep a strong hold on the instance it refers to, it is possible for that instance to be deallocated while the weak reference is still referring to it. Therefore, ARC automatically sets a weak reference to nil when the instance that it refers to is deallocated. You can check for the existence of a value in the weak reference, just like any other optional value, and you will never end up with a reference to an invalid instance that no longer exists.

The example below is identical to the

Person and

Apartment example from above, with one important difference. This time around, the Apartment type’s tenant property is declared as a weak reference: class

Person { let name: String init

(name: String) { self

.name = name } var apartment: Apartment?

deinit

{ println("\(name) is being deinitialized") }

} class

Apartment { let number: Int init

(number: Int) { self

.number = number } weak var tenant: Person?

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Resolving Strong Reference Cycles Between Class Instances

} deinit

{ println("Apartment #\(number) is being deinitialized") }

The strong references from the two variables ( john and number73

) and the links between the two instances are created as before: var john: Person?

var number73: Apartment?

john = Person(name: "John Appleseed") number73 = Apartment(number: 73) john!.apartment = number73 number73!.tenant = john

Here’s how the references look now that you’ve linked the two instances together: var john

strong

var number73

strong

<Person instance>

<Apartment instance> strong

<Apartment instance>

number: 73 tenant:

<Person instance> weak

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Resolving Strong Reference Cycles Between Class Instances

The Person instance still has a strong reference to the Apartment instance, but the Apartment instance now has a

weak

reference to the

Person instance. This means that when you break the strong reference held by the john variables, there are no more strong references to the Person instance: var john var number73

strong

<Person instance>

<Apartment instance> strong

<Apartment instance>

number: 73 tenant:

<Person instance> weak

Because there are no more strong references to the

Person instance, it is deallocated: john = nil

// prints "John Appleseed is being deinitialized"

The only remaining strong reference to the Apartment instance is from the number73 variable. If you break

that

strong reference, there are no more strong references to the Apartment instance: var john var number73

<Person instance>

<Apartment instance>

number: 73 tenant:

<Person instance> weak

Because there are no more strong references to the Apartment instance, it too is deallocated: number73 = nil

// prints "Apartment #73 is being deinitialized"

The final two code snippets above show that the deinitializers for the Person instance and Apartment instance print their “deinitialized” messages after the john and number73 variables are set to nil . This proves that the reference cycle has been broken.

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Unowned References

Like weak references, an

unowned reference

does not keep a strong hold on the instance it refers to. Unlike a weak reference, however, an unowned reference is assumed to

always

have a value. Because of this, an unowned reference is always defined as a non-optional type. You indicate an unowned reference by placing the unowned keyword before a property or variable declaration.

Because an unowned reference is non-optional, you don’t need to unwrap the unowned reference each time it is used. An unowned reference can always be accessed directly. However, ARC cannot set the reference to nil when the instance it refers to is deallocated, because variables of a non-optional type cannot be set to nil .

Note:

If you try to access an unowned reference after the instance that it references is deallocated, you will trigger a runtime error. Use unowned references only when you are sure that the reference will

always

refer to an instance.

Note also that Swift guarantees your app will crash if you try to access an unowned reference after the instance it references is deallocated. You will never encounter unexpected behavior in this situation. Your app will always crash reliably, although you should, of course, prevent it from doing so.

The following example defines two classes, Customer and CreditCard , which model a bank customer and a possible credit card for that customer. These two classes each store an instance of the other class as a property.

This relationship has the potential to create a strong reference cycle.

The relationship between Customer and CreditCard is slightly different from the relationship between

Apartment and

Person seen in the weak reference example above. In this data model, a customer may or may not have a credit card, but a credit card will

always

be associated with a customer. To represent this, the

Customer class has an optional card property, but the CreditCard class has a non-optional customer property.

Furthermore, a new CreditCard instance can

only

be created by passing a number value and a customer instance to a custom

CreditCard initializer. This ensures that a

CreditCard instance always has a customer instance associated with it when the CreditCard instance is created.

Because a credit card will always have a customer, you define its customer property as an unowned reference, to avoid a strong reference cycle: class

Customer { let name: String

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Resolving Strong Reference Cycles Between Class Instances

} var card: CreditCard?

init

(name: String) { self

.name = name

} deinit

{ println("\(name) is being deinitialized") } class

CreditCard { let number: Int unowned let customer: Customer init

(number: Int, customer: Customer) { self

.number = number self

.customer = customer

} deinit

{ println("Card #\(number) is being deinitialized") }

}

This next code snippet defines an optional

Customer variable called john

, which will be used to store a reference to a specific customer. This variable has an initial value of nil, by virtue of being optional: var john: Customer?

You can now create a Customer instance, and use it to initialize and assign a new CreditCard instance as that customer’s card property: john = Customer(name: "John Appleseed") john!.card = CreditCard(number: 1234_5678_9012_3456, customer: john!)

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Here’s how the references look, now that you’ve linked the two instances: var john

strong

<Customer instance>

<CreditCard instance> strong

<CreditCard instance>

number: 1234_5678_9012_3456 customer:

<Customer instance> unowned

The

Customer instance now has a strong reference to the

CreditCard instance, and the

CreditCard instance has an unowned reference to the Customer instance.

Because of the unowned customer reference, when you break the strong reference held by the john variable, there are no more strong references to the

Customer instance: var john

<Customer instance>

<CreditCard instance> strong unowned

<CreditCard instance>

number: 1234_5678_9012_3456 customer:

<Customer instance>

Because there are no more strong references to the Customer instance, it is deallocated. After this happens, there are no more strong references to the CreditCard instance, and it too is deallocated: john = nil

// prints "John Appleseed is being deinitialized"

// prints "Card #1234567890123456 is being deinitialized"

The final code snippet above shows that the deinitializers for the Customer instance and CreditCard instance both print their “deinitialized” messages after the john variable is set to nil .

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Resolving Strong Reference Cycles Between Class Instances

Unowned References and Implicitly Unwrapped Optional Properties

The examples for weak and unowned references above cover two of the more common scenarios in which it is necessary to break a strong reference cycle.

The Person and Apartment example shows a situation where two properties, both of which are allowed to be nil

, have the potential to cause a strong reference cycle. This scenario is best resolved with a weak reference.

The Customer and CreditCard example shows a situation where one property that is allowed to be nil and another property that cannot be nil have the potential to cause a strong reference cycle. This scenario is best resolved with an unowned reference.

However, there is a third scenario, in which

both

properties should always have a value, and neither property should ever be nil once initialization is complete. In this scenario, it is useful to combine an unowned property on one class with an implicitly unwrapped optional property on the other class.

This enables both properties to be accessed directly (without optional unwrapping) once initialization is complete, while still avoiding a reference cycle. This section shows you how to set up such a relationship.

The example below defines two classes, Country and City , each of which stores an instance of the other class as a property. In this data model, every country must always have a capital city, and every city must always belong to a country. To represent this, the Country class has a capitalCity property, and the City class has a country property: class

Country { let name: String let capitalCity: City!

init

(name: String, capitalName: String) { self

.name = name self

.capitalCity = City(name: capitalName, country: self

)

}

} class

City { let name: String unowned let country: Country init

(name: String, country: Country) { self

.name = name self

.country = country

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Automatic Reference Counting

Strong Reference Cycles for Closures

}

To set up the interdependency between the two classes, the initializer for City takes a Country instance, and stores this instance in its country property.

The initializer for

City is called from within the initializer for

Country

. However, the initializer for

Country cannot pass self to the City initializer until a new Country instance is fully initialized, as described in

Two-Phase Initialization

(page 220).

To cope with this requirement, you declare the capitalCity property of Country as an implicitly unwrapped optional property, indicated by the exclamation mark at the end of its type annotation (

City!

). This means that the capitalCity property has a default value of nil , like any other optional, but can be accessed without the need to unwrap its value as described in

Implicitly Unwrapped Optionals

(page 54).

Because capitalCity has a default nil value, a new Country instance is considered fully initialized as soon as the

Country instance sets its name property within its initializer. This means that the

Country initializer can start to reference and pass around the implicit self property as soon as the name property is set. The

Country initializer can therefore pass self as one of the parameters for the City initializer when the Country initializer is setting its own capitalCity property.

All of this means that you can create the Country and City instances in a single statement, without creating a strong reference cycle, and the capitalCity property can be accessed directly, without needing to use an exclamation mark to unwrap its optional value: var country = Country(name: "Canada", capitalName: "Ottawa") println("\(country.name)'s capital city is called \(country.capitalCity.name)")

// prints "Canada's capital city is called Ottawa"

In the example above, the use of an implicitly unwrapped optional means that all of the two-phase class initializer requirements are satisfied. The capitalCity property can be used and accessed like a non-optional value once initialization is complete, while still avoiding a strong reference cycle.

Strong Reference Cycles for Closures

You saw above how a strong reference cycle can be created when two class instance properties hold a strong reference to each other. You also saw how to use weak and unowned references to break these strong reference cycles.

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Automatic Reference Counting

Strong Reference Cycles for Closures

A strong reference cycle can also occur if you assign a closure to a property of a class instance, and the body of that closure captures the instance. This capture might occur because the closure’s body accesses a property of the instance, such as self.someProperty

, or because the closure calls a method on the instance, such as self.someMethod()

. In either case, these accesses cause the closure to “capture” self

, creating a strong reference cycle.

This strong reference cycle occurs because closures, like classes, are

reference types

. When you assign a closure to a property, you are assigning a

reference

to that closure. In essence, it’s the same problem as above—two strong references are keeping each other alive. However, rather than two class instances, this time it’s a class instance and a closure that are keeping each other alive.

Swift provides an elegant solution to this problem, known as a

closure capture list

. However, before you learn how to break a strong reference cycle with a closure capture list, it is useful to understand how such a cycle can be caused.

The example below shows how you can create a strong reference cycle when using a closure that references self . This example defines a class called HTMLElement , which provides a simple model for an individual element within an HTML document: class

HTMLElement { let name: String let text: String?

@lazy var asHTML: () -> String = { if let text = self

.text { return

"<\( self

.name)>\(text)</\( self

.name)>"

} else

{ return

"<\( self

.name) />"

}

} init

(name: String, text: String? = nil) { self

.name = name self

.text = text

} deinit

{

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Automatic Reference Counting

Strong Reference Cycles for Closures

} println("\(name) is being deinitialized")

}

The HTMLElement class defines a name property, which indicates the name of the element, such as "p" for a paragraph element, or "br" for a line break element.

HTMLElement also defines an optional text property, which you can set to a string that represents the text to be rendered within that HTML element.

In addition to these two simple properties, the

HTMLElement class defines a lazy property called asHTML

. This property references a closure that combines name and text into an HTML string fragment. The asHTML property is of type () -> String , or “a function that takes no parameters, and returns a String value”.

By default, the asHTML property is assigned a closure that returns a string representation of an HTML tag. This tag contains the optional text value if it exists, or no text content if text does not exist. For a paragraph element, the closure would return "some text" or "" , depending on whether the text property equals

"some text" or nil

The asHTML property is named and used somewhat like an instance method. However, because asHTML is a closure property rather than an instance method, you can replace the default value of the asHTML property with a custom closure, if you want to change the HTML rendering for a particular HTML element.

Note:

The asHTML property is declared as a lazy property, because it is only needed if and when the element actually needs to be rendered as a string value for some HTML output target. The fact that asHTML is a lazy property means that you can refer to self within the default closure, because the lazy property will not be accessed until after initialization has been completed and self is known to exist.

The HTMLElement class provides a single initializer, which takes a name argument and (if desired) a text argument to initialize a new element. The class also defines a deinitializer, which prints a message to show when an HTMLElement instance is deallocated.

Here’s how you use the

HTMLElement class to create and print a new instance: var paragraph: HTMLElement? = HTMLElement(name: "p", text: "hello, world") println(paragraph!.asHTML())

// prints "hello, world"

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Automatic Reference Counting

Strong Reference Cycles for Closures

Note:

The paragraph variable above is defined as an

optional

HTMLElement , so that it can be set to nil below to demonstrate the presence of a strong reference cycle.

Unfortunately, the

HTMLElement class, as written above, creates a strong reference cycle between an

HTMLElement instance and the closure used for its default asHTML value. Here’s how the cycle looks: var paragraph

strong

<HTMLElement instance>

strong strong

() -> String

self.text, self.name

The instance’s asHTML property holds a strong reference to its closure. However, because the closure refers to self within its body (as a way to reference self.name

and self.text

), the closure

captures

self, which means that it holds a strong reference back to the HTMLElement instance. A strong reference cycle is created between the two. (For more information about capturing values in a closure, see

Capturing Values

(page 144).)

Note:

Even though the closure refers to self multiple times, it only captures one strong reference to the HTMLElement instance.

If you set the paragraph variable to nil and break its strong reference to the HTMLElement instance, neither the

HTMLElement instance nor its closure are deallocated, because of the strong reference cycle: paragraph = nil

Note that the message in the

HTMLElement deinitializer is not printed, which shows that the

HTMLElement instance is not deallocated.

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Automatic Reference Counting

Resolving Strong Reference Cycles for Closures

You resolve a strong reference cycle between a closure and a class instance by defining a

capture list

as part of the closure’s definition. A capture list defines the rules to use when capturing one or more reference types within the closure’s body. As with strong reference cycles between two class instances, you declare each captured reference to be a weak or unowned reference rather than a strong reference. The appropriate choice of weak or unowned depends on the relationships between the different parts of your code.

Note:

Swift requires you to write self.someProperty

or self.someMethod

(rather than just someProperty or someMethod

) whenever you refer to a member of self within a closure. This helps you remember that it’s possible to capture self by accident.

Defining a Capture List

Each item in a capture list is a pairing of the weak or unowned keyword with a reference to a class instance

(such as self or someInstance ). These pairings are written within a pair of square braces, separated by commas.

Place the capture list before a closure’s parameter list and return type if they are provided:

@lazy var someClosure: (Int, String) -> String = {

[ unowned self

] (index: Int, stringToProcess: String) -> String in

// closure body goes here

}

If a closure does not specify a parameter list or return type because they can be inferred from context, place the capture list at the very start of the closure, followed by the in keyword:

@lazy var someClosure: () -> String = {

[ unowned self

] in

// closure body goes here

}

Weak and Unowned References

Define a capture in a closure as an unowned reference when the closure and the instance it captures will always refer to each other, and will always be deallocated at the same time.

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Automatic Reference Counting

Resolving Strong Reference Cycles for Closures

Conversely, define a capture as a weak reference when the captured reference may become nil at some point in the future. Weak references are always of an optional type, and automatically become nil when the instance they reference is deallocated. This enables you to check for their existence within the closure’s body.

Note:

If the captured reference will never become nil , it should always be captured as an unowned reference, rather than a weak reference.

An unowned reference is the appropriate capture method to use to resolve the strong reference cycle in the

HTMLElement example from earlier. Here’s how you write the

HTMLElement class to avoid the cycle: class

HTMLElement { let name: String let text: String?

@lazy var asHTML: () -> String = {

[ unowned self

] in if let text = self

.text { return

"<\( self

.name)>\(text)</\( self

.name)>"

} else

{ return

"<\( self

.name) />"

}

} init

(name: String, text: String? = nil) { self

.name = name self

.text = text

} deinit

{ println("\(name) is being deinitialized")

}

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Automatic Reference Counting

Resolving Strong Reference Cycles for Closures

This implementation of HTMLElement is identical to the previous implementation, apart from the addition of a capture list within the asHTML closure. In this case, the capture list is

[unowned self]

, which means “capture self as an unowned reference rather than a strong reference”.

You can create and print an HTMLElement instance as before: var paragraph: HTMLElement? = HTMLElement(name: "p", text: "hello, world") println(paragraph!.asHTML())

// prints "hello, world"

Here’s how the references look with the capture list in place: var paragraph

strong

<HTMLElement instance>

unowned strong

() -> String

[unowned self]

self.text, self.name

This time, the capture of self by the closure is an unowned reference, and does not keep a strong hold on the HTMLElement instance it has captured. If you set the strong reference from the paragraph variable to nil , the HTMLElement instance is deallocated, as can be seen from the printing of its deinitializer message in the example below: paragraph = nil

// prints "p is being deinitialized"

256

Optional Chaining

Optional chaining

is a process for querying and calling properties, methods, and subscripts on an optional that might currently be nil . If the optional contains a value, the property, method, or subscript call succeeds; if the optional is nil

, the property, method, or subscript call returns nil

. Multiple queries can be chained together, and the entire chain fails gracefully if any link in the chain is nil .

Note:

Optional chaining in Swift is similar to messaging nil in Objective-C, but in a way that works for any type, and that can be checked for success or failure.

Optional Chaining as an Alternative to Forced Unwrapping

You specify optional chaining by placing a question mark ( ?

) after the optional value on which you wish to call a property, method or subscript if the optional is nonnil

. This is very similar to placing an exclamation mark ( !

) after an optional value to force the unwrapping of its value. The main difference is that optional chaining fails gracefully when the optional is nil , whereas forced unwrapping triggers a runtime error when the optional is nil

To reflect the fact that optional chaining can be called on a nil value, the result of an optional chaining call is always an optional value, even if the property, method, or subscript you are querying returns a non-optional value. You can use this optional return value to check whether the optional chaining call was successful (the returned optional contains a value), or did not succeed due to a nil value in the chain (the returned optional value is nil

Specifically, the result of an optional chaining call is of the same type as the expected return value, but wrapped in an optional. A property that normally returns an Int will return an Int?

when accessed through optional chaining.

The next several code snippets demonstrate how optional chaining differs from forced unwrapping and enables you to check for success.

First, two classes called Person and Residence are defined: class

Person { var residence: Residence?

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Optional Chaining

Optional Chaining as an Alternative to Forced Unwrapping

} class

Residence { var numberOfRooms = 1

}

Residence instances have a single Int property called numberOfRooms , with a default value of 1 .

Person instances have an optional residence property of type Residence?

If you create a new

Person instance, its residence property is default initialized to nil

, by virtue of being optional. In the code below, john has a residence property value of nil : let john = Person()

If you try to access the numberOfRooms property of this person’s residence

, by placing an exclamation mark after residence to force the unwrapping of its value, you trigger a runtime error, because there is no residence value to unwrap: let roomCount = john.residence!.numberOfRooms

// this triggers a runtime error

The code above succeeds when john.residence

has a nonnil value and will set roomCount to an Int value containing the appropriate number of rooms. However, this code always triggers a runtime error when residence is nil , as illustrated above.

Optional chaining provides an alternative way to access the value of numberOfRooms

. To use optional chaining, use a question mark in place of the exclamation mark: if let roomCount = john.residence?.numberOfRooms { println("John's residence has \(roomCount) room(s).")

} else

{ println("Unable to retrieve the number of rooms.")

}

// prints "Unable to retrieve the number of rooms."

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Optional Chaining

Defining Model Classes for Optional Chaining

This tells Swift to “chain” on the optional residence property and to retrieve the value of numberOfRooms if residence exists.

Because the attempt to access numberOfRooms has the potential to fail, the optional chaining attempt returns a value of type Int?

, or “optional Int ”. When residence is nil , as in the example above, this optional Int will also be nil

, to reflect the fact that it was not possible to access numberOfRooms

Note that this is true even though numberOfRooms is a non-optional Int . The fact that it is queried through an optional chain means that the call to numberOfRooms will always return an Int?

instead of an Int .

You can assign a

Residence instance to john.residence

, so that it no longer has a nil value: john.residence = Residence() john.residence

now contains an actual

Residence instance, rather than nil

. If you try to access numberOfRooms with the same optional chaining as before, it will now return an Int?

that contains the default numberOfRooms value of 1 : if let roomCount = john.residence?.numberOfRooms { println("John's residence has \(roomCount) room(s).")

} else

{ println("Unable to retrieve the number of rooms.")

}

// prints "John's residence has 1 room(s)."

Defining Model Classes for Optional Chaining

You can use optional chaining with calls to properties, methods, and subscripts that are more than one level deep. This enables you to drill down into subproperties within complex models of interrelated types, and to check whether it is possible to access properties, methods, and subscripts on those subproperties.

The code snippets below define four model classes for use in several subsequent examples, including examples of multilevel optional chaining. These classes expand upon the Person and Residence model from above by adding a Room and Address class, with associated properties, methods, and subscripts.

The

Person class is defined in the same way as before: class

Person { var residence: Residence?

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Optional Chaining

Defining Model Classes for Optional Chaining

}

The Residence class is more complex than before. This time, the Residence class defines a variable property called rooms , which is initialized with an empty array of type Room[] : class

Residence { var rooms = Room[]() var numberOfRooms: Int { return rooms.count

} subscript

(i: Int) -> Room { return rooms[i]

} func printNumberOfRooms() { println("The number of rooms is \(numberOfRooms)")

} var address: Address?

}

Because this version of Residence stores an array of Room instances, its numberOfRooms property is implemented as a computed property, not a stored property. The computed numberOfRooms property simply returns the value of the count property from the rooms array.

As a shortcut to accessing its rooms array, this version of Residence provides a read-only subscript, which starts by asserting that the index passed to the subscript is valid. If the index is valid, the subscript returns the room at the requested index in the rooms array.

This version of Residence also provides a method called printNumberOfRooms , which simply prints the number of rooms in the residence.

Finally, Residence defines an optional property called address , with a type of Address?

. The Address class type for this property is defined below.

The Room class used for the rooms array is a simple class with one property called name , and an initializer to set that property to a suitable room name: class

Room {

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Optional Chaining

Calling Properties Through Optional Chaining

} let name: String init

(name: String) { self

.name = name }

The final class in this model is called Address . This class has three optional properties of type String?

. The first two properties, buildingName and buildingNumber , are alternative ways to identify a particular building as part of an address. The third property, street

, is used to name the street for that address: class

Address { var buildingName: String?

var buildingNumber: String?

var street: String?

func buildingIdentifier() -> String? { if buildingName { return buildingName

} else if buildingNumber { return buildingNumber

} else

{ return nil

}

The Address class also provides a method called buildingIdentifier , which has a return type of String?

This method checks the buildingName and buildingNumber properties and returns buildingName if it has a value, or buildingNumber if it has a value, or nil if neither property has a value.

Calling Properties Through Optional Chaining

As demonstrated in

Optional Chaining as an Alternative to Forced Unwrapping

(page 257), you can use optional

chaining to access a property on an optional value, and to check if that property access is successful. You cannot, however, set a property’s value through optional chaining.

Use the classes defined above to create a new Person instance, and try to access its numberOfRooms property as before:

261

Optional Chaining

Calling Methods Through Optional Chaining let john = Person() if let roomCount = john.residence?.numberOfRooms { println("John's residence has \(roomCount) room(s).")

} else

{ println("Unable to retrieve the number of rooms.")

}

// prints "Unable to retrieve the number of rooms."

Because john.residence

is nil

, this optional chaining call fails in the same way as before, without error.

Calling Methods Through Optional Chaining

You can use optional chaining to call a method on an optional value, and to check whether that method call is successful. You can do this even if that method does not define a return value.

The printNumberOfRooms method on the Residence class prints the current value of numberOfRooms .

Here’s how the method looks: func printNumberOfRooms() { println("The number of rooms is \(numberOfRooms)")

}

This method does not specify a return type. However, functions and methods with no return type have an implicit return type of Void , as described in

Functions Without Return Values

(page 122).

If you call this method on an optional value with optional chaining, the method’s return type will be Void?

, not

Void

, because return values are always of an optional type when called through optional chaining. This enables you to use an if statement to check whether it was possible to call the printNumberOfRooms method, even though the method does not itself define a return value. The implicit return value from the printNumberOfRooms will be equal to Void if the method was called succesfully through optional chaining, or nil if was not: if john.residence?.printNumberOfRooms() { println("It was possible to print the number of rooms.")

} else

{ println("It was not possible to print the number of rooms.")

262

Optional Chaining

Calling Subscripts Through Optional Chaining

}

// prints "It was not possible to print the number of rooms."

Calling Subscripts Through Optional Chaining

You can use optional chaining to try to retrieve a value from a subscript on an optional value, and to check whether that subscript call is successful. You cannot, however, set a subscript through optional chaining.

Note:

When you access a subscript on an optional value through optional chaining, you place the question mark

before

the subscript’s braces, not after. The optional chaining question mark always follows immediately after the part of the expression that is optional.

The example below tries to retrieve the name of the first room in the rooms array of the john.residence

property using the subscript defined on the Residence class. Because john.residence

is currently nil , the subscript call fails: if let firstRoomName = john.residence?[0].name { println("The first room name is \(firstRoomName).")

} else

{ println("Unable to retrieve the first room name.")

}

// prints "Unable to retrieve the first room name."

The optional chaining question mark in this subscript call is placed immediately after john.residence

, before the subscript brackets, because john.residence

is the optional value on which optional chaining is being attempted.

If you create and assign an actual Residence instance to john.residence

, with one or more Room instances in its rooms array, you can use the Residence subscript to access the actual items in the rooms array through optional chaining: let johnsHouse = Residence() johnsHouse.rooms += Room(name: "Living Room") johnsHouse.rooms += Room(name: "Kitchen") john.residence = johnsHouse

263

Optional Chaining

Linking Multiple Levels of Chaining if let firstRoomName = john.residence?[0].name { println("The first room name is \(firstRoomName).")

} else

{ println("Unable to retrieve the first room name.")

}

// prints "The first room name is Living Room."

Linking Multiple Levels of Chaining

You can link together multiple levels of optional chaining to drill down to properties, methods, and subscripts deeper within a model. However, multiple levels of optional chaining do not add more levels of optionality to the returned value.

To put it another way:

●

If the type you are trying to retrieve is not optional, it will become optional because of the optional chaining.

●

If the type you are trying to retrieve is

already

optional, it will not become

more

optional because of the chaining.

Therefore:

●

If you try to retrieve an Int value through optional chaining, an Int?

is always returned, no matter how many levels of chaining are used.

●

Similarly, if you try to retrieve an Int?

value through optional chaining, an Int?

is always returned, no matter how many levels of chaining are used.

The example below tries to access the street property of the address property of the residence property of john

. There are

two

levels of optional chaining in use here, to chain through the residence and address properties, both of which are of optional type: if let johnsStreet = john.residence?.address?.street { println("John's street name is \(johnsStreet).")

} else

{ println("Unable to retrieve the address.")

}

// prints "Unable to retrieve the address."

264

Optional Chaining

Chaining on Methods With Optional Return Values

The value of john.residence

currently contains a valid Residence instance. However, the value of john.residence.address

is currently nil

. Because of this, the call to john.residence?.address?.street

fails.

Note that in the example above, you are trying to retrieve the value of the street property. The type of this property is

String?

. The return value of john.residence?.address?.street

is therefore also

String?

, even though two levels of optional chaining are applied in addition to the underlying optional type of the property.

If you set an actual Address instance as the value for john.street.address

, and set an an actual value for the address’s street property, you can access the value of property through the multi-level optional chaining: let johnsAddress = Address() johnsAddress.buildingName = "The Larches" johnsAddress.street = "Laurel Street" john.residence!.address = johnsAddress if let johnsStreet = john.residence?.address?.street { println("John's street name is \(johnsStreet).")

} else

{ println("Unable to retrieve the address.")

}

// prints "John's street name is Laurel Street."

Note the use of an exclamation mark during the assignment of an address instance to john.residence.address

. The john.residence

property has an optional type, and so you need to unwrap its actual value with an exclamation mark before accessing the residence’s address property.

Chaining on Methods With Optional Return Values

The previous example shows how to retrieve the value of a property of optional type through optional chaining.

You can also use optional chaining to call a method that returns a value of optional type, and to chain on that method’s return value if needed.

The example below calls the Address class’s buildingIdentifier method through optional chaining. This method returns a value of type String?

. As described above, the ultimate return type of this method call after optional chaining is also

String?

265

Optional Chaining

Chaining on Methods With Optional Return Values if let buildingIdentifier = john.residence?.address?.buildingIdentifier() { println("John's building identifier is \(buildingIdentifier).")

}

// prints "John's building identifier is The Larches."

If you want to perform further optional chaining on this method’s return value, place the optional chaining question mark

after

the method’s parentheses: if let upper = john.residence?.address?.buildingIdentifier()?.uppercaseString { println("John's uppercase building identifier is \(upper).")

}

// prints "John's uppercase building identifier is THE LARCHES."

Note:

In the example above, you place the optional chaining question mark

after

the parentheses, because the optional value you are chaining on is the buildingIdentifier method’s return value, and not the buildingIdentifier method itself.

266

Type Casting

Type casting

is a way to check the type of an instance, and/or to treat that instance as if it is a different superclass or subclass from somewhere else in its own class hierarchy.

Type casting in Swift is implemented with the is and as operators. These two operators provide a simple and expressive way to check the type of a value or cast a value to a different type.

You can also use type casting to check whether a type conforms to a protocol, as described in

Checking for

Protocol Conformance

(page 303).

Defining a Class Hierarchy for Type Casting

You can use type casting with a hierarchy of classes and subclasses to check the type of a particular class instance and to cast that instance to another class within the same hierarchy. The three code snippets below define a hierarchy of classes and an array containing instances of those classes, for use in an example of type casting.

The first snippet defines a new base class called MediaItem . This class provides basic functionality for any kind of item that appears in a digital media library. Specifically, it declares a name property of type String , and an init name initializer. (It is assumed that all media items, including all movies and songs, will have a name.) class

MediaItem { var name: String init

(name: String) { self

.name = name

}

The next snippet defines two subclasses of MediaItem . The first subclass, Movie , encapsulates additional information about a movie or film. It adds a director property on top of the base MediaItem class, with a corresponding initializer. The second subclass,

Song

, adds an artist property and initializer on top of the base class:

267

Type Casting

Defining a Class Hierarchy for Type Casting class

Movie: MediaItem { var director: String init

(name: String, director: String) { self

.director = director super

init

(name: name)

}

} class

Song: MediaItem { var artist: String init

(name: String, artist: String) { self

.artist = artist super

init

(name: name)

}

The final snippet creates a constant array called library , which contains two Movie instances and three Song instances. The type of the library array is inferred by initializing it with the contents of an array literal. Swift’s type checker is able to deduce that

Movie and

Song have a common superclass of

MediaItem

, and so it infers a type of MediaItem[] for the library array: let library = [

Movie(name: "Casablanca", director: "Michael Curtiz"),

Song(name: "Blue Suede Shoes", artist: "Elvis Presley"),

Movie(name: "Citizen Kane", director: "Orson Welles"),

Song(name: "The One And Only", artist: "Chesney Hawkes"),

Song(name: "Never Gonna Give You Up", artist: "Rick Astley")

]

// the type of "library" is inferred to be MediaItem[]

The items stored in library are still

Movie and

Song instances behind the scenes. However, if you iterate over the contents of this array, the items you receive back are typed as MediaItem , and not as Movie or Song .

In order to work with them as their native type, you need to

check

their type, or

downcast

them to a different type, as described below.

268

Type Casting

Checking Type

Use the

type check operator

( is ) to check whether an instance is of a certain subclass type. The type check operator returns true if the instance is of that subclass type and false if it is not.

The example below defines two variables, movieCount and songCount , which count the number of Movie and Song instances in the library array: var movieCount = 0 var songCount = 0 for item in library { if item is

Movie {

++movieCount

} else if item is

Song {

++songCount

}

} println("Media library contains \(movieCount) movies and \(songCount) songs")

// prints "Media library contains 2 movies and 3 songs"

This example iterates through all items in the library array. On each pass, the for in loop sets the item constant to the next

MediaItem in the array.

item is Movie returns true if the current MediaItem is a Movie instance and false if it is not. Similarly, item is Song checks whether the item is a Song instance. At the end of the for in loop, the values of movieCount and songCount contain a count of how many

MediaItem instances were found of each type.

Downcasting

A constant or variable of a certain class type may actually refer to an instance of a subclass behind the scenes.

Where you believe this is the case, you can try to

downcast

to the subclass type with the

type cast operator

( as

Because downcasting can fail, the type cast operator comes in two different forms. The optional form, as?

, returns an optional value of the type you are trying to downcast to. The forced form, as , attempts the downcast and force-unwraps the result as a single compound action.

269

Type Casting

Downcasting

Use the optional form of the type cast operator ( as?

) when you are not sure if the downcast will succeed. This form of the operator will always return an optional value, and the value will be nil if the downcast was not possible. This enables you to check for a successful downcast.

Use the forced form of the type cast operator ( as ) only when you are sure that the downcast will always succeed. This form of the operator will trigger a runtime error if you try to downcast to an incorrect class type.

The example below iterates over each MediaItem in library , and prints an appropriate description for each item. To do this, it needs to access each item as a true

Movie or

Song

, and not just as a

MediaItem

. This is necessary in order for it to be able to access the director or artist property of a Movie or Song for use in the description.

In this example, each item in the array might be a Movie , or it might be a Song . You don’t know in advance which actual class to use for each item, and so it is appropriate to use the optional form of the type cast operator

( as?

) to check the downcast each time through the loop: for item in library { if let movie = item as

? Movie { println("Movie: '\(movie.name)', dir. \(movie.director)")

} else if let song = item as

? Song { println("Song: '\(song.name)', by \(song.artist)")

}

// Movie: 'Casablanca', dir. Michael Curtiz

// Song: 'Blue Suede Shoes', by Elvis Presley

// Movie: 'Citizen Kane', dir. Orson Welles

// Song: 'The One And Only', by Chesney Hawkes

// Song: 'Never Gonna Give You Up', by Rick Astley

The example starts by trying to downcast the current item as a Movie . Because item is a MediaItem instance, it’s possible that it

might

be a

Movie

; equally, it’s also possible that it might a

Song

, or even just a base

MediaItem . Because of this uncertainty, the as?

form of the type cast operator returns an

optional

value when attempting to downcast to a subclass type. The result of item as Movie is of type Movie?

, or “optional

Movie

”.

270

Type Casting

Type Casting for Any and AnyObject

Downcasting to Movie fails when applied to the two Song instances in the library array. To cope with this, the example above uses optional binding to check whether the optional

Movie actually contains a value (that is, to find out whether the downcast succeeded.) This optional binding is written “ if let movie = item as?

Movie ”, which can be read as:

“Try to access item as a

Movie

. If this is successful, set a new temporary constant called movie to the value stored in the returned optional Movie .”

If the downcasting succeeds, the properties of movie are then used to print a description for that Movie instance, including the name of its director

. A similar principle is used to check for

Song instances, and to print an appropriate description (including artist name) whenever a Song is found in the library.

Note:

Casting does not actually modify the instance or change its values. The underlying instance remains the same; it is simply treated and accessed as an instance of the type to which it has been cast.

Type Casting for Any and AnyObject

Swift provides two special type aliases for working with non-specific types:

●

AnyObject can represent an instance of any class type.

●

Any can represent an instance of any type at all, apart from function types.

Note:

Use Any and AnyObject only when you explicitly need the behavior and capabilities they provide. It is always better to be specific about the types you expect to work with in your code.

AnyObject

When working with Cocoa APIs, it is common to receive an array with a type of AnyObject[] , or “an array of values of any object type”. This is because Objective-C does not have explicitly typed arrays. However, you can often be confident about the type of objects contained in such an array just from the information you know about the API that provided the array.

In these situations, you can use the forced version of the type cast operator ( as

) to downcast each item in the array to a more specific class type than AnyObject , without the need for optional unwrapping.

The example below defines an array of type AnyObject[] and populates this array with three instances of the

Movie class:

271

Type Casting

Type Casting for Any and AnyObject let someObjects: AnyObject[] = [

Movie(name: "2001: A Space Odyssey", director: "Stanley Kubrick"),

Movie(name: "Moon", director: "Duncan Jones"),

Movie(name: "Alien", director: "Ridley Scott")

]

Because this array is known to contain only

Movie instances, you can downcast and unwrap directly to a non-optional Movie with the forced version of the type cast operator ( as ): for object in someObjects { let movie = object as

Movie println("Movie: '\(movie.name)', dir. \(movie.director)")

}

// Movie: '2001: A Space Odyssey', dir. Stanley Kubrick

// Movie: 'Moon', dir. Duncan Jones

// Movie: 'Alien', dir. Ridley Scott

For an even shorter form of this loop, downcast the someObjects array to a type of Movie[] instead of downcasting each item: for movie in someObjects as

Movie[] { println("Movie: '\(movie.name)', dir. \(movie.director)")

}

// Movie: '2001: A Space Odyssey', dir. Stanley Kubrick

// Movie: 'Moon', dir. Duncan Jones

// Movie: 'Alien', dir. Ridley Scott

Any

Here’s an example of using

Any to work with a mix of different types, including non-class types. The example creates an array called things , which can store values of type Any : var things = Any[]() things.append(0)

272

Type Casting

Type Casting for Any and AnyObject things.append(0.0) things.append(42) things.append(3.14159) things.append("hello") things.append((3.0, 5.0)) things.append(Movie(name: "Ghostbusters", director: "Ivan Reitman"))

The things array contains two Int values, two Double values, a String value, a tuple of type (Double,

Double) , and the movie “Ghostbusters”, directed by Ivan Reitman.

You can use the is and as operators in a switch statement’s cases to discover the specific type of a constant or variable that is known only to be of type Any or AnyObject . The example below iterates over the items in the things array and queries the type of each item with a switch statement. Several of the switch statement’s cases bind their matched value to a constant of the specified type to enable its value to be printed: for thing in things { switch thing { case

0 as

Int: println("zero as an Int") case

0 as

Double: println("zero as a Double") case let someInt as

Int: println("an integer value of \(someInt)") case let someDouble as

Double where someDouble > 0: println("a positive double value of \(someDouble)") case is

Double: println("some other double value that I don't want to print") case let someString as

String: println("a string value of \"\(someString)\"") case let

(x, y) as

(Double, Double): println("an (x, y) point at \(x), \(y)") case let movie as

Movie: println("a movie called '\(movie.name)', dir. \(movie.director)") default

: println("something else")

273

Type Casting

Type Casting for Any and AnyObject

}

// zero as an Int

// zero as a Double

// an integer value of 42

// a positive double value of 3.14159

// a string value of "hello"

// an (x, y) point at 3.0, 5.0

// a movie called 'Ghostbusters', dir. Ivan Reitman

Note:

The cases of a switch statement use the forced version of the type cast operator ( as , not as?

) to check and cast to a specific type. This check is always safe within the context of a switch case statement.

274

Nested Types

Enumerations are often created to support a specific class or structure’s functionality. Similarly, it can be convenient to define utility classes and structures purely for use within the context of a more complex type.

To accomplish this, Swift enables you to define

nested types

, whereby you nest supporting enumerations, classes, and structures within the definition of the type they support.

To nest a type within another type, write its definition within the outer braces of the type it supports. Types can be nested to as many levels as are required.

Nested Types in Action

The example below defines a structure called BlackjackCard , which models a playing card as used in the game of Blackjack. The BlackJack structure contains two nested enumeration types called Suit and Rank .

In Blackjack, the Ace cards have a value of either one or eleven. This feature is represented by a structure called

Values , which is nested within the Rank enumeration: struct

BlackjackCard {

// nested Suit enumeration enum

Suit: Character { case

Spades = "♠", Hearts = "♡", Diamonds = "♢", Clubs = "♣"

}

// nested Rank enumeration enum

Rank: Int { case

Two = 2, Three, Four, Five, Six, Seven, Eight, Nine, Ten case

Jack, Queen, King, Ace struct

Values { let first: Int, second: Int?

} var values: Values {

275

Nested Types

Nested Types in Action

} switch self

{ case

.Ace: return

Values(first: 1, second: 11) case

.Jack, .Queen, .King: return

Values(first: 10, second: nil) default

: return

Values(first: self

.toRaw(), second: nil)

}

// BlackjackCard properties and methods let rank: Rank, suit: Suit var description: String { var output = "suit is \(suit.toRaw())," output += " value is \(rank.values.first)" if let second = rank.values.second { output += " or \(second)"

} return output

}

The Suit enumeration describes the four common playing card suits, together with a raw Character value to represent their symbol.

The Rank enumeration describes the thirteen possible playing card ranks, together with a raw Int value to represent their face value. (This raw

Int value is not used for the Jack, Queen, King, and Ace cards.)

As mentioned above, the Rank enumeration defines a further nested structure of its own, called Values . This structure encapsulates the fact that most cards have one value, but the Ace card has two values. The Values structure defines two properties to represent this:

●

● first

, of type

Int second

, of type

Int?

, or “optional

Int

”

276

Nested Types

Referring to Nested Types

Rank also defines a computed property, values , which returns an instance of the Values structure. This computed property considers the rank of the card and initializes a new

Values instance with appropriate values based on its rank. It uses special values for Jack , Queen , King , and Ace . For the numeric cards, it uses the rank’s raw Int value.

The

BlackjackCard structure itself has two properties— rank and suit

. It also defines a computed property called description , which uses the values stored in rank and suit to build a description of the name and value of the card. The description property uses optional binding to check whether there is a second value to display, and if so, inserts additional description detail for that second value.

Because

BlackjackCard is a structure with no custom initializers, it has an implicit memberwise initializer, as described in

Memberwise Initializers for Structure Types

(page 215). You can use this initializer to initialize a new constant called theAceOfSpades : let theAceOfSpades = BlackjackCard(rank: .Ace, suit: .Spades) println("theAceOfSpades: \(theAceOfSpades.description)")

// prints "theAceOfSpades: suit is ♠, value is 1 or 11"

Even though

Rank and

Suit are nested within

BlackjackCard

, their type can be inferred from context, and so the initialization of this instance is able to refer to the enumeration members by their member names ( .Ace

and .Spades

) alone. In the example above, the description property correctly reports that the Ace of

Spades has a value of

1 or

Referring to Nested Types

To use a nested type outside of its definition context, prefix its name with the name of the type it is nested within: let heartsSymbol = BlackjackCard.Suit.Hearts.toRaw()

// heartsSymbol is "♡"

For the example above, this enables the names of

Suit

Rank

, and

Values to be kept deliberately short, because their names are naturally qualified by the context in which they are defined.

277

Extensions

Extensions

add new functionality to an existing class, structure, or enumeration type. This includes the ability to extend types for which you do not have access to the original source code (known as

retroactive modeling

Extensions are similar to categories in Objective-C. (Unlike Objective-C categories, Swift extensions do not have names.)

Extensions in Swift can:

●

Add computed properties and computed static properties

●

Define instance methods and type methods

Provide new initializers

●

Define subscripts

Define and use new nested types

●

Make an existing type conform to a protocol

Note:

If you define an extension to add new functionality to an existing type, the new functionality will be available on all existing instances of that type, even if they were created before the extension was defined.

Extension Syntax

Declare extensions with the extension keyword: extension

SomeType {

// new functionality to add to SomeType goes here

}

An extension can extend an existing type to make it adopt one or more protocols. Where this is the case, the protocol names are written in exactly the same way as for a class or structure: extension

SomeType: SomeProtocol, AnotherProtocol {

278

Extensions

Computed Properties

}

// implementation of protocol requirements goes here

Adding protocol conformance in this way is described in

Adding Protocol Conformance with an Extension

(page

298).

Computed Properties

Extensions can add computed instance properties and computed type properties to existing types. This example adds five computed instance properties to Swift’s built-in

Double type, to provide basic support for working with distance units: extension

Double { var km: Double { return self

* 1_000.0 } var m: Double { return self

} var cm: Double { return self

/ 100.0 } var mm: Double { return self

/ 1_000.0 } var ft: Double { return self

/ 3.28084 }

} let oneInch = 25.4.mm

println("One inch is \(oneInch) meters")

// prints "One inch is 0.0254 meters" let threeFeet = 3.ft

println("Three feet is \(threeFeet) meters")

// prints "Three feet is 0.914399970739201 meters"

These computed properties express that a

Double value should be considered as a certain unit of length.

Although they are implemented as computed properties, the names of these properties can be appended to a floating-point literal value with dot syntax, as a way to use that literal value to perform distance conversions.

In this example, a Double value of 1.0

is considered to represent “one meter”. This is why the m computed property returns self —the expression 1.m

is considered to calculate a Double value of 1.0

279

Extensions

Initializers

Other units require some conversion to be expressed as a value measured in meters. One kilometer is the same as 1,000 meters, so the km computed property multiplies the value by 1_000.00

to convert into a number expressed in meters. Similarly, there are 3.28024 feet in a meter, and so the ft computed property divides the underlying Double value by 3.28024

, to convert it from feet to meters.

These properties are read-only computed properties, and so they are expressed without the get keyword, for brevity. Their return value is of type

Double

, and can be used within mathematical calculations wherever a

Double is accepted: let aMarathon = 42.km + 195.m

println("A marathon is \(aMarathon) meters long")

// prints "A marathon is 42195.0 meters long"

Note:

Extensions can add new computed properties, but they cannot add stored properties, or add property observers to existing properties.

Initializers

Extensions can add new initializers to existing types. This enables you to extend other types to accept your own custom types as initializer parameters, or to provide additional initialization options that were not included as part of the type’s original implementation.

Extensions can add new convenience initializers to a class, but they cannot add new designated initializers or deinitializers to a class. Designated initializers and deinitializers must always be provided by the original class implementation.

Note:

If you use an extension to add an initializer to a value type that provides default values for all of its stored properties and does not define any custom initializers, you can call the default initializer and memberwise initializer for that value type from within your extension’s initializer.

This would not be the case if you had written the initializer as part of the value type’s original implementation, as described in

Initializer Delegation for Value Types

(page 215) .

The example below defines a custom

Rect structure to represent a geometric rectangle. The example also defines two supporting structures called Size and Point , both of which provide default values of 0.0

for all of their properties:

280

Extensions

Initializers struct

Size { var width = 0.0, height = 0.0

} struct

Point { var x = 0.0, y = 0.0

} struct

Rect { var origin = Point() var size = Size()

}

Because the

Rect structure provides default values for all of its properties, it receives a default initializer and a memberwise initializer automatically, as described in

Default Initializers

(page 214). These initializers can be

used to create new Rect instances: let defaultRect = Rect() let memberwiseRect = Rect(origin: Point(x: 2.0, y: 2.0), size: Size(width: 5.0, height: 5.0))

You can extend the Rect structure to provide an additional initializer that takes a specific center point and size: extension

Rect { init

(center: Point, size: Size) { let originX = center.x - (size.width / 2) let originY = center.y - (size.height / 2) self

init

(origin: Point(x: originX, y: originY), size: size)

}

This new initializer starts by calculating an appropriate origin point based on the provided center point and size value. The initializer then calls the structure’s automatic memberwise initializer init(origin:size:) , which stores the new origin and size values in the appropriate properties: let centerRect = Rect(center: Point(x: 4.0, y: 4.0),

281

Extensions

Methods size: Size(width: 3.0, height: 3.0))

// centerRect's origin is (2.5, 2.5) and its size is (3.0, 3.0)

Note:

If you provide a new initializer with an extension, you are still responsible for making sure that each instance is fully initialized once the initializer completes.

Methods

Extensions can add new instance methods and type methods to existing types. The following example adds a new instance method called repetitions to the Int type: extension

Int { func repetitions(task: () -> ()) { for i in

0..

self

{ task()

}

The repetitions method takes a single argument of type () -> () , which indicates a function that has no parameters and does not return a value.

After defining this extension, you can call the repetitions method on any integer number to perform a task that many number of times:

3.repetitions({ println("Hello!")

})

// Hello!

Use trailing closure syntax to make the call more succinct:

282

Extensions

Subscripts

3.repetitions { println("Goodbye!")

}

// Goodbye!

Mutating Instance Methods

Instance methods added with an extension can also modify (or

mutate

) the instance itself. Structure and enumeration methods that modify self or its properties must mark the instance method as mutating , just like mutating methods from an original implementation.

The example below adds a new mutating method called square to Swift’s Int type, which squares the original value: extension

Int { mutating func square() { self

= self

* self

}

} var someInt = 3 someInt.square()

// someInt is now 9

Subscripts

Extensions can add new subscripts to an existing type. This example adds an integer subscript to Swift’s built-in

Int type. This subscript [n] returns the decimal digit n places in from the right of the number:

●

123456789[0] returns 9

●

123456789[1] returns 8

…and so on: extension

Int {

283

Extensions

Nested Types subscript

(digitIndex: Int) -> Int { var decimalBase = 1 for _ in

1...digitIndex {

}

746381295[0]

// returns 5

746381295[1]

// returns 9

746381295[2]

// returns 2

746381295[8]

// returns 7 decimalBase *= 10

} return

( self

/ decimalBase) % 10

If the Int value does not have enough digits for the requested index, the subscript implementation returns

0 , as if the number had been padded with zeroes to the left:

746381295[9]

// returns 0, as if you had requested:

0746381295[9]

Nested Types

Extensions can add new nested types to existing classes, structures and enumerations: extension

Character { enum

Kind { case

Vowel, Consonant, Other

} var kind: Kind { switch

String( self

).lowercaseString {

284

Extensions

Nested Types

} case

"a", "e", "i", "o", "u": return

.Vowel

case

"b", "c", "d", "f", "g", "h", "j", "k", "l", "m",

"n", "p", "q", "r", "s", "t", "v", "w", "x", "y", "z": return

.Consonant

default

: return

.Other

}

This example adds a new nested enumeration to Character . This enumeration, called Kind , expresses the kind of letter that a particular character represents. Specifically, it expresses whether the character is a vowel or a consonant in a standard Latin script (without taking into account accents or regional variations), or whether it is another kind of character.

This example also adds a new computed instance property to Character , called kind , which returns the appropriate

Kind enumeration member for that character.

The nested enumeration can now be used with Character values: func printLetterKinds(word: String) { println("'\(word)' is made up of the following kinds of letters:") for character in word { switch character.kind { case

.Vowel: print("vowel ") case

.Consonant: print("consonant ") case

.Other: print("other ")

}

} print("\n")

} printLetterKinds("Hello")

285

Extensions

Nested Types

// 'Hello' is made up of the following kinds of letters:

// consonant vowel consonant consonant vowel

This function, printLetterKinds , takes an input String value and iterates over its characters. For each character, it considers the kind computed property for that character, and prints an appropriate description of that kind. The printLetterKinds function can then be called to print the kinds of letters in an entire word, as shown here for the word "Hello" .

Note:

character.kind

is already known to be of type

Character.Kind

. Because of this, all of the Character.Kind

member values can be written in shorthand form inside the switch statement, such as .Vowel

rather than Character.Kind.Vowel

286

Protocols

protocol

defines a blueprint of methods, properties, and other requirements that suit a particular task or piece of functionality. The protocol doesn’t actually provide an implementation for any of these requirements—it only describes what an implementation will look like. The protocol can then be

adopted

by a class, structure, or enumeration to provide an actual implementation of those requirements. Any type that satisfies the requirements of a protocol is said to

conform

to that protocol.

Protocols can require that conforming types have specific instance properties, instance methods, type methods, operators, and subscripts.

Protocol Syntax

You define protocols in a very similar way to classes, structures, and enumerations: protocol

SomeProtocol {

// protocol definition goes here

}

Custom types state that they adopt a particular protocol by placing the protocol’s name after the type’s name, separated by a colon, as part of their definition. Multiple protocols can be listed, and are separated by commas: struct

SomeStructure: FirstProtocol, AnotherProtocol {

// structure definition goes here

}

If a class has a superclass, list the superclass name before any protocols it adopts, followed by a comma: class

SomeClass: SomeSuperclass, FirstProtocol, AnotherProtocol {

// class definition goes here

}

287

Protocols

Property Requirements

A protocol can require any conforming type to provide an instance property or type property with a particular name and type. The protocol doesn’t specify whether the property should be a stored property or a computed property—it only specifies the required property name and type. The protocol also specifies whether each property must be gettable or gettable

and

settable.

If a protocol requires a property to be gettable and settable, that property requirement cannot be fulfilled by a constant stored property or a read-only computed property. If the protocol only requires a property to be gettable, the requirement can be satisfied by any kind of property, and it is valid for it also to be settable if this is useful for your own code.

Property requirements are always declared as variable properties, prefixed with the var keyword. Gettable and settable properties are indicated by writing { get set } after their type declaration, and gettable properties are indicated by writing { get } .

protocol

SomeProtocol { var mustBeSettable: Int { get set

} var doesNotNeedToBeSettable: Int { get

}

Always prefix type property requirements with the class keyword when you define them in a protocol. This is true even though type property requirements are prefixed with the static keyword when implemented by a structure or enumeration: protocol

AnotherProtocol { class var someTypeProperty: Int { get set

}

Here’s an example of a protocol with a single instance property requirement: protocol

FullyNamed { var fullName: String { get

}

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Protocols

Property Requirements

The FullyNamed protocol defines any kind of thing that has a fully-qualified name. It doesn’t specify what

kind

of thing it must be—it only specifies that the thing must be able to provide a full name for itself. It specifies this requirement by stating that any

FullyNamed type must have a gettable instance property called fullName

, which is of type String .

Here’s an example of a simple structure that adopts and conforms to the FullyNamed protocol: struct

Person: FullyNamed { var fullName: String

} let john = Person(fullName: "John Appleseed")

// john.fullName is "John Appleseed"

This example defines a structure called Person , which represents a specific named person. It states that it adopts the FullyNamed protocol as part of the first line of its definition.

Each instance of

Person has a single stored property called fullName

, which is of type

String

. This matches the single requirement of the FullyNamed protocol, and means that Person has correctly conformed to the protocol. (Swift reports an error at compile-time if a protocol requirement is not fulfilled.)

Here’s a more complex class, which also adopts and conforms to the FullyNamed protocol: class

Starship: FullyNamed { var prefix: String?

var name: String init

(name: String, prefix: String? = nil) { self

.name = name self

.prefix = prefix

} var fullName: String { return

(prefix ? prefix! + " " : "") + name

}

} var ncc1701 = Starship(name: "Enterprise", prefix: "USS")

// ncc1701.fullName is "USS Enterprise"

289

Protocols

Method Requirements

This class implements the fullName property requirement as a computed read-only property for a starship.

Each

Starship class instance stores a mandatory name and an optional prefix

. The fullName property uses the prefix value if it exists, and prepends it to the beginning of name to create a full name for the starship.

Method Requirements

Protocols can require specific instance methods and type methods to be implemented by conforming types.

These methods are written as part of the protocol’s definition in exactly the same way as for normal instance and type methods, but without curly braces or a method body. Variadic parameters are allowed, subject to the same rules as for normal methods.

Note:

Protocols use the same syntax as normal methods, but are not allowed to specify default values for method parameters.

As with type property requirements, you always prefix type method requirements with the class keyword when they are defined in a protocol. This is true even though type method requirements are prefixed with the static keyword when implemented by a structure or enumeration: protocol

SomeProtocol { class func someTypeMethod()

}

The following example defines a protocol with a single instance method requirement: protocol

RandomNumberGenerator { func random() -> Double

}

This protocol, RandomNumberGenerator , requires any conforming type to have an instance method called random

, which returns a

Double value whenever it is called. (Although it is not specified as part of the protocol, it is assumed that this value will be a number between 0.0

and 1.0

inclusive.)

The RandomNumberGenerator protocol does not make any assumptions about how each random number will be generated—it simply requires the generator to provide a standard way to generate a new random number.

290

Protocols

Mutating Method Requirements

Here’s an implementation of a class that adopts and conforms to the RandomNumberGenerator protocol.

This class implements a pseudorandom number generator algorithm known as a

linear congruential generator

: class

LinearCongruentialGenerator: RandomNumberGenerator { var lastRandom = 42.0

let m = 139968.0

let a = 3877.0

let c = 29573.0

func random() -> Double { lastRandom = ((lastRandom * a + c) % m) return lastRandom / m

}

} let generator = LinearCongruentialGenerator() println("Here's a random number: \(generator.random())")

// prints "Here's a random number: 0.37464991998171" println("And another one: \(generator.random())")

// prints "And another one: 0.729023776863283"

Mutating Method Requirements

It is sometimes necessary for a method to modify (or

mutate

) the instance it belongs to. For instance methods on value types (that is, structures and enumerations) you place the mutating keyword before a method’s func keyword to indicate that the method is allowed to modify the instance it belongs to and/or any properties of that instance. This process is described in

Modifying Value Types from Within Instance Methods

(page 189).

If you define a protocol instance method requirement that is intended to mutate instances of any type that adopts the protocol, mark the method with the mutating keyword as part of the protocol’s definition. This enables structures and enumerations to adopt the protocol and satisfy that method requirement.

291

Protocols

Mutating Method Requirements

Note:

If you mark a protocol instance method requirement as mutating , you do not need to write the mutating keyword when writing an implementation of that method for a class. The mutating keyword is only used by structures and enumerations.

The example below defines a protocol called

Togglable

, which defines a single instance method requirement called toggle . As its name suggests, the toggle method is intended to toggle or invert the state of any conforming type, typically by modifying a property of that type.

The toggle method is marked with the mutating keyword as part of the Togglable protocol definition, to indicate that the method is expected to mutate the state of a conforming instance when it is called: protocol

Togglable { mutating func toggle()

}

If you implement the Togglable protocol for a structure or enumeration, that structure or enumeration can conform to the protocol by providing an implementation of the toggle method that is also marked as mutating .

The example below defines an enumeration called OnOffSwitch . This enumeration toggles between two states, indicated by the enumeration cases On and Off . The enumeration’s toggle implementation is marked as mutating , to match the Togglable protocol’s requirements: enum

OnOffSwitch: Togglable { case

Off, On mutating func toggle() { switch self

{ case

Off: self

= On case

On: self

= Off

}

} var lightSwitch = OnOffSwitch.Off

lightSwitch.toggle()

292

Protocols

Protocols as Types

// lightSwitch is now equal to .On

Protocols as Types

Protocols do not actually implement any functionality themselves. Nonetheless, any protocol you create will become a fully-fledged type for use in your code.

Because it is a type, you can use a protocol in many places where other types are allowed, including:

●

As a parameter type or return type in a function, method, or initializer

●

As the type of a constant, variable, or property

As the type of items in an array, dictionary, or other container

Note:

Because protocols are types, begin their names with a capital letter (such as FullyNamed and

RandomNumberGenerator

) to match the names of other types in Swift (such as

Int

String

, and Double ).

Here’s an example of a protocol used as a type: class

Dice { let sides: Int let generator: RandomNumberGenerator init

(sides: Int, generator: RandomNumberGenerator) { self

.sides = sides self

.generator = generator

} func roll() -> Int { return

Int(generator.random() * Double(sides)) + 1

}

This example defines a new class called Dice , which represents an

-sided dice for use in a board game.

Dice instances have an integer property called sides , which represents how many sides they have, and a property called generator

, which provides a random number generator from which to create dice roll values.

293

Protocols

Delegation

The generator property is of type RandomNumberGenerator . Therefore, you can set it to an instance of

any

type that adopts the

RandomNumberGenerator protocol. Nothing else is required of the instance you assign to this property, except that the instance must adopt the RandomNumberGenerator protocol.

Dice also has an initializer, to set up its initial state. This initializer has a parameter called generator , which is also of type

RandomNumberGenerator

. You can pass a value of any conforming type in to this parameter when initializing a new Dice instance.

Dice provides one instance method, roll , which returns an integer value between 1 and the number of sides on the dice. This method calls the generator’s random method to create a new random number between

0.0

and 1.0

, and uses this random number to create a dice roll value within the correct range. Because generator is known to adopt RandomNumberGenerator , it is guaranteed to have a random method to call.

Here’s how the

Dice class can be used to create a six-sided dice with a

LinearCongruentialGenerator instance as its random number generator: var d6 = Dice(sides: 6, generator: LinearCongruentialGenerator()) for _ in

1...5 { println("Random dice roll is \(d6.roll())")

}

// Random dice roll is 3

// Random dice roll is 5

// Random dice roll is 4

// Random dice roll is 5

// Random dice roll is 4

Delegation

Delegation

is a design pattern that enables a class or structure to hand off (or

delegate

) some of its responsibilities to an instance of another type. This design pattern is implemented by defining a protocol that encapsulates the delegated responsibilities, such that a conforming type (known as a delegate) is guaranteed to provide the functionality that has been delegated. Delegation can be used to respond to a particular action, or to retrieve data from an external source without needing to know the underlying type of that source.

The example below defines two protocols for use with dice-based board games: protocol

DiceGame { var dice: Dice { get

}

294

Protocols

Delegation func play()

} protocol

DiceGameDelegate { func gameDidStart(game: DiceGame) func game(game: DiceGame, didStartNewTurnWithDiceRoll diceRoll: Int) func gameDidEnd(game: DiceGame)

}

The

DiceGame protocol is a protocol that can be adopted by any game that involves dice. The

DiceGameDelegate protocol can be adopted by any type to track the progress of a DiceGame .

Here’s a version of the

Snakes and Ladders

game originally introduced in

Control Flow

(page 95). This version

is adapted to use a Dice instance for its dice-rolls; to adopt the DiceGame protocol; and to notify a

DiceGameDelegate about its progress: class

SnakesAndLadders: DiceGame { let finalSquare = 25 let dice = Dice(sides: 6, generator: LinearCongruentialGenerator()) var square = 0 var board: Int[] init

() { board = Int[](count: finalSquare + 1, repeatedValue: 0) board[03] = +08; board[06] = +11; board[09] = +09; board[10] = +02 board[14] = -10; board[19] = -11; board[22] = -02; board[24] = -08

} var delegate: DiceGameDelegate?

func play() { square = 0 delegate?.gameDidStart( self

) gameLoop: while square != finalSquare { let diceRoll = dice.roll() delegate?.game( self

, didStartNewTurnWithDiceRoll: diceRoll) switch square + diceRoll { case finalSquare: break gameLoop

295

Protocols

Delegation

}

} case let newSquare where newSquare > finalSquare: continue gameLoop default

: square += diceRoll square += board[square]

}

} delegate?.gameDidEnd( self

)

For a description of the

Snakes and Ladders

gameplay, see the

Break

(page 113) section of the

Control Flow

(page

95) chapter.

This version of the game is wrapped up as a class called SnakesAndLadders , which adopts the DiceGame protocol. It provides a gettable dice property and a play method in order to conform to the protocol. (The dice property is declared as a constant property because it does not need to change after initialization, and the protocol only requires that it is gettable.)

The

Snakes and Ladders

game board setup takes place within the class’s init() initializer. All game logic is moved into the protocol’s play method, which uses the protocol’s required dice property to provide its dice roll values.

Note that the delegate property is defined as an

optional

DiceGameDelegate

, because a delegate isn’t required in order to play the game. Because it is of an optional type, the delegate property is automatically set to an initial value of nil . Thereafter, the game instantiator has the option to set the property to a suitable delegate.

DiceGameDelegate provides three methods for tracking the progress of a game. These three methods have been incorporated into the game logic within the play method above, and are called when a new game starts, a new turn begins, or the game ends.

Because the delegate property is an

optional

DiceGameDelegate , the play method uses optional chaining each time it calls a method on the delegate. If the delegate property is nil, these delegate calls fail gracefully and without error. If the delegate property is non-nil, the delegate methods are called, and are passed the

SnakesAndLadders instance as a parameter.

This next example shows a class called

DiceGameTracker

, which adopts the

DiceGameDelegate protocol:

296

Protocols

Delegation class

DiceGameTracker: DiceGameDelegate { var numberOfTurns = 0 func gameDidStart(game: DiceGame) { numberOfTurns = 0 if game is

SnakesAndLadders { println("Started a new game of Snakes and Ladders")

} println("The game is using a \(game.dice.sides)-sided dice")

} func game(game: DiceGame, didStartNewTurnWithDiceRoll diceRoll: Int) {

++numberOfTurns println("Rolled a \(diceRoll)")

} func gameDidEnd(game: DiceGame) { println("The game lasted for \(numberOfTurns) turns")

}

DiceGameTracker implements all three methods required by DiceGameDelegate . It uses these methods to keep track of the number of turns a game has taken. It resets a numberOfTurns property to zero when the game starts; increments it each time a new turn begins; and prints out the total number of turns once the game has ended.

The implementation of gameDidStart shown above uses the game parameter to print some introductory information about the game that is about to be played. The game parameter has a type of DiceGame , not

SnakesAndLadders , and so gameDidStart can access and use only methods and properties that are implemented as part of the

DiceGame protocol. However, the method is still able to use type casting to query the type of the underlying instance. In this example, it checks whether game is actually an instance of

SnakesAndLadders behind the scenes, and prints an appropriate message if so.

gameDidStart also accesses the dice property of the passed game parameter. Because game is known to conform to the DiceGame protocol, it is guaranteed to have a dice property, and so the gameDidStart method is able to access and print the dice’s sides property, regardless of what kind of game is being played.

Here’s how

DiceGameTracker looks in action: let tracker = DiceGameTracker()

297

Protocols

Adding Protocol Conformance with an Extension let game = SnakesAndLadders() game.delegate = tracker game.play()

// Started a new game of Snakes and Ladders

// The game is using a 6-sided dice

// Rolled a 3

// Rolled a 5

// Rolled a 4

// Rolled a 5

// The game lasted for 4 turns

Adding Protocol Conformance with an Extension

You can extend an existing type to adopt and conform to a new protocol, even if you do not have access to the source code for the existing type. Extensions can add new properties, methods, and subscripts to an existing type, and are therefore able to add any requirements that a protocol may demand. For more about extensions, see

Extensions

(page 278).

Note:

Existing instances of a type automatically adopt and conform to a protocol when that conformance is added to the instance’s type in an extension.

For example, this protocol, called TextRepresentable , can be implemented by any type that has a way to be represented as text. This might be a description of itself, or a text version of its current state: protocol

TextRepresentable { func asText() -> String

}

The Dice class from earlier can be extended to adopt and conform to TextRepresentable : extension

Dice: TextRepresentable { func asText() -> String { return

"A \(sides)-sided dice"

}

298

Protocols

Adding Protocol Conformance with an Extension

}

This extension adopts the new protocol in exactly the same way as if Dice had provided it in its original implementation. The protocol name is provided after the type name, separated by a colon, and an implementation of all requirements of the protocol is provided within the extension’s curly braces.

Any Dice instance can now be treated as TextRepresentable : let d12 = Dice(sides: 12, generator: LinearCongruentialGenerator()) println(d12.asText())

// prints "A 12-sided dice"

Similarly, the SnakesAndLadders game class can be extended to adopt and conform to the

TextRepresentable protocol: extension

SnakesAndLadders: TextRepresentable { func asText() -> String { return

"A game of Snakes and Ladders with \(finalSquare) squares"

}

} println(game.asText())

// prints "A game of Snakes and Ladders with 25 squares"

Declaring Protocol Adoption with an Extension

If a type already conforms to all of the requirements of a protocol, but has not yet stated that it adopts that protocol, you can make it adopt the protocol with an empty extension: struct

Hamster { var name: String func asText() -> String { return

"A hamster named \(name)"

}

} extension

Hamster: TextRepresentable {}

299

Protocols

Collections of Protocol Types

Instances of Hamster can now be used wherever TextRepresentable is the required type: let simonTheHamster = Hamster(name: "Simon") let somethingTextRepresentable: TextRepresentable = simonTheHamster println(somethingTextRepresentable.asText())

// prints "A hamster named Simon"

Note:

Types do not automatically adopt a protocol just by satisfying its requirements. They must always explicitly declare their adoption of the protocol.

Collections of Protocol Types

A protocol can be used as the type to be stored in a collection such as an array or a dictionary, as mentioned in

Protocols as Types

(page 293). This example creates an array of

TextRepresentable things: let things: TextRepresentable[] = [game, d12, simonTheHamster]

It is now possible to iterate over the items in the array, and print each item’s textual representation: for thing in things { println(thing.asText())

}

// A game of Snakes and Ladders with 25 squares

// A 12-sided dice

// A hamster named Simon

Note that the thing constant is of type TextRepresentable . It is not of type Dice , or DiceGame , or Hamster , even if the actual instance behind the scenes is of one of those types. Nonetheless, because it is of type

TextRepresentable , and anything that is TextRepresentable is known to have an asText method, it is safe to call thing.asText

each time through the loop.

300

Protocols

Protocol Inheritance

A protocol can

inherit

one or more other protocols and can add further requirements on top of the requirements it inherits. The syntax for protocol inheritance is similar to the syntax for class inheritance, but with the option to list multiple inherited protocols, separated by commas: protocol

InheritingProtocol: SomeProtocol, AnotherProtocol {

// protocol definition goes here

}

Here’s an example of a protocol that inherits the TextRepresentable protocol from above: protocol

PrettyTextRepresentable: TextRepresentable { func asPrettyText() -> String

}

This example defines a new protocol, PrettyTextRepresentable , which inherits from TextRepresentable .

Anything that adopts PrettyTextRepresentable must satisfy all of the requirements enforced by

TextRepresentable ,

plus

the additional requirements enforced by PrettyTextRepresentable . In this example, PrettyTextRepresentable adds a single requirement to provide an instance method called asPrettyText that returns a String .

The SnakesAndLadders class can be extended to adopt and conform to PrettyTextRepresentable : extension

SnakesAndLadders: PrettyTextRepresentable { func asPrettyText() -> String { var output = asText() + ":\n" for index in

1...finalSquare { switch board[index] { case let ladder where ladder > 0: output += "▲ " case let snake where snake < 0: output += "▼ " default

: output += "○ "

}

301

Protocols

Protocol Composition

}

} return output

This extension states that it adopts the

PrettyTextRepresentable protocol and provides an implementation of the asPrettyText method for the SnakesAndLadders type. Anything that is PrettyTextRepresentable must also be TextRepresentable , and so the asPrettyText implementation starts by calling the asText method from the

TextRepresentable protocol to begin an output string. It appends a colon and a line break, and uses this as the start of its pretty text representation. It then iterates through the array of board squares, and appends an emoji representation for each square:

●

If the square’s value is greater than 0 , it is the base of a ladder, and is represented by ▲ .

If the square’s value is less than

, it is the head of a snake, and is represented by

▼

Otherwise, the square’s value is

, and it is a “free” square, represented by

○

The method implementation can now be used to print a pretty text description of any SnakesAndLadders instance: println(game.asPrettyText())

// A game of Snakes and Ladders with 25 squares:

// ○ ○ ▲ ○ ○ ▲ ○ ○ ▲ ▲ ○ ○ ○ ▼ ○ ○ ○ ○ ▼ ○ ○ ▼ ○ ▼ ○

Protocol Composition

It can be useful to require a type to conform to multiple protocols at once. You can combine multiple protocols into a single requirement with a

protocol composition

. Protocol compositions have the form protocol<SomeProtocol, AnotherProtocol> . You can list as many protocols within the pair of angle brackets ( <> ) as you need, separated by commas.

Here’s an example that combines two protocols called Named and Aged into a single protocol composition requirement on a function parameter: protocol

Named { var name: String { get

}

} protocol

Aged {

302

Protocols

Checking for Protocol Conformance var age: Int { get

}

} struct

Person: Named, Aged { var name: String var age: Int

} func wishHappyBirthday(celebrator: protocol

<Named, Aged>) { println("Happy birthday \(celebrator.name) - you're \(celebrator.age)!")

} let birthdayPerson = Person(name: "Malcolm", age: 21) wishHappyBirthday(birthdayPerson)

// prints "Happy birthday Malcolm - you're 21!"

This example defines a protocol called Named , with a single requirement for a gettable String property called name . It also defines a protocol called Aged , with a single requirement for a gettable Int property called age .

Both of these protocols are adopted by a structure called

Person

The example also defines a function called wishHappyBirthday , which takes a single parameter called celebrator . The type of this parameter is protocol<Named, Aged> , which means “any type that conforms to both the

Named and

Aged protocols.” It doesn’t matter what specific type is passed to the function, as long as it conforms to both of the required protocols.

The example then creates a new Person instance called birthdayPerson and passes this new instance to the wishHappyBirthday function. Because Person conforms to both protocols, this is a valid call, and the wishHappyBirthday function is able to print its birthday greeting.

Note:

Protocol compositions do not define a new, permanent protocol type. Rather, they define a temporary local protocol that has the combined requirements of all protocols in the composition.

Checking for Protocol Conformance

You can use the is and as operators described in

Type Casting

(page 267) to check for protocol conformance,

and to cast to a specific protocol. Checking for and casting to a protocol follows exactly the same syntax as checking for and casting to a type:

●

The is operator returns true if an instance conforms to a protocol and returns false if it does not.

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Protocols

Checking for Protocol Conformance

●

The as?

version of the downcast operator returns an optional value of the protocol’s type, and this value is nil if the instance does not conform to that protocol.

The as version of the downcast operator forces the downcast to the protocol type and triggers a runtime error if the downcast does not succeed.

This example defines a protocol called HasArea , with a single property requirement of a gettable Double property called area :

@objc protocol

HasArea { var area: Double { get

}

Note:

You can check for protocol conformance only if your protocol is marked with the @objc attribute, as seen for the HasArea protocol above. This attribute indicates that the protocol should be exposed to Objective-C code and is described in

Using Swift with Cocoa and Objective-C

. Even if you are not interoperating with Objective-C, you need to mark your protocols with the

@objc attribute if you want to be able to check for protocol conformance.

Note also that

@objc protocols can be adopted only by classes, and not by structures or enumerations.

If you mark your protocol as @objc in order to check for conformance, you will be able to apply that protocol only to class types.

Here are two classes, Circle and Country , both of which conform to the HasArea protocol: class

Circle: HasArea { let pi = 3.1415927

var radius: Double var area: Double { return pi * radius * radius } init

(radius: Double) { self

.radius = radius }

} class

Country: HasArea { var area: Double init

(area: Double) { self

.area = area }

}

304

Protocols

Checking for Protocol Conformance

The Circle class implements the area property requirement as a computed property, based on a stored radius property. The

Country class implements the area requirement directly as a stored property. Both classes correctly conform to the HasArea protocol.

Here’s a class called Animal , which does not conform to the HasArea protocol: class

Animal { var legs: Int init

(legs: Int) { self

.legs = legs }

}

The Circle , Country and Animal classes do not have a shared base class. Nonetheless, they are all classes, and so instances of all three types can be used to initialize an array that stores values of type AnyObject : let objects: AnyObject[] = [

Circle(radius: 2.0),

Country(area: 243_610),

Animal(legs: 4)

]

The objects array is initialized with an array literal containing a Circle instance with a radius of 2 units; a

Country instance initialized with the surface area of the United Kingdom in square kilometers; and an Animal instance with four legs.

The objects array can now be iterated, and each object in the array can be checked to see if it conforms to the HasArea protocol: for object in objects { if let objectWithArea = object as

? HasArea { println("Area is \(objectWithArea.area)")

} else

{ println("Something that doesn't have an area")

}

// Area is 12.5663708

// Area is 243610.0

// Something that doesn't have an area

305

Protocols

Optional Protocol Requirements

Whenever an object in the array conforms to the HasArea protocol, the optional value returned by the as?

operator is unwrapped with optional binding into a constant called objectWithArea

. The objectWithArea constant is known to be of type HasArea , and so its area property can be accessed and printed in a type-safe way.

Note that the underlying objects are not changed by the casting process. They continue to be a Circle , a

Country and an

Animal

. However, at the point that they are stored in the objectWithArea constant, they are only known to be of type HasArea , and so only their area property can be accessed.

Optional Protocol Requirements

You can define

optional requirements

for protocols, These requirements do not have to be implemented by types that conform to the protocol. Optional requirements are prefixed by the @optional keyword as part of the protocol’s definition.

An optional protocol requirement can be called with optional chaining, to account for the possibility that the requirement was not implemented by a type that conforms to the protocol. For information on optional chaining, see

Optional Chaining

(page 257).

You check for an implementation of an optional requirement by writing a question mark after the name of the requirement when it is called, such as someOptionalMethod?(someArgument) . Optional property requirements, and optional method requirements that return a value, will always return an optional value of the appropriate type when they are accessed or called, to reflect the fact that the optional requirement may not have been implemented.

Note:

Optional protocol requirements can only be specified if your protocol is marked with the

@objc attribute. Even if you are not interoperating with Objective-C, you need to mark your protocols with the @objc attribute if you want to specify optional requirements.

Note also that @objc protocols can be adopted only by classes, and not by structures or enumerations.

If you mark your protocol as @objc in order to specify optional requirements, you will only be able to apply that protocol to class types.

The following example defines an integer-counting class called

Counter

, which uses an external data source to provide its increment amount. This data source is defined by the CounterDataSource protocol, which has two optional requirements:

@objc protocol

CounterDataSource {

@optional func incrementForCount(count: Int) -> Int

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Optional Protocol Requirements

}

@optional var fixedIncrement: Int { get

}

The

CounterDataSource protocol defines an optional method requirement called incrementForCount and an optional property requirement called fixedIncrement . These requirements define two different ways for data sources to provide an appropriate increment amount for a Counter instance.

Note:

Strictly speaking, you can write a custom class that conforms to CounterDataSource without implementing

either

protocol requirement. They are both optional, after all. Although technically allowed, this wouldn’t make for a very good data source.

The Counter class, defined below, has an optional dataSource property of type CounterDataSource?

@objc class

Counter { var count = 0 var dataSource: CounterDataSource?

func increment() { if let amount = dataSource?.incrementForCount?(count) { count += amount

} else if let amount = dataSource?.fixedIncrement? { count += amount

}

The Counter class stores its current value in a variable property called count . The Counter class also defines a method called increment

, which increments the count property every time the method is called.

The increment method first tries to retrieve an increment amount by looking for an implementation of the incrementForCount method on its data source. The increment method uses optional chaining to try to call incrementForCount

, and passes the current count value as the method’s single argument.

Note

two

levels of optional chaining at play here. Firstly, it is possible that dataSource may be nil , and so dataSource has a question mark after its name to indicate that incrementForCount should only be called if dataSource is non-nil. Secondly, even if dataSource

does

exist, there is no guarantee that it implements incrementForCount , because it is an optional requirement. This is why incrementForCount is also written with a question mark after its name.

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Because the call to incrementForCount can fail for either of these two reasons, the call returns an

optional

Int value. This is true even though incrementForCount is defined as returning a non-optional

Int value in the definition of CounterDataSource .

After calling incrementForCount , the optional Int that it returns is unwrapped into a constant called amount , using optional binding. If the optional

Int does contain a value—that is, if the delegate and method both exist, and the method returned a value—the unwrapped amount is added onto the stored count property, and incrementation is complete.

If it is

not

possible to retrieve a value from the incrementForCount method—either because dataSource is nil, or because the data source does not implement incrementForCount

—then the increment method tries to retrieve a value from the data source’s fixedIncrement property instead. The fixedIncrement property is also an optional requirement, and so its name is also written using optional chaining with a question mark on the end, to indicate that the attempt to access the property’s value can fail. As before, the returned value is an optional Int value, even though fixedIncrement is defined as a non-optional Int property as part of the

CounterDataSource protocol definition.

Here’s a simple CounterDataSource implementation where the data source returns a constant value of 3 every time it is queried. It does this by implementing the optional fixedIncrement property requirement: class

ThreeSource: CounterDataSource { let fixedIncrement = 3

}

You can use an instance of ThreeSource as the data source for a new Counter instance: var counter = Counter() counter.dataSource = ThreeSource() for _ in

1...4 {

}

// 3 counter.increment() println(counter.count)

// 6

// 9

// 12

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The code above creates a new Counter instance; sets its data source to be a new ThreeSource instance; and calls the counter’s increment method four times. As expected, the counter’s count property increases by three each time increment is called.

Here’s a more complex data source called TowardsZeroSource , which makes a Counter instance count up or down towards zero from its current count value: class

TowardsZeroSource: CounterDataSource { func incrementForCount(count: Int) -> Int { if count == 0 { return

} else if count < 0 { return

} else

{ return

-1

}

The

TowardsZeroSource class implements the optional incrementForCount method from the

CounterDataSource protocol and uses the count argument value to work out which direction to count in.

If count is already zero, the method returns 0 to indicate that no further counting should take place.

You can use an instance of

TowardsZeroSource with the existing

Counter instance to count from

-4 to zero. Once the counter reaches zero, no more counting takes place: counter.count = -4 counter.dataSource = TowardsZeroSource() for _ in

1...5 {

}

// -3 counter.increment() println(counter.count)

// -2

// -1

// 0

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Generic code

enables you to write flexible, reusable functions and types that can work with any type, subject to requirements that you define. You can write code that avoids duplication and expresses its intent in a clear, abstracted manner.

Generics are one of the most powerful features of Swift, and much of the Swift standard library is built with generic code. In fact, you’ve been using generics throughout this Language Guide, even if you didn’t realize it. For example, Swift’s Array and Dictionary types are both generic collections. You can create an array that holds

Int values, or an array that holds

String values, or indeed an array for any other type that can be created in Swift. Similarly, you can create a dictionary to store values of any specified type, and there are no limitations on what that type can be.

The Problem That Generics Solve

Here’s a standard, non-generic function called swapTwoInts , which swaps two Int values: func swapTwoInts( inout a: Int, inout b: Int) { let temporaryA = a a = b b = temporaryA

}

This function makes use of in-out parameters to swap the values of a and b

, as described in

In-Out

Parameters

(page 130).

The swapTwoInts function swaps the original value of b into a , and the original value of a into b . You can call this function to swap the values in two Int variables: var someInt = 3 var anotherInt = 107 swapTwoInts(&someInt, &anotherInt) println("someInt is now \(someInt), and anotherInt is now \(anotherInt)")

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// prints "someInt is now 107, and anotherInt is now 3"

The swapTwoInts function is useful, but it can only be used with Int values. If you want to swap two String values, or two Double values, you have to write more functions, such as the swapTwoStrings and swapTwoDoubles functions shown below: func swapTwoStrings( inout a: String, inout b: String) { let temporaryA = a a = b b = temporaryA

} func swapTwoDoubles( inout a: Double, inout b: Double) { let temporaryA = a a = b b = temporaryA

}

You may have noticed that the bodies of the swapTwoInts , swapTwoStrings , and swapTwoDoubles functions are identical. The only difference is the type of the values that they accept ( Int , String , and Double ).

It would be much more useful, and considerably more flexible, to write a single function that could swap two values of

any

type. This is the kind of problem that generic code can solve. (A generic version of these functions is defined below.)

Note:

In all three functions, it is important that the types of a and b are defined to be the same as each other. If a and b were not of the same type, it would not be possible to swap their values. Swift is a type-safe language, and does not allow (for example) a variable of type

String and a variable of type Double to swap values with each other. Attempting to do so would be reported as a compile-time error.

Generic Functions

Generic functions

can work with any type. Here’s a generic version of the swapTwoInts function from above, called swapTwoValues :

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Generics

Generic Functions func swapTwoValues<T>( inout a: T, inout b: T) { let temporaryA = a a = b b = temporaryA

}

The body of the swapTwoValues function is identical to the body of the swapTwoInts function. However, the first line of swapTwoValues is slightly different from swapTwoInts . Here’s how the first lines compare: func swapTwoInts( inout a: Int, inout b: Int) func swapTwoValues<T>( inout a: T, inout b: T)

The generic version of the function uses a

placeholder

type name (called T , in this case) instead of an

actual

type name (such as Int , String , or Double ). The placeholder type name doesn’t say anything about what T must be, but it

does

say that both a and b must be of the same type T , whatever T represents. The actual type to use in place of T will be determined each time the swapTwoValues function is called.

The other difference is that the generic function’s name ( swapTwoValues ) is followed by the placeholder type name ( T ) inside angle brackets ( <T> ). The brackets tell Swift that T is a placeholder type name within the swapTwoValues function definition. Because T is a placeholder, Swift does not look for an actual type called

T .

The swapTwoValues function can now be called in the same way as swapTwoInts , except that it can be passed two values of

any

type, as long as both of those values are of the same type as each other. Each time swapTwoValues is called, the type to use for T is inferred from the types of values passed to the function.

In the two examples below, T is inferred to be Int and String respectively: var someInt = 3 var anotherInt = 107 swapTwoValues(&someInt, &anotherInt)

// someInt is now 107, and anotherInt is now 3 var someString = "hello" var anotherString = "world" swapTwoValues(&someString, &anotherString)

// someString is now "world", and anotherString is now "hello"

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Type Parameters

Note:

The swapTwoValues function defined above is inspired by a generic function called swap , which is part of the Swift standard library, and is automatically made available for you to use in your apps. If you need the behavior of the swapTwoValues function in your own code, you can use

Swift’s existing swap function rather than providing your own implementation.

Type Parameters

In the swapTwoValues example above, the placeholder type

T is an example of a

type parameter

. Type parameters specify and name a placeholder type, and are written immediately after the function’s name, between a pair of matching angle brackets (such as <T> ).

Once specified, a type parameter can be used to define the type of a function’s parameters (such as the a and b parameters of the swapTwoValues function); or as the function’s return type; or as a type annotation within the body of the function. In each case, the placeholder type represented by the type parameter is replaced with an

actual

type whenever the function is called. (In the swapTwoValues example above, T was replaced with Int the first time the function was called, and was replaced with String the second time it was called.)

You can provide more than one type parameter by writing multiple type parameter names within the angle brackets, separated by commas.

Naming Type Parameters

In simple cases where a generic function or generic type needs to refer to a single placeholder type (such as the swapTwoValues generic function above, or a generic collection that stores a single type, such as Array ), it is traditional to use the single-character name T for the type parameter. However, you are can use any valid identifier as the type parameter name.

If you are defining more complex generic functions, or generic types with multiple parameters, it can be useful to provide more descriptive type parameter names. For example, Swift’s

Dictionary type has two type parameters—one for its keys and one for its values. If you were writing Dictionary yourself, you might name these two type parameters KeyType and ValueType to remind you of their purpose as you use them within your generic code.

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Generics

Generic Types

Note:

Always give type parameters UpperCamelCase names (such as T and KeyType ) to indicate that they are a placeholder for a

type

, not a value.

Generic Types

In addition to generic functions, Swift enables you to define your own

generic types

. These are custom classes, structures, and enumerations that can work with

any

type, in a similar way to Array and Dictionary .

This section shows you how to write a generic collection type called Stack . A stack is an ordered set of values, similar to an array, but with a more restricted set of operations than Swift’s

Array type. An array allows new items to be inserted and removed at any location in the array. A stack, however, allows new items to be appended only to the end of the collection (known as

pushing

a new value on to the stack). Similarly, a stack allows items to be removed only from the end of the collection (known as

popping

a value off the stack).

Note:

The concept of a stack is used by the UINavigationController class to model the view controllers in its navigation hierarchy. You call the

UINavigationController class pushViewController:animated: method to add (or push) a view controller on to the navigation stack, and its popViewControllerAnimated: method to remove (or pop) a view controller from the navigation stack. A stack is a useful collection model whenever you need a strict “last in, first out” approach to managing a collection.

The illustration below shows the push / pop behavior for a stack:

There are currently three values on the stack.

A fourth value is “pushed” on to the top of the stack.

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Generics

Generic Types

The stack now holds four values, with the most recent one at the top.

The top item in the stack is removed, or “popped”.

After popping a value, the stack once again holds three values.

Here’s how to write a non-generic version of a stack, in this case for a stack of Int values: struct

IntStack { var items = Int[]() mutating func push(item: Int) { items.append(item)

} mutating func pop() -> Int { return items.removeLast()

}

This structure uses an Array property called items to store the values in the stack.

Stack provides two methods, push and pop , to push and pop values on and off the stack. These methods are marked as mutating , because they need to modify (or

mutate

) the structure’s items array.

The IntStack type shown above can only be used with Int values, however. It would be much more useful to define a

generic

Stack class, that can manage a stack of

any

type of value.

Here’s a generic version of the same code: struct

Stack<T> { var items = T[]() mutating func push(item: T) { items.append(item)

} mutating func pop() -> T { return items.removeLast()

}

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Generics

Generic Types

Note how the generic version of Stack is essentially the same as the non-generic version, but with a placeholder type parameter called

T instead of an actual type of

Int

. This type parameter is written within a pair of angle brackets ( <T> ) immediately after the structure’s name.

T defines a placeholder name for “some type T ” to be provided later on. This future type can be referred to as

“

” anywhere within the structure’s definition. In this case,

T is used as a placeholder in three places:

●

To create a property called items , which is initialized with an empty array of values of type T

●

To specify that the push method has a single parameter called item , which must be of type T

To specify that the value returned by the pop method will be a value of type

You create instances of Stack in a similar way to Array and Dictionary , by writing the actual type to be used for this specific stack within angle brackets after the type name when creating a new instance with initializer syntax: var stackOfStrings = Stack<String>() stackOfStrings.push("uno") stackOfStrings.push("dos") stackOfStrings.push("tres") stackOfStrings.push("cuatro")

// the stack now contains 4 strings

Here’s how stackOfStrings looks after pushing these four values on to the stack:

Popping a value from the stack returns and removes the top value,

"cuatro"

: let fromTheTop = stackOfStrings.pop()

// fromTheTop is equal to "cuatro", and the stack now contains 3 strings

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Generics

Type Constraints

Here’s how the stack looks after popping its top value:

Because it is a generic type,

Stack can be used to create a stack of

any

valid type in Swift, in a similar manner to Array and Dictionary .

Type Constraints

The swapTwoValues function and the

Stack type can work with any type. However, it is sometimes useful to enforce certain

type constraints

on the types that can be used with generic functions and generic types.

Type constraints specify that a type parameter must inherit from a specific class, or conform to a particular protocol or protocol composition.

For example, Swift’s Dictionary type places a limitation on the types that can be used as keys for a dictionary.

As described in

Dictionaries

(page 88), the type of a dictionary’s keys must be

hashable

. That is, it must provide a way to make itself uniquely representable.

Dictionary needs its keys to be hashable so that it can check whether it already contains a value for a particular key. Without this requirement,

Dictionary could not tell whether it should insert or replace a value for a particular key, nor would it be able to find a value for a given key that is already in the dictionary.

This requirement is enforced by a type constraint on the key type for Dictionary , which specifies that the key type must conform to the Hashable protocol, a special protocol defined in the Swift standard library. All of Swift’s basic types (such as

String

Int

Double

, and

Bool

) are hashable by default.

You can define your own type constraints when creating custom generic types, and these constraints provide much of the power of generic programming. Abstract concepts like Hashable characterize types in terms of their conceptual characteristics, rather than their explicit type.

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Generics

Type Constraints

Type Constraint Syntax

You write type constraints by placing a single class or protocol constraint after a type parameter’s name, separated by a colon, as part of the type parameter list. The basic syntax for type constraints on a generic function is shown below (although the syntax is the same for generic types): func someFunction<T: SomeClass, U: SomeProtocol>(someT: T, someU: U) {

// function body goes here

}

The hypothetical function above has two type parameters. The first type parameter,

, has a type constraint that requires T to be a subclass of SomeClass . The second type parameter, U , has a type constraint that requires

U to conform to the protocol SomeProtocol .

Type Constraints in Action

Here’s a non-generic function called findStringIndex

, which is given a

String value to find and an array of String values within which to find it. The findStringIndex function returns an optional Int value, which will be the index of the first matching string in the array if it is found, or nil if the string cannot be found: func findStringIndex(array: String[], valueToFind: String) -> Int? { for

(index, value) in enumerate(array) { if value == valueToFind { return index

}

} return nil

}

The findStringIndex function can be used to find a string value in an array of strings: let strings = ["cat", "dog", "llama", "parakeet", "terrapin"] if let foundIndex = findStringIndex(strings, "llama") { println("The index of llama is \(foundIndex)")

}

// prints "The index of llama is 2"

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Generics

Type Constraints

The principle of finding the index of a value in an array isn’t useful only for strings, however. You can write the same functionality as a generic function called findIndex , by replacing any mention of strings with values of some type

T instead.

Here’s how you might expect a generic version of findStringIndex , called findIndex , to be written. Note that the return type of this function is still Int?

, because the function returns an optional index number, not an optional value from the array. Be warned, though—this function does not compile, for reasons explained after the example: func findIndex<T>(array: T[], valueToFind: T) -> Int? { for

(index, value) in enumerate(array) { if value == valueToFind { return index

}

} return nil

}

This function does not compile as written above. The problem lies with the equality check, “ if value == valueToFind ”. Not every type in Swift can be compared with the equal to operator ( == ). If you create your own class or structure to represent a complex data model, for example, then the meaning of “equal to” for that class or structure is not something that Swift can guess for you. Because of this, it is not possible to guarantee that this code will work for

every

possible type

, and an appropriate error is reported when you try to compile the code.

All is not lost, however. The Swift standard library defines a protocol called Equatable , which requires any conforming type to implement the equal to operator ( == ) and the not equal to operator ( != ) to compare any two values of that type. All of Swift’s standard types automatically support the

Equatable protocol.

Any type that is Equatable can be used safely with the findIndex function, because it is guaranteed to support the equal to operator. To express this fact, you write a type constraint of Equatable as part of the type parameter’s definition when you define the function: func findIndex<T: Equatable>(array: T[], valueToFind: T) -> Int? { for

(index, value) in enumerate(array) { if value == valueToFind { return index

}

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Generics

Associated Types

}

} return nil

The single type parameter for findIndex is written as

T: Equatable

, which means “any type

T that conforms to the Equatable protocol.”

The findIndex function now compiles successfully and can be used with any type that is Equatable , such as

Double or

String

: let doubleIndex = findIndex([3.14159, 0.1, 0.25], 9.3)

// doubleIndex is an optional Int with no value, because 9.3 is not in the array let stringIndex = findIndex(["Mike", "Malcolm", "Andrea"], "Andrea")

// stringIndex is an optional Int containing a value of 2

Associated Types

When defining a protocol, it is sometimes useful to declare one or more

associated types

as part of the protocol’s definition. An associated type gives a placeholder name (or

alias

) to a type that is used as part of the protocol.

The actual type to use for that associated type is not specified until the protocol is adopted. Associated types are specified with the typealias keyword.

Associated Types in Action

Here’s an example of a protocol called Container , which declares an associated type called ItemType : protocol

Container { typealias

ItemType mutating func append(item: ItemType) var count: Int { get

} subscript

(i: Int) -> ItemType { get

}

The Container protocol defines three required capabilities that any container must provide:

●

It must be possible to add a new item to the container with an append method.

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Generics

Associated Types

●

It must be possible to access a count of the items in the container through a count property that returns an

Int value.

It must be possible to retrieve each item in the container with a subscript that takes an Int index value.

This protocol doesn’t specify how the items in the container should be stored or what type they are allowed to be. The protocol only specifies the three bits of functionality that any type must provide in order to be considered a Container . A conforming type can provide additional functionality, as long as it satisfies these three requirements.

Any type that conforms to the Container protocol must be able to specify the type of values it stores.

Specifically, it must ensure that only items of the right type are added to the container, and it must be clear about the type of the items returned by its subscript.

To define these requirements, the Container protocol needs a way to refer to the type of the elements that a container will hold, without knowing what that type is for a specific container. The Container protocol needs to specify that any value passed to the append method must have the same type as the container’s element type, and that the value returned by the container’s subscript will be of the same type as the container’s element type.

To achieve this, the Container protocol declares an associated type called ItemType , written as typealias

ItemType . The protocol does not define what ItemType is an alias

for

—that information is left for any conforming type to provide. Nonetheless, the ItemType alias provides a way to refer to the type of the items in a Container , and to define a type for use with the append method and subscript, to ensure that the expected behavior of any Container is enforced.

Here’s a version of the non-generic IntStack type from earlier, adapted to conform to the Container protocol: struct

IntStack: Container {

// original IntStack implementation var items = Int[]() mutating func push(item: Int) { items.append(item)

} mutating func pop() -> Int { return items.removeLast()

}

// conformance to the Container protocol typealias

ItemType = Int

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Generics

Associated Types

} mutating func append(item: Int) { self

.push(item)

} var count: Int { return items.count

} subscript

(i: Int) -> Int { return items[i]

}

The IntStack type implements all three of the Container protocol’s requirements, and in each case wraps part of the IntStack type’s existing functionality to satisfy these requirements.

Moreover,

IntStack specifies that for this implementation of

Container

, the appropriate

ItemType to use is a type of Int . The definition of typealias ItemType = Int turns the abstract type of ItemType into a concrete type of Int for this implementation of the Container protocol.

Thanks to Swift’s type inference, you don’t actually need to declare a concrete

ItemType of

Int as part of the definition of IntStack . Because IntStack conforms to all of the requirements of the Container protocol,

Swift can infer the appropriate ItemType to use, simply by looking at the type of the append method’s item parameter and the return type of the subscript. Indeed, if you delete the typealias ItemType = Int line from the code above, everything still works, because it is clear what type should be used for ItemType .

You can also make the generic Stack type conform to the Container protocol: struct

Stack<T>: Container {

// original Stack<T> implementation var items = T[]() mutating func push(item: T) { items.append(item)

} mutating func pop() -> T { return items.removeLast()

}

// conformance to the Container protocol

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Generics

Where Clauses

} mutating func append(item: T) { self

.push(item)

} var count: Int { return items.count

} subscript

(i: Int) -> T { return items[i]

}

This time, the placeholder type parameter T is used as the type of the append method’s item parameter and the return type of the subscript. Swift can therefore infer that T is the appropriate type to use as the ItemType for this particular container.

Extending an Existing Type to Specify an Associated Type

You can extend an existing type to add conformance to a protocol, as described in

Adding Protocol Conformance with an Extension

(page 298). This includes a protocol with an associated type.

Swift’s

Array type already provides an append method, a count property, and a subscript with an

Int index to retrieve its elements. These three capabilities match the requirements of the Container protocol. This means that you can extend Array to conform to the Container protocol simply by declaring that Array adopts the protocol. You do this with an empty extension, as described in

Declaring Protocol Adoption with an Extension

(page 299):

extension

Array: Container {}

Array’s existing append method and subscript enable Swift to infer the appropriate type to use for ItemType , just as for the generic Stack type above. After defining this extension, you can use any Array as a Container .

Where Clauses

Type constraints, as described in

Type Constraints

(page 317), enable you to define requirements on the type

parameters associated with a generic function or type.

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Generics

Where Clauses

It can also be useful to define requirements for associated types. You do this by defining

where clauses

as part of a type parameter list. A where clause enables you to require that an associated type conforms to a certain protocol, and/or that certain type parameters and associated types be the same. You write a where clause by placing the where keyword immediately after the list of type parameters, followed by one or more constraints for associated types, and/or one or more equality relationships between types and associated types.

The example below defines a generic function called allItemsMatch

, which checks to see if two

Container instances contain the same items in the same order. The function returns a Boolean value of true if all items match and a value of false if they do not.

The two containers to be checked do not have to be the same type of container (although they can be), but they do have to hold the same type of items. This requirement is expressed through a combination of type constraints and where clauses: func allItemsMatch<

C1: Container, C2: Container where

C1.ItemType == C2.ItemType, C1.ItemType: Equatable>

(someContainer: C1, anotherContainer: C2) -> Bool {

// check that both containers contain the same number of items if someContainer.count != anotherContainer.count { return false

}

// check each pair of items to see if they are equivalent for i in

0..someContainer.count { if someContainer[i] != anotherContainer[i] { return false

}

// all items match, so return true return true

}

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Generics

Where Clauses

This function takes two arguments called someContainer and anotherContainer . The someContainer argument is of type

, and the anotherContainer argument is of type

. Both

C1 and

C2 are placeholder type parameters for two container types to be determined when the function is called.

The function’s type parameter list places the following requirements on the two type parameters:

●

C1 must conform to the Container protocol (written as C1: Container ).

●

C2 must also conform to the Container protocol (written as C2: Container ).

The

ItemType for

C1 must be the same as the

ItemType for

(written as

C1.ItemType ==

C2.ItemType

●

The ItemType for C1 must conform to the Equatable protocol (written as C1.ItemType: Equatable ).

The third and fourth requirements are defined as part of a where clause, and are written after the where keyword as part of the function’s type parameter list.

These requirements mean:

● someContainer is a container of type C1 .

● anotherContainer is a container of type C2 .

● someContainer and anotherContainer contain the same type of items.

●

The items in someContainer can be checked with the not equal operator ( != ) to see if they are different from each other.

The third and fourth requirements combine to mean that the items in anotherContainer can

also

be checked with the

!= operator, because they are exactly the same type as the items in someContainer

These requirements enable the allItemsMatch function to compare the two containers, even if they are of a different container type.

The allItemsMatch function starts by checking that both containers contain the same number of items. If they contain a different number of items, there is no way that they can match, and the function returns false

After making this check, the function iterates over all of the items in someContainer with a for in loop and the half-closed range operator ( ..

). For each item, the function checks whether the item from someContainer is not equal to the corresponding item in anotherContainer

. If the two items are not equal, then the two containers do not match, and the function returns false .

If the loop finishes without finding a mismatch, the two containers match, and the function returns true .

Here’s how the allItemsMatch function looks in action:

325

Generics

Where Clauses var stackOfStrings = Stack<String>() stackOfStrings.push("uno") stackOfStrings.push("dos") stackOfStrings.push("tres") var arrayOfStrings = ["uno", "dos", "tres"] if allItemsMatch(stackOfStrings, arrayOfStrings) { println("All items match.")

} else

{ println("Not all items match.")

}

// prints "All items match."

The example above creates a Stack instance to store String values, and pushes three strings onto the stack.

The example also creates an Array instance initialized with an array literal containing the same three strings as the stack. Even though the stack and the array are of a different type, they both conform to the

Container protocol, and both contain the same type of values. You can therefore call the allItemsMatch function with these two containers as its arguments. In the example above, the allItemsMatch function correctly reports that all of the items in the two containers match.

326

Advanced Operators

In addition to the operators described in

Basic Operators

(page 58), Swift provides several advanced operators

that perform more complex value manipulation. These include all of the bitwise and bit shifting operators you will be familiar with from C and Objective-C.

Unlike arithmetic operators in C, arithmetic operators in Swift do not overflow by default. Overflow behavior is trapped and reported as an error. To opt in to overflow behavior, use Swift’s second set of arithmetic operators that overflow by default, such as the overflow addition operator ( &+ ). All of these overflow operators begin with an ampersand (

When you define your own structures, classes, and enumerations, it can be useful to provide your own implementations of the standard Swift operators for these custom types. Swift makes it easy to provide tailored implementations of these operators and to determine exactly what their behavior should be for each type you create.

You’re not just limited to the predefined operators. Swift gives you the freedom to define your own custom infix, prefix, postfix, and assignment operators, with custom precedence and associativity values. These operators can be used and adopted in your code just like any of the predefined operators, and you can even extend existing types to support the custom operators you define.

Bitwise Operators

Bitwise operators

enable you to manipulate the individual raw data bits within a data structure. They are often used in low-level programming, such as graphics programming and device driver creation. Bitwise operators can also be useful when you work with raw data from external sources, such as encoding and decoding data for communication over a custom protocol.

Swift supports all of the bitwise operators found in C, as described below.

327

Advanced Operators

Bitwise Operators

Bitwise NOT Operator

The

bitwise NOT operator

( ~ ) inverts all bits in a number:

The bitwise NOT operator is a prefix operator, and appears immediately before the value it operates on, without any white space: let initialBits: UInt8 = 0b00001111 let invertedBits = ~initialBits // equals 11110000

UInt8 integers have eight bits and can store any value between 0 and 255 . This example initializes a UInt8 integer with the binary value 00001111 , which has its first four bits set to 0 , and its second four bits set to 1 .

This is equivalent to a decimal value of 15 .

The bitwise NOT operator is then used to create a new constant called invertedBits , which is equal to initialBits , but with all of the bits inverted. Zeroes become ones, and ones become zeroes. The value of invertedBits is 11110000 , which is equal to an unsigned decimal value of 240 .

Bitwise AND Operator

The

bitwise AND operator

( & ) combines the bits of two numbers. It returns a new number whose bits are set to 1 only if the bits were equal to 1 in

both

input numbers:

328

Advanced Operators

Bitwise Operators

In the example below, the values of firstSixBits and lastSixBits both have four middle bits equal to

. The bitwise AND operator combines them to make the number

00111100

, which is equal to an unsigned decimal value of 60 : let firstSixBits: UInt8 = 0b11111100 let lastSixBits: UInt8 = 0b00111111 let middleFourBits = firstSixBits & lastSixBits // equals 00111100

Bitwise OR Operator

The

bitwise OR operator

(

) compares the bits of two numbers. The operator returns a new number whose bits are set to 1 if the bits are equal to 1 in

either

input number:

In the example below, the values of someBits and moreBits have different bits set to 1 . The bitwise OR operator combines them to make the number

11111110

, which equals an unsigned decimal of

254

: let someBits: UInt8 = 0b10110010 let moreBits: UInt8 = 0b01011110 let combinedbits = someBits | moreBits // equals 11111110

329

Advanced Operators

Bitwise Operators

Bitwise XOR Operator

The

bitwise XOR operator

, or “exclusive OR operator” ( ^ ), compares the bits of two numbers. The operator returns a new number whose bits are set to

1 where the input bits are different and are set to

0 where the input bits are the same:

In the example below, the values of firstBits and otherBits each have a bit set to 1 in a location that the other does not. The bitwise XOR operator sets both of these bits to 1 in its output value. All of the other bits in firstBits and otherBits match and are set to

0 in the output value: let firstBits: UInt8 = 0b00010100 let otherBits: UInt8 = 0b00000101 let outputBits = firstBits ^ otherBits // equals 00010001

Bitwise Left and Right Shift Operators

The

bitwise left shift operator

( << ) and

bitwise right shift operator

( >> ) move all bits in a number to the left or the right by a certain number of places, according to the rules defined below.

Bitwise left and right shifts have the effect of multiplying or dividing an integer number by a factor of two.

Shifting an integer’s bits to the left by one position doubles its value, whereas shifting it to the right by one position halves its value.

Shifting Behavior for Unsigned Integers

The bit-shifting behavior for unsigned integers is as follows:

Existing bits are moved to the left or right by the requested number of places.

Any bits that are moved beyond the bounds of the integer’s storage are discarded.

Zeroes are inserted in the spaces left behind after the original bits are moved to the left or right.

330

Advanced Operators

Bitwise Operators

This approach is known as a

logical shift

The illustration below shows the results of 11111111 << 1 (which is 11111111 shifted to the left by 1 place), and

11111111 >> 1

(which is

11111111 shifted to the right by

1 place). Blue numbers are shifted, gray numbers are discarded, and orange zeroes are inserted:

Here’s how bit shifting looks in Swift code: let shiftBits: UInt8 = 4 // 00000100 in binary shiftBits << 1 shiftBits << 2 shiftBits << 5 shiftBits << 6 shiftBits >> 2

// 00001000

// 00010000

// 10000000

// 00000000

// 00000001

You can use bit shifting to encode and decode values within other data types: let pink: UInt32 = 0xCC6699 let redComponent = (pink & 0xFF0000) >> 16 // redComponent is 0xCC, or 204 let greenComponent = (pink & 0x00FF00) >> 8 // greenComponent is 0x66, or 102 let blueComponent = pink & 0x0000FF // blueComponent is 0x99, or 153

This example uses a UInt32 constant called pink to store a Cascading Style Sheets color value for the color pink. The CSS color value #CC6699 is written as 0xCC6699 in Swift’s hexadecimal number representation. This color is then decomposed into its red (

), green (

), and blue (

) components by the bitwise AND operator

( & ) and the bitwise right shift operator ( >> ).

The red component is obtained by performing a bitwise AND between the numbers 0xCC6699 and 0xFF0000 .

The zeroes in

0xFF0000 effectively “mask” the second and third bytes of

0xCC6699

, causing the

6699 to be ignored and leaving 0xCC0000 as the result.

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Advanced Operators

Bitwise Operators

This number is then shifted 16 places to the right ( >> 16 ). Each pair of characters in a hexadecimal number uses 8 bits, so a move 16 places to the right will convert

0xCC0000 into

0x0000CC

. This is the same as

0xCC

, which has a decimal value of 204 .

Similarly, the green component is obtained by performing a bitwise AND between the numbers 0xCC6699 and

0x00FF00

, which gives an output value of

0x006600

. This output value is then shifted eight places to the right, giving a a value of 0x66 , which has a decimal value of 102 .

Finally, the blue component is obtained by performing a bitwise AND between the numbers 0xCC6699 and

0x0000FF

, which gives an output value of

0x000099

. There’s no need to shift this to the right, as

0x000099 already equals 0x99 , which has a decimal value of 153 .

Shifting Behavior for Signed Integers

The shifting behavior is more complex for signed integers than for unsigned integers, because of the way signed integers are represented in binary. (The examples below are based on 8-bit signed integers for simplicity, but the same principles apply for signed integers of any size.)

Signed integers use their first bit (known as the

sign bit

) to indicate whether the integer is positive or negative.

A sign bit of 0 means positive, and a sign bit of 1 means negative.

The remaining bits (known as the

value bits

) store the actual value. Positive numbers are stored in exactly the same way as for unsigned integers, counting upwards from

. Here’s how the bits inside an

Int8 look for the number 4 :

The sign bit is

(meaning “positive”), and the seven value bits are just the number

, written in binary notation.

Negative numbers, however, are stored differently. They are stored by subtracting their absolute value from

2 to the power of n , where n is the number of value bits. An eight-bit number has seven value bits, so this means 2 to the power of 7 , or 128 .

Here’s how the bits inside an

Int8 look for the number

-4

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Advanced Operators

Bitwise Operators

This time, the sign bit is 1 (meaning “negative”), and the seven value bits have a binary value of 124 (which is

128 - 4

The encoding for negative numbers is known as a

two’s complement

representation. It may seem an unusual way to represent negative numbers, but it has several advantages.

First, you can add -1 to -4 , simply by performing a standard binary addition of all eight bits (including the sign bit), and discarding anything that doesn’t fit in the eight bits once you’re done:

Second, the two’s complement representation also lets you shift the bits of negative numbers to the left and right like positive numbers, and still end up doubling them for every shift you make to the left, or halving them for every shift you make to the right. To achieve this, an extra rule is used when signed integers are shifted to the right:

●

When you shift signed integers to the right, apply the same rules as for unsigned integers, but fill any empty bits on the left with the

sign bit

, rather than with a zero.

This action ensures that signed integers have the same sign after they are shifted to the right, and is known as an

arithmetic shift

333

Advanced Operators

Overflow Operators

Because of the special way that positive and negative numbers are stored, shifting either of them to the right moves them closer to zero. Keeping the sign bit the same during this shift means that negative integers remain negative as their value moves closer to zero.

Overflow Operators

If you try to insert a number into an integer constant or variable that cannot hold that value, by default Swift reports an error rather than allowing an invalid value to be created. This behavior gives extra safety when you work with numbers that are too large or too small.

For example, the Int16 integer type can hold any signed integer number between -32768 and 32767 . Trying to set a UInt16 constant or variable to a number outside of this range causes an error: var potentialOverflow = Int16.max

// potentialOverflow equals 32767, which is the largest value an Int16 can hold potentialOverflow += 1

// this causes an error

Providing error handling when values get too large or too small gives you much more flexibility when coding for boundary value conditions.

However, when you specifically want an overflow condition to truncate the number of available bits, you can opt in to this behavior rather than triggering an error. Swift provides five arithmetic

overflow operators

that opt in to the overflow behavior for integer calculations. These operators all begin with an ampersand (

●

Overflow addition ( &+ )

●

Overflow subtraction ( &)

Overflow multiplication (

)

Overflow division (

)

Overflow remainder ( &% )

Value Overflow

Here’s an example of what happens when an unsigned value is allowed to overflow, using the overflow addition operator ( &+ ): var willOverflow = UInt8.max

334

Advanced Operators

Overflow Operators

// willOverflow equals 255, which is the largest value a UInt8 can hold willOverflow = willOverflow &+ 1

// willOverflow is now equal to 0

The variable willOverflow is initialized with the largest value a UInt8 can hold ( 255 , or 11111111 in binary).

It is then incremented by 1 using the overflow addition operator ( &+ ). This pushes its binary representation just over the size that a

UInt8 can hold, causing it to overflow beyond its bounds, as shown in the diagram below. The value that remains within the bounds of the UInt8 after the overflow addition is 00000000 , or zero:

Value Underflow

Numbers can also become too small to fit in their type’s maximum bounds. Here’s an example.

The

smallest

value that a UInt8 can hold is

(which is

00000000 in eight-bit binary form). If you subtract

1 from 00000000 using the overflow subtraction operator, the number will overflow back round to 11111111 , or 255 in decimal:

Here’s how that looks in Swift code: var willUnderflow = UInt8.min

// willUnderflow equals 0, which is the smallest value a UInt8 can hold willUnderflow = willUnderflow &- 1

// willUnderflow is now equal to 255

335

Advanced Operators

Overflow Operators

A similar underflow occurs for signed integers. All subtraction for signed integers is performed as straight binary subtraction, with the sign bit included as part of the numbers being subtracted, as described in

Bitwise

Left and Right Shift Operators

(page 330). The smallest number that an

Int8 can hold is -128 , which is 10000000 in binary. Subtracting

1 from this binary number with the overflow operator gives a binary value of

01111111

, which toggles the sign bit and gives positive 127 , the largest positive value that an Int8 can hold:

Here’s the same thing in Swift code: var signedUnderflow = Int8.min

// signedUnderflow equals -128, which is the smallest value an Int8 can hold signedUnderflow = signedUnderflow &- 1

// signedUnderflow is now equal to 127

The end result of the overflow and underflow behavior described above is that for both signed and unsigned integers, overflow always wraps around from the largest valid integer value back to the smallest, and underflow always wraps around from the smallest value to the largest.

Division by Zero

Dividing a number by zero ( i / 0 ), or trying to calculate remainder by zero ( i % 0 ), causes an error: let x = 1 let y = x / 0

However, the overflow versions of these operators ( &/ and &% ) return a value of zero if you divide by zero: let x = 1 let y = x &/ 0

336

Advanced Operators

Precedence and Associativity

// y is equal to 0

Precedence and Associativity

Operator

precedence

gives some operators higher priority than others; these operators are calculated first.

Operator

associativity

defines how operators of the same precedence are grouped together (or

associated

)—either grouped from the left, or grouped from the right. Think of it as meaning “they associate with the expression to their left,” or “they associate with the expression to their right.”

It is important to consider each operator’s precedence and associativity when working out the order in which a compound expression will be calculated. Here’s an example. Why does the following expression equal

2 + 3 * 4 % 5

// this equals 4

Taken strictly from left to right, you might expect this to read as follows:

●

2 plus 3 equals 5;

●

5 times 4 equals 20;

20 remainder 5 equals 0

However, the actual answer is

, not

. Higher-precedence operators are evaluated before lower-precedence ones. In Swift, as in C, the multiplication operator ( * ) and the remainder operator ( % ) have a higher precedence than the addition operator ( + ). As a result, they are both evaluated before the addition is considered.

However, multiplication and remainder have the

same

precedence as each other. To work out the exact evaluation order to use, you also need to consider their associativity. Multiplication and remainder both associate with the expression to their left. Think of this as adding implicit parentheses around these parts of the expression, starting from their left:

2 + ((3 * 4) % 5)

(3 * 4) is 12 , so this is equivalent to:

2 + (12 % 5)

(12 % 5) is 2 , so this is equivalent to:

337

Advanced Operators

Operator Functions

2 + 2

This calculation yields the final answer of 4 .

For a complete list of Swift operator precedences and associativity rules, see

Expressions

(page 363).

Note:

Swift’s operator precedences and associativity rules are simpler and more predictable than those found in C and Objective-C. However, this means that they are not the same as in C-based languages. Be careful to ensure that operator interactions still behave in the way you intend when porting existing code to Swift.

Operator Functions

Classes and structures can provide their own implementations of existing operators. This is known as

overloading

the existing operators.

The example below shows how to implement the arithmetic addition operator ( + ) for a custom structure. The arithmetic addition operator is a

binary operator

because it operates on two targets and is said to be

infix

because it appears in between those two targets.

The example defines a Vector2D structure for a two-dimensional position vector (x, y) , followed by a definition of an

operator function

to add together instances of the Vector2D structure: struct

Vector2D { var x = 0.0, y = 0.0

}

@infix func

+ (left: Vector2D, right: Vector2D) -> Vector2D { return

Vector2D(x: left.x + right.x, y: left.y + right.y)

}

The operator function is defined as a global function called + , which takes two input parameters of type

Vector2D and returns a single output value, also of type Vector2D . You implement an infix operator by writing the

@infix attribute before the func keyword when declaring the operator function.

338

Advanced Operators

Operator Functions

In this implementation, the input parameters are named left and right to represent the Vector2D instances that will be on the left side and right side of the

+ operator. The function returns a new

Vector2D instance, whose x and y properties are initialized with the sum of the x and y properties from the two Vector2D instances that are added together.

The function is defined globally, rather than as a method on the Vector2D structure, so that it can be used as an infix operator between existing

Vector2D instances: let vector = Vector2D(x: 3.0, y: 1.0) let anotherVector = Vector2D(x: 2.0, y: 4.0) let combinedVector = vector + anotherVector

// combinedVector is a Vector2D instance with values of (5.0, 5.0)

This example adds together the vectors (3.0, 1.0) and (2.0, 4.0) to make the vector (5.0, 5.0) , as illustrated below.

Prefix and Postfix Operators

The example shown above demonstrates a custom implementation of a binary infix operator. Classes and structures can also provide implementations of the standard

unary operators

. Unary operators operate on a single target. They are

prefix

if they precede their target (such as -a ) and

postfix

operators if they follow their target (such as i++ ).

339

Advanced Operators

Operator Functions

You implement a prefix or postfix unary operator by writing the @prefix or @postfix attribute before the func keyword when declaring the operator function:

@prefix func

- (vector: Vector2D) -> Vector2D { return

Vector2D(x: -vector.x, y: -vector.y)

}

The example above implements the unary minus operator (

-a

) for

Vector2D instances. The unary minus operator is a prefix operator, and so this function has to be qualified with the @prefix attribute.

For simple numeric values, the unary minus operator converts positive numbers into their negative equivalent and vice versa. The corresponding implementation for Vector2D instances performs this operation on both the x and y properties: let positive = Vector2D(x: 3.0, y: 4.0) let negative = -positive

// negative is a Vector2D instance with values of (-3.0, -4.0) let alsoPositive = -negative

// alsoPositive is a Vector2D instance with values of (3.0, 4.0)

Compound Assignment Operators

Compound assignment operators

combine assignment ( = ) with another operation. For example, the addition assignment operator (

) combines addition and assignment into a single operation. Operator functions that implement compound assignment must be qualified with the @assignment attribute. You must also mark a compound assignment operator’s left input parameter as inout , because the parameter’s value will be modified directly from within the operator function.

The example below implements an addition assignment operator function for

Vector2D instances:

@assignment func

+= ( inout left: Vector2D, right: Vector2D) { left = left + right

}

Because an addition operator was defined earlier, you don’t need to reimplement the addition process here.

Instead, the addition assignment operator function takes advantage of the existing addition operator function, and uses it to set the left value to be the left value plus the right value:

340

Advanced Operators

Operator Functions var original = Vector2D(x: 1.0, y: 2.0) let vectorToAdd = Vector2D(x: 3.0, y: 4.0) original += vectorToAdd

// original now has values of (4.0, 6.0)

You can combine the @assignment attribute with either the @prefix or @postfix attribute, as in this implementation of the prefix increment operator ( ++a ) for Vector2D instances:

@prefix @assignment func

++ ( inout vector: Vector2D) -> Vector2D { vector += Vector2D(x: 1.0, y: 1.0) return vector

}

The prefix increment operator function above takes advantage of the addition assignment operator defined earlier. It adds a Vector2D with x and y values of 1.0

to the Vector2D on which it is called, and returns the result: var toIncrement = Vector2D(x: 3.0, y: 4.0) let afterIncrement = ++toIncrement

// toIncrement now has values of (4.0, 5.0)

// afterIncrement also has values of (4.0, 5.0)

Note:

It is not possible to overload the default assignment operator ( = ). Only the compound assignment operators can be overloaded. Similarly, the ternary conditional operator ( a ? b : c

) cannot be overloaded.

Equivalence Operators

Custom classes and structures do not receive a default implementation of the

equivalence operators

, known as the “equal to” operator ( == ) and “not equal to” operator ( != ). It is not possible for Swift to guess what would qualify as “equal” for your own custom types, because the meaning of “equal” depends on the roles that those types play in your code.

To use the equivalence operators to check for equivalence of your own custom type, provide an implementation of the operators in the same way as for other infix operators:

341

Advanced Operators

Custom Operators

@infix func

== (left: Vector2D, right: Vector2D) -> Bool { return

(left.x == right.x) && (left.y == right.y)

}

@infix func

!= (left: Vector2D, right: Vector2D) -> Bool { return

!(left == right)

}

The above example implements an “equal to” operator ( == ) to check if two Vector2D instances have equivalent values. In the context of Vector2D , it makes sense to consider “equal” as meaning “both instances have the same x values and y values”, and so this is the logic used by the operator implementation. The example also implements the “not equal to” operator ( != ), which simply returns the inverse of the result of the “equal to” operator.

You can now use these operators to check whether two Vector2D instances are equivalent: let twoThree = Vector2D(x: 2.0, y: 3.0) let anotherTwoThree = Vector2D(x: 2.0, y: 3.0) if twoThree == anotherTwoThree { println("These two vectors are equivalent.")

}

// prints "These two vectors are equivalent."

Custom Operators

You can declare and implement your own

custom operators

in addition to the standard operators provided by Swift. Custom operators can be defined only with the characters / = - + * % < > ! & | ^ . ~ .

New operators are declared at a global level using the operator keyword, and can be declared as prefix , infix or postfix : operator prefix

+++ {}

342

Advanced Operators

Custom Operators

The example above defines a new prefix operator called +++ . This operator does not have an existing meaning in Swift, and so it is given its own custom meaning below in the specific context of working with

Vector2D instances. For the purposes of this example, +++ is treated as a new “prefix doubling incrementer” operator.

It doubles the x and y values of a Vector2D instance, by adding the vector to itself with the addition assignment operator defined earlier:

@prefix @assignment func

+++ ( inout vector: Vector2D) -> Vector2D { vector += vector return vector

}

This implementation of +++ is very similar to the implementation of ++ for Vector2D , except that this operator function adds the vector to itself, rather than adding

Vector2D(1.0, 1.0)

: var toBeDoubled = Vector2D(x: 1.0, y: 4.0) let afterDoubling = +++toBeDoubled

// toBeDoubled now has values of (2.0, 8.0)

// afterDoubling also has values of (2.0, 8.0)

Precedence and Associativity for Custom Infix Operators

Custom infix operators can also specify a

precedence

and an

associativity

. See

Precedence and

Associativity

(page 337) for an explanation of how these two characteristics affect an infix operator’s interaction

with other infix operators.

The possible values for associativity are left , right , and none . Left-associative operators associate to the left if written next to other left-associative operators of the same precedence. Similarly, right-associative operators associate to the right if written next to other right-associative operators of the same precedence.

Non-associative operators cannot be written next to other operators with the same precedence.

The associativity value defaults to none if it is not specified. The precedence value defaults to 100 if it is not specified.

The following example defines a new custom infix operator called +, with left associativity and a precedence of 140 : operator infix

+- { associativity left precedence 140 } func

+- (left: Vector2D, right: Vector2D) -> Vector2D { return

Vector2D(x: left.x + right.x, y: left.y - right.y)

343

Advanced Operators

Custom Operators

} let firstVector = Vector2D(x: 1.0, y: 2.0) let secondVector = Vector2D(x: 3.0, y: 4.0) let plusMinusVector = firstVector +- secondVector

// plusMinusVector is a Vector2D instance with values of (4.0, -2.0)

This operator adds together the x values of two vectors, and subtracts the y value of the second vector from the first. Because it is in essence an “additive” operator, it has been given the same associativity and precedence values ( left and 140 ) as default additive infix operators such as + and . For a complete list of the default

Swift operator precedence and associativity settings, see

Expressions

(page 363).

344

Language Reference

●

About the Language Reference

(page 346)

●

Lexical Structure

(page 347)

Types

(page 353)

●

Expressions

(page 363)

Statements

(page 380)

●

Declarations

(page 390)

Attributes

(page 414)

●

Patterns

(page 418)

Generic Parameters and Arguments

(page 423)

●

Summary of the Grammar

(page 427)

345

About the Language Reference

This part of the book describes the formal grammar of the Swift programming language. The grammar described here is intended to help you understand the language in more detail, rather than to allow you to directly implement a parser or compiler.

The Swift language is relatively small, because many common types, functions, and operators that appear virtually everywhere in Swift code are actually defined in the Swift standard library. Although these types, functions, and operators are not part of the Swift language itself, they are used extensively in the discussions and code examples in this part of the book.

How to Read the Grammar

The notation used to describe the formal grammar of the Swift programming language follows a few conventions:

●

An arrow ( )

Syntactic categories are indicated by

italic

text and appear on both sides of a grammar production rule.

●

Literal words and punctuation are indicated by boldface constant width text and appear only on the right-hand side of a grammar production rule.

Alternative grammar productions are separated by vertical bars (|). When alternative productions are too long to read easily, they are broken into multiple grammar production rules on new lines.

●

In a few cases, regular font text is used to describe the right-hand side of a grammar production rule.

Optional syntactic categories and literals are marked by a trailing subscript,

opt

As an example, the grammar of a getter-setter block is defined as follows:

Grammar of a getter-setter blockgetter-setter-block{getter-clausesetter-clause}{setter-clausegetter-clause}

This definition indicates that a getter-setter block can consist of a getter clause followed by an optional setter clause, enclosed in braces,

a setter clause followed by a getter clause, enclosed in braces. The grammar production above is equivalent to the following two productions, where the alternatives are spelled out explicitly:

Grammar of a getter setter blockgetter-setter-block{getter-clausesetter-clause}getter-setter-block{setter-clausegetter-clause}

346

Lexical Structure

The

lexical structure

of Swift describes what sequence of characters form valid tokens of the language. These valid tokens form the lowest-level building blocks of the language and are used to describe the rest of the language in subsequent chapters.

In most cases, tokens are generated from the characters of a Swift source file by considering the longest possible substring from the input text, within the constraints of the grammar that are specified below. This behavior is referred to as

longest match

maximal munch

Whitespace and Comments

Whitespace has two uses: to separate tokens in the source file and to help determine whether an operator is a prefix or postfix (see

Operators

(page 351)), but is otherwise ignored. The following characters are considered whitespace: space (U+0020), line feed (U+000A), carriage return (U+000D), horizontal tab (U+0009), vertical tab (U+000B), form feed (U+000C) and null (U+0000).

Comments are treated as whitespace by the compiler. Single line comments begin with

and continue until the end of the line. Multiline comments begin with /* and end with */ . Nesting is allowed, but the comment markers must be balanced.

Identifiers

Identifiers

begin with an upper case or lower case letter A through Z, an underscore (

), a noncombining alphanumeric Unicode character in the Basic Multilingual Plane, or a character outside the Basic Multilingual

Plan that isn’t in a Private Use Area. After the first character, digits and combining Unicode characters are also allowed.

To use a reserved word as an identifier, put a backtick ( ` ) before and after it. For example, class is not a valid identifier, but `class` is valid. The backticks are not considered part of the identifier; `x` and x have the same meaning.

Inside a closure with no explicit parameter names, the parameters are implicitly named

, and so on.

These names are valid identifiers within the scope of the closure.

347

Lexical Structure

Keywords

Grammar of an identifieridentifieridentifier-headidentifier-charactersidentifier`identifier-headidentifier-characters`identifierimplicit-parameter-nameidentifier-listidentifieridentifier,identifier-listidentifier-headUpperor lowercase letter A through Zidentifier-headU+00A8, U+00AA, U+00AD, U+00AF, U+00B2–U+00B5, or

U+00B7–U+00BAidentifier-headU+00BC–U+00BE, U+00C0–U+00D6, U+00D8–U+00F6, or

U+00F8–U+00FFidentifier-headU+0100–U+02FF, U+0370–U+167F, U+1681–U+180D, or

U+180F–U+1DBFidentifier-headU+1E00–U+1FFFidentifier-headU+200B–U+200D, U+202A–U+202E, U+203F–U+2040,

U+2054, or U+2060–U+206Fidentifier-headU+2070–U+20CF, U+2100–U+218F, U+2460–U+24FF, or

U+2776–U+2793identifier-headU+2C00–U+2DFF or U+2E80–U+2FFFidentifier-headU+3004–U+3007, U+3021–U+302F,

U+3031–U+303F, or U+3040–U+D7FFidentifier-headU+F900–U+FD3D, U+FD40–U+FDCF, U+FDF0–U+FE1F, or

U+FE30–U+FE44identifier-headU+FE47–U+FFFDidentifier-headU+10000–U+1FFFD, U+20000–U+2FFFD, U+30000–U+3FFFD, or U+40000–U+4FFFDidentifier-headU+50000–U+5FFFD, U+60000–U+6FFFD, U+70000–U+7FFFD, or

U+80000–U+8FFFDidentifier-headU+90000–U+9FFFD, U+A0000–U+AFFFD, U+B0000–U+BFFFD, or

U+C0000–U+CFFFDidentifier-headU+D0000–U+DFFFD or U+E0000–U+EFFFDidentifier-characterDigit 0 through

9identifier-characterU+0300–U+036F, U+1DC0–U+1DFF, U+20D0–U+20FF, or

U+FE20–U+FE2Fidentifier-characteridentifier-headidentifier-charactersidentifier-characteridentifier-charactersimplicit-parameter-name$decimal-digits

Keywords

The following keywords are reserved and may not be used as identifiers, unless they’re escaped with backticks, as described above in

Identifiers

(page 347).

●

Keywords used in declarations: class , deinit , enum , extension , func , import , init , let , protocol , static , struct , subscript , typealias , and var .

●

Keywords used in statements: break , case , continue , default , do , else , fallthrough , if , in , for , return , switch , where , and while .

●

Keywords used in expressions and types: as , dynamicType , is , new , super , self , Self , Type ,

__COLUMN__ , __FILE__ , __FUNCTION__ , and __LINE__ .

●

Keywords reserved in particular contexts: associativity , didSet , get , infix , inout , left , mutating , none , nonmutating , operator , override , postfix , precedence , prefix , right , set , unowned , unowned(safe) , unowned(unsafe) , weak and willSet . Outside the context in which they appear in the grammar, they can be used as identifiers.

Literals

literal

is the source code representation of a value of an integer, floating-point number, or string type. The following are examples of literals:

3.14159

// Integer literal

// Floating-point literal

348

Lexical Structure

Literals

"Hello, world!" // String literal

Grammar of a literalliteralinteger-literalfloating-point-literalstring-literal

Integer Literals

Integer literals

represent integer values of unspecified precision. By default, integer literals are expressed in decimal; you can specify an alternate base using a prefix. Binary literals begin with 0b , octal literals begin with

0o , and hexadecimal literals begin with 0x .

Decimal literals contain the digits

0 through

. Binary literals contain

0 and

, octal literals contain

0 through

7 , and hexadecimal literals contain 0 through 9 as well as A through F in upper- or lowercase.

Negative integers literals are expressed by prepending a minus sign ( ) to an integer literal, as in -42 .

Underscores (

) are allowed between digits for readability, but are ignored and therefore don’t affect the value of the literal. Integer literals can begin with leading zeros ( 0 ), but are likewise ignored and don’t affect the base or value of the literal.

Unless otherwise specified, the default type of an integer literal is the Swift standard library type Int . The Swift standard library also defines types for various sizes of signed and unsigned integers, as described in

Integers

(page 42).

Grammar of an integer literalinteger-literalbinary-literalinteger-literaloctal-literalinteger-literaldecimal-literalinteger-literalhexadecimal-literalbinary-literal0bbinary-digitbinary-literal-charactersbinary-digitDigit

0 or

1binary-literal-characterbinary-digit_binary-literal-charactersbinary-literal-characterbinary-literal-charactersoctal-literal0ooctal-digitoctal-literal-charactersoctal-digitDigit

0 through

7octal-literal-characteroctal-digit_octal-literal-charactersoctal-literal-characteroctal-literal-charactersdecimal-literaldecimal-digitdecimal-literal-charactersdecimal-digitDigit

0 through

9decimal-digitsdecimal-digitdecimal-digitsdecimal-literal-characterdecimal-digit_decimal-literal-charactersdecimal-literal-characterdecimal-literal-charactershexadecimal-literal0xhexadecimal-digithexadecimal-literal-charactershexadecimal-digitDigit

0 through 9, a through f, or A through

Fhexadecimal-literal-characterhexadecimal-digit_hexadecimal-literal-charactershexadecimal-literal-characterhexadecimal-literal-characters

Floating-Point Literals

Floating-point literals

represent floating-point values of unspecified precision.

By default, floating-point literals are expressed in decimal (with no prefix), but they can also be expressed in hexadecimal (with a

0x prefix).

349

Lexical Structure

Literals

Decimal floating-point literals consist of a sequence of decimal digits followed by either a decimal fraction, a decimal exponent, or both. The decimal fraction consists of a decimal point ( .

) followed by a sequence of decimal digits. The exponent consists of an upper- or lowercase e prefix followed by sequence of decimal digits that indicates what power of 10 the value preceding the e is multiplied by. For example, 1.25e2

represents

1.25 10

, which evaluates to 125.0

. Similarly, 1.25e-2 represents 1.25 10

-2

, which evaluates to 0.0125

Hexadecimal floating-point literals consist of a

0x prefix, followed by an optional hexadecimal fraction, followed by a hexadecimal exponent. The hexadecimal fraction consists of a decimal point followed by a sequence of hexadecimal digits. The exponent consists of an upper- or lowercase p prefix followed by sequence of decimal digits that indicates what power of 2 the value preceding the p is multiplied by. For example, 0xFp2 represents

15 2

, which evaluates to 60 . Similarly, 0xFp-2 represents 15 2

-2

, which evaluates to 3.75

Unlike with integer literals, negative floating-point numbers are expressed by applying the unary minus operator

(

) to a floating-point literal, as in

-42.0

. The result is an expression, not a floating-point integer literal.

Underscores ( _ ) are allowed between digits for readability, but are ignored and therefore don’t affect the value of the literal. Floating-point literals can begin with leading zeros ( 0 ), but are likewise ignored and don’t affect the base or value of the literal.

Unless otherwise specified, the default type of a floating-point literal is the Swift standard library type

Double

, which represents a 64-bit floating-point number. The Swift standard library also defines a Float type, which represents a 32-bit floating-point number.

Grammar of a floating-point literalfloating-point-literaldecimal-literaldecimal-fractiondecimal-exponentfloating-point-literalhexadecimal-literalhexadecimal-fractionhexadecimal-exponentdecimal-fraction.decimal-literaldecimal-exponentfloating-point-esigndecimal-literalhexadecimal-fraction.hexadecimal-literalhexadecimal-exponentfloating-point-psignhexadecimal-literalfloating-point-eeEfloating-point-ppPsign+-

String Literals

A string literal is a sequence of characters surrounded by double quotes, with the following form:

characters

String literals cannot contain an unescaped double quote ( " ), an unescaped backslash ( \ ), a carriage return, or a line feed.

Special characters can be included in string literals using the following escape sequences:

●

Null Character ( \0 )

●

Backslash ( \\ )

●

Horizontal Tab ( \t )

●

Line Feed ( \n )

350

Lexical Structure

Operators

●

Carriage Return ( \r )

●

Double Quote ( \" )

●

Single Quote ( \' )

Characters can also be expressed by \x followed by two hexadecimal digits, \u followed by four hexadecimal digits, or

\U followed by eight hexadecimal digits. The digits in these escape sequences identify a Unicode codepoint.

The value of an expression can be inserted into a string literal by placing the expression in parentheses after a backslash ( \ ). The interpolated expression must not contain an unescaped double quote ( " ), an unescaped backslash ( \ ), a carriage return, or a line feed. The expression must evaluate to a value of a type that the String class has an initializer for.

For example, all the following string literals have the same value:

"1 2 3"

"1 2 \(3)"

"1 2 \(1 + 2)" var x = 3; "1 2 \(x)"

The default type of a string literal is String . The characters that make up a string are of type Character . For more information about the String and Character types, see

Strings and Characters

(page 71).

Grammar of a string literalstring-literal"quoted-text"quoted-textquoted-text-itemquoted-textquoted-text-itemescaped-characterquoted-text-item\(expression)quoted-text-itemAny

Unicode extended grapheme cluster except ", \, U+000A, or

Operators

The Swift standard library defines a number of operators for your use, many of which are discussed in

Basic

Operators

(page 58) and

Advanced Operators

(page 327). The present section describes which characters can

be used as operators.

Operators are made up of one or more of the following characters: / , = , , + , !

, * , % , < , > , & , | , ^ , ~ , and .

. That said, the tokens = , -> , // , /* , */ , .

, and the unary prefix operator & are reserved. These tokens can’t be overloaded, nor can they be used to define custom operators.

The whitespace around an operator is used to determine whether an operator is used as a prefix operator, a postfix operator, or a binary operator. This behavior is summarized in the following rules:

351

Lexical Structure

Operators

●

If an operator has whitespace around both sides or around neither side, it is treated as a binary operator.

As an example, the + operator in a+b and a + b is treated as a binary operator.

●

If an operator has whitespace on the left side only, it is treated as a prefix unary operator. As an example, the ++ operator in a ++b is treated as a prefix unary operator.

●

If an operator has whitespace on the right side only, it is treated as a postfix unary operator. As an example, the ++ operator in a++ b is treated as a postfix unary operator.

●

If an operator has no whitespace on the left but is followed immediately by a dot ( .

), it is treated as a postfix unary operator. As an example, the ++ operator in a++.b

is treated as a postfix unary operator

( a++ . b rather than a ++ .b

For the purposes of these rules, the characters ( , [ , and { before an operator, the characters ) , ] , and } after an operator, and the characters , , ; , and : are also considered whitespace.

There is one caveat to the rules above. If the !

or ?

operator has no whitespace on the left, it is treated as a postfix operator, regardless of whether it has whitespace on the right. To use the ?

operator as syntactic sugar for the Optional type, it must not have whitespace on the left. To use it in the conditional ( ? : ) operator, it must have whitespace around both sides.

In certain constructs, operators with a leading < or > may be split into two or more tokens. The remainder is treated the same way and may be split again. As a result, there is no need to use whitespace to disambiguate between the closing > characters in constructs like Dictionary<String, Array<Int>> . In this example, the closing > characters are not treated as a single token that may then be misinterpreted as a bit shift >> operator.

To learn how to define new, custom operators, see

Custom Operators

(page 342) and

Operator Declaration

(page

411). To learn how to overload existing operators, see

Operator Functions

(page 338).

Grammar of operatorsoperatoroperator-characteroperatoroperator-character/=-+!*%<>&|^~.binary-operatoroperatorprefix-operatoroperatorpostfix-operatoroperator

352

Types

In Swift, there are two kinds of types: named types and compound types. A

named type

is a type that can be given a particular name when it is defined. Named types include classes, structures, enumerations, and protocols.

For example, instances of a user-defined class named MyClass have the type MyClass . In addition to user-defined named types, the Swift standard library defines many commonly used named types, including those that represent arrays, dictionaries, and optional values.

Data types that are normally considered basic or primitive in other languages—such as types that represent numbers, characters, and strings—are actually named types, defined and implemented in the Swift standard library using structures. Because they are named types, you can extend their behavior to suit the needs of your program, using an extension declaration, discussed in

Extensions

(page 278) and

Extension Declaration

(page

409).

compound type

is a type without a name, defined in the Swift language itself. There are two compound types: function types and tuple types. A compound type may contain named types and other compound types.

For instance, the tuple type

(Int, (Int, Int)) contains two elements: The first is the named type

Int

, and the second is another compound type (Int, Int) .

This chapter discusses the types defined in the Swift language itself and describes the type inference behavior of Swift.

Grammar of a typetypearray-typefunction-typetype-identifiertuple-typeoptional-typeimplicitly-unwrapped-optional-typeprotocol-composition-typemetatype-type

Type Annotation

type annotation

explicitly specifies the type of a variable or expression. Type annotations begin with a colon

(

) and end with a type, as the following examples show: let someTuple: (Double, Double) = (3.14159, 2.71828) func someFunction(a: Int) { /* ... */ }

In the first example, the expression someTuple is specified to have the tuple type (Double, Double) . In the second example, the parameter a to the function someFunction is specified to have the type Int .

353

Types

Type Identifier

Type annotations can contain an optional list of type attributes before the type.

Grammar of a type annotationtype-annotation:attributestype

Type Identifier

A type identifier refers to either a named type or a type alias of a named or compound type.

Most of the time, a type identifier directly refers to a named type with the same name as the identifier. For example, Int is a type identifier that directly refers to the named type Int , and the type identifier

Dictionary<String, Int> directly refers to the named type Dictionary<String, Int> .

There are two cases in which a type identifier does not refer to a type with the same name. In the first case, a type identifier refers to a type alias of a named or compound type. For instance, in the example below, the use of Point in the type annotation refers to the tuple type (Int, Int) .

typealias

Point = (Int, Int) let origin: Point = (0, 0)

In the second case, a type identifier uses dot (

) syntax to refer to named types declared in other modules or nested within other types. For example, the type identifier in the following code references the named type

MyType that is declared in the ExampleModule module.

var someValue: ExampleModule.MyType

Grammar of a type identifiertype-identifiertype-namegeneric-argument-clausetype-namegeneric-argument-clause.type-identifiertype-nameidentifier

Tuple Type

A tuple type is a comma-separated list of zero or more types, enclosed in parentheses.

You can use a tuple type as the return type of a function to enable the function to return a single tuple containing multiple values. You can also name the elements of a tuple type and use those names to refer to the values of the individual elements. An element name consists of an identifier followed immediately by a colon (:). For an example that demonstrates both of these features, see

Functions with Multiple Return Values

(page 123).

354

Types

Function Type

Void is a typealias for the the empty tuple type, () . If there is only one element inside the parentheses, the type is simply the type of that element. For example, the type of

(Int) is

Int

, not

(Int)

. As a result, you can label a tuple element only when the tuple type has two or more elements.

Grammar of a tuple typetuple-type(tuple-type-body)tuple-type-bodytuple-type-element-list...tuple-type-element-listtuple-type-elementtuple-type-element,tuple-type-element-listtuple-type-elementattributesinouttypeinoutelement-nametype-annotationelement-nameidentifier

Function Type

A function type represents the type of a function, method, or closure and consists of a parameter and return type separated by an arrow ( -> ):

parameter type -> return type

Because the

parameter type

and the

return type

can be a tuple type, function types support functions and methods that take multiple paramaters and return multiple values.

You can apply the auto_closure attribute to a function type that has a parameter type of

() and that returns the type of an expression (see

Type Attributes

(page 417)). An autoclosure function captures an implicit closure over the specified expression, instead of the expression itself. The following example uses the auto_closure attribute in defining a very simple assert function: func simpleAssert(condition:

@auto_closure

() -> Bool, message: String) { if

!condition() { println(message)

}

} let testNumber = 5 simpleAssert(testNumber % 2 == 0, "testNumber isn't an even number.")

// prints "testNumber isn't an even number."

A function type can have a variadic parameter as the last parameter in its

parameter type

. Syntactically, a variadic parameter consists of a base type name followed immediately by three dots ( ...

), as in Int...

. A variadic parameter is treated as an array that contains elements of the base type name. For instance, the variadic parameter Int...

is treated as Int[] . For an example that uses a variadic parameter, see

Variadic

Parameters

(page 128).

355

Types

Array Type

To specify an in-out parameter, prefix the parameter type with the inout keyword. You can’t mark a variadic parameter or a return type with the inout keyword. In-out parameters are discussed in

In-Out Parameters

(page

130).

The type of a curried function is equivalent to a nested function type. For example, the type of the curried function addTwoNumbers()() below is Int -> Int -> Int : func addTwoNumbers(a: Int)(b: Int) -> Int { return a + b

} addTwoNumbers(4)(5) // Returns 9

The function types of a curried function are grouped from right to left. For instance, the function type Int ->

Int -> Int is understood as Int -> (Int -> Int) —that is, a function that takes an Int and returns another function that takes and return an

Int

. For example, you can rewrite the curried function addTwoNumbers()() as the following nested function: func addTwoNumbers(a: Int) -> (Int -> Int) { func addTheSecondNumber(b: Int) -> Int { return a + b

} return addTheSecondNumber

} addTwoNumbers(4)(5) // Returns 9

Grammar of a function typefunction-typetype->type

Array Type

The Swift language uses square brackets (

[]

) immediately after the name of a type as syntactic sugar for the named type Array<T> , which is defined in the Swift standard library. In other words, the following two declarations are equivalent: let someArray: String[] = ["Alex", "Brian", "Dave"] let someArray: Array<String> = ["Alex", "Brian", "Dave"]

356

Types

Optional Type

In both cases, the constant someArray is declared as an array of strings. The elements of an array can be accessed using square brackets as well: someArray[0] refers to the element at index 0,

"Alex"

As the above example also shows, you can use square brackets to create an array using an array literal. Empty array literals are written using an empty pair of square brackets and can be used to create an empty array of a specified type.

var emptyArray: Double[] = []

You can create multidimensional arrays by chaining multiple sets of square brackets to the name of the base type of the elements. For example, you can create a three-dimensional array of integers using three sets of square brackets: var array3D: Int[][][] = [[[1, 2], [3, 4]], [[5, 6], [7, 8]]]

When accessing the elements in a multidimensional array, the left-most subscript index refers to the element at that index in the outermost array. The next subscript index to the right refers to the element at that index in the array that’s nested one level in. And so on. This means that in the example above, array3D[0] refers to [[1, 2], [3, 4]] , array3D[0][1] refers to [3, 4] , and array3D[0][1][1] refers to the value 4.

For a detailed discussion of the Swift standard library Array type, see

Arrays

(page 82).

Grammar of an array typearray-typetype[]array-type[]

Optional Type

The Swift language defines the postfix ?

as syntactic sugar for the named type Optional<T> , which is defined in the Swift standard library. In other words, the following two declarations are equivalent: var optionalInteger: Int?

var optionalInteger: Optional<Int>

In both cases, the variable optionalInteger is declared to have the type of an optional integer. Note that no whitespace may appear between the type and the ?

357

Types

Implicitly Unwrapped Optional Type

The type Optional<T> is an enumeration with two cases, None and Some(T) , which are used to represent values that may or may not be present. Any type can be explicitly declared to be (or implicitly converted to) an optional type. When declaring an optional type, be sure to use parentheses to properly scope the

operator.

As an example, to declare an optional array of integers, write the type annotation as (Int[])?

; writing Int[]?

produces an error.

If you don’t provide an initial value when you declare an optional variable or property, its value automatically defaults to nil .

Optionals conform to the

LogicValue protocol and therefore may occur in a Boolean context. In that context, if an instance of an optional type T?

contains any value of type T (that is, it’s value is Optional.Some(T) ), the optional type evaluates to true . Otherwise, it evaluates to false .

If an instance of an optional type contains a value, you can access that value using the postfix operator

, as shown below: optionalInteger = 42 optionalInteger! // 42

Using the

operator to unwrap an optional that has a value of nil results in a runtime error.

You can also use optional chaining and optional binding to conditionally perform an operation on an optional expression. If the value is nil , no operation is performed and therefore no runtime error is produced.

For more information and to see examples that show how to use optional types, see

Optionals

(page 51).

Grammar of an optional typeoptional-typetype?

Implicitly Unwrapped Optional Type

The Swift language defines the postfix !

as syntactic sugar for the named type

ImplicitlyUnwrappedOptional<T> , which is defined in the Swift standard library. In other words, the following two declarations are equivalent: var implicitlyUnwrappedString: String!

var implicitlyUnwrappedString: ImplicitlyUnwrappedOptional<String>

In both cases, the variable implicitlyUnwrappedString is declared to have the type of an implicitly unwrapped optional string. Note that no whitespace may appear between the type and the

358

Types

Protocol Composition Type

You can use implicitly unwrapped optionals in all the same places in your code that you can use optionals. For instance, you can assign values of implicitly unwrapped optionals to variables, constants, and properties of optionals, and vice versa.

As with optionals, if you don’t provide an initial value when you declare an implicitly unwrapped optional variable or property, it’s value automatically defaults to nil .

Because the value of an implicitly unwrapped optional is automatically unwrapped when you use it, there’s no need to use the

operator to unwrap it. That said, if you try to use an implicitly unwrapped optional that has a value of nil , you’ll get a runtime error.

Use optional chaining to conditionally perform an operation on an implicitly unwrapped optional expression.

If the value is nil , no operation is performed and therefore no runtime error is produced.

For more information about implicitly unwrapped optional types, see

Implicitly Unwrapped Optionals

(page

54).

Grammar of an implicitly unwrapped optional typeimplicitly-unwrapped-optional-typetype!

Protocol Composition Type

A protocol composition type describes a type that conforms to each protocol in a list of specified protocols.

Protocol composition types may be used in type annotations and in generic parameters.

Protocol composition types have the following form: protocol

<Protocol 1 , Protocol 2 >

A protocol composition type allows you to specify a value whose type conforms to the requirements of multiple protocols without having to explicitly define a new, named protocol that inherits from each protocol you want the type to conform to. For example, specifying a protocol composition type protocol<ProtocolA,

ProtocolB, ProtocolC> is effectively the same as defining a new protocol ProtocolD that inherits from

ProtocolA

ProtocolB

, and

ProtocolC

, but without having to introduce a new name.

Each item in a protocol composition list must be either the name of protocol or a type alias of a protocol composition type. If the list is empty, it specifies the empty protocol composition type, which every type conforms to.

Grammar of a protocol composition typeprotocol-composition-typeprotocol<protocol-identifier-list>protocol-identifier-listprotocol-identifierprotocol-identifier,protocol-identifier-listprotocol-identifiertype-identifier

359

Types

Metatype Type

A metatype type refers to the type of any type, including class types, structure types, enumeration types, and protocol types.

The metatype of a class, structure, or enumeration type is the name of that type followed by .Type

. The metatype of a protocol type—not the concrete type that conforms to the protocol at runtime—is the name of that protocol followed by .Protocol

. For example, the metatype of the class type SomeClass is

SomeClass.Type

and the metatype of the protocol SomeProtocol is SomeProtocol.Protocol

You can use the postfix self expression to access a type as a value. For example, SomeClass.self

returns

SomeClass itself, not an instance of SomeClass . And SomeProtocol.self

returns SomeProtocol itself, not an instance of a type that conforms to SomeProtocol at runtime. You can use a dynamicType expression with an instance of a type to access that instance’s runtime type as a value, as the following example shows: class

SomeBaseClass { class func printClassName() { println("SomeBaseClass")

}

} class

SomeSubClass: SomeBaseClass { override class func printClassName() { println("SomeSubClass")

}

} let someInstance: SomeBaseClass = SomeSubClass()

// someInstance is of type SomeBaseClass at compile time, but

// someInstance is of type SomeSubClass at runtime someInstance.

dynamicType

.printClassName()

// prints "SomeSubClass"

Grammar of a metatype typemetatype-typetype.Typetype.Protocol

360

Types

Type Inheritance Clause

A type inheritance clause is used to specify which class a named type inherits from and which protocols a named type conforms to. A type inheritance clause begins with a colon ( : ), followed by a comma-separated list of type identifiers.

Class types may inherit from a single superclass and conform to any number of protocols. When defining a class, the name of the superclass must appear first in the list of type identifiers, followed by any number of protocols the class must conform to. If the class does not inherit from another class, the list may begin with a protocol instead. For an extended discussion and several examples of class inheritance, see

Inheritance

(page

200).

Other named types may only inherit from or conform to a list of protocols. Protocol types may inherit from any number of other protocols. When a protocol type inherits from other protocols, the set of requirements from those other protocols are aggregated together, and any type that inherits from the current protocol must conform to all of those requirements.

A type inheritance clause in an enumeration definition may be either a list of protocols, or in the case of an enumeration that assigns raw values to its cases, a single, named type that specifies the type of those raw values. For an example of an enumeration definition that uses a type inheritance clause to specify the type of its raw values, see

Raw Values

(page 153).

Grammar of a type inheritance clausetype-inheritance-clause:type-inheritance-listtype-inheritance-listtype-identifiertype-identifier,type-inheritance-list

Type Inference

Swift uses type inference extensively, allowing you to omit the type or part of the type of many variables and expressions in your code. For example, instead of writing var x: Int = 0

, you can omit the type completely and simply write var x = 0 —the compiler correctly infers that x names a value of type Int . Similarly, you can omit part of a type when the full type can be inferred from context. For instance, if you write let dict:

Dictionary = ["A": 1]

, the compiler infers that dict has the type

Dictionary<String, Int>

In both of the examples above, the type information is passed up from the leaves of the expression tree to its root. That is, the type of x in var x: Int = 0 is inferred by first checking the type of 0 and then passing this type information up to the root (the variable x ).

In Swift, type information can also flow in the opposite direction—from the root down to the leaves. In the following example, for instance, the explicit type annotation (

: Float

) on the constant eFloat causes the numeric literal 2.71828

to have type Float instead of type Double .

let e = 2.71828 // The type of e is inferred to be Double.

361

Types

Type Inference let eFloat: Float = 2.71828 // The type of eFloat is Float.

Type inference in Swift operates at the level of a single expression or statement. This means that all of the information needed to infer an omitted type or part of a type in an expression must be accessible from type-checking the expression or one of its subexpressions.

362

Expressions

In Swift, there are four kinds of expressions: prefix expressions, binary expressions, primary expressions, and postfix expressions. Evaluating an expression returns a value, causes a side effect, or both.

Prefix and binary expressions let you apply operators to smaller expressions. Primary expressions are conceptually the simplest kind of expression, and they provide a way to access values. Postfix expressions, like prefix and binary expressions, let you build up more complex expressions using postfixes such as function calls and member access. Each kind of expression is described in detail in the sections below.

Grammar of an expressionexpressionprefix-expressionbinary-expressionsexpression-listexpressionexpression,expression-list

Prefix Expressions

Prefix expressions

combine an optional prefix operator with an expression. Prefix operators take one argument, the expression that follows them.

The Swift standard library provides the following prefix operators:

●

++ Increment

Decrement

Logical NOT

●

~ Bitwise NOT

●

+ Unary plus

●

Unary minus

For information about the behavior of these operators, see

Basic Operators

(page 58) and

Advanced

Operators

(page 327).

In addition to the standard library operators listed above, you use & immediately before the name of a variable that’s being passed as an in-out argument to a function call expression. For more information and to see an example, see

In-Out Parameters

(page 130).

Grammar of a prefix expressionprefix-expressionprefix-operatorpostfix-expressionprefix-expressionin-out-expressionin-out-expression&identifier

363

Expressions

Binary Expressions

Binary expressions

combine an infix binary operator with the expression that it takes as its left-hand and right-hand arguments. It has the following form:

left-hand argument operator right-hand argument

The Swift standard library provides the following binary operators:

●

Exponentiative (No associativity, precedence level 160)

●

<< Bitwise left shift

●

>> Bitwise right shift

●

Multiplicative (Left associative, precedence level 150)

●

* Multiply

●

/ Divide

●

% Remainder

Multiply, ignoring overflow

Divide, ignoring overflow

&% Remainder, ignoring overflow

●

& Bitwise AND

●

Additive (Left associative, precedence level 140)

●

Add

●

Subtract

●

&+ Add with overflow

●

&Subtract with overflow

●

| Bitwise OR

Bitwise XOR

●

Range (No associativity, precedence level 135)

●

Half-closed range

●

...

Closed range

364

Expressions

Binary Expressions

●

Cast (No associativity, precedence level 132)

● is Type check

● as

Type cast

●

Comparative (No associativity, precedence level 130)

●

< Less than

●

<= Less than or equal

Greater than

>= Greater than or equal

●

== Equal

●

!= Not equal

●

=== Identical

●

!== Not identical

Pattern match

●

Conjunctive (Left associative, precedence level 120)

●

&& Logical AND

●

Disjunctive (Left associative, precedence level 110)

●

|| Logical OR

●

Ternary Conditional (Right associative, precedence level 100)

●

? :

Ternary conditional

●

Assignment (Right associative, precedence level 90)

●

= Assign

●

*= Multiply and assign

Divide and assign

%= Remainder and assign

●

+= Add and assign

●

-= Subtract and assign

●

<<= Left bit shift and assign

●

>>= Right bit shift and assign

365

Expressions

Binary Expressions

●

&= Bitwise AND and assign

Bitwise XOR and assign

|= Bitwise OR and assign

●

&&= Logical AND and assign

●

||= Logical OR and assign

For information about the behavior of these operators, see

Basic Operators

(page 58) and

Advanced

Operators

(page 327).

Note:

At parse time, an expression made up of binary operators is represented as a flat list. This list is transformed into a tree by applying operator precedence For example, the expression 2 + 3 *

5 is initially understood as a flat list of five items, 2 , + , `` 3``, * , and 5 . This process transforms it into the tree (2 + (3 * 5)).

Grammar of a binary expressionbinary-expressionbinary-operatorprefix-expressionbinary-expressionassignment-operatorprefix-expressionbinary-expressionconditional-operatorprefix-expressionbinary-expressiontype-casting-operatorbinary-expressionsbinary-expressionbinary-expressions

Assignment Operator

The

assigment operator

sets a new value for a given expression. It has the following form:

expression = value

The value of the

expression

is set to the value obtained by evaluating the

value

. If the

expression

is a tuple, the

value

must be a tuple with the same number of elements. (Nested tuples are allowed.) Assignment is performed from each part of the

value

to the corresponding part of the

expression

. For example:

(a,

, (b, c)) = ("test", 9.45, (12, 3))

// a is "test", b is 12, c is 3, and 9.45 is ignored

The assignment operator does not return any value.

Grammar of an assignment operatorassignment-operator=

366

Expressions

Binary Expressions

Ternary Conditional Operator

The

ternary conditional operator

evaluates to one of two given values based on the value of a condition. It has the following form:

condition ? expression used if true : expression used if false

If the

condition

evaluates to true , the conditional operator evaluates the first expression and returns its value.

Otherwise, it evaluates the second expression and returns its value. The unused expression is not evaluated.

For an example that uses the ternary conditional operator, see

Ternary Conditional Operator

(page 65).

Grammar of a conditional operatorconditional-operator?expression:

Type-Casting Operators

There are two type-casting operators, the as operator and the is operator. They have the following form:

expression

type expression

? type

expression

type

The as operator performs a cast of the

expression

to the specified

type

. It behaves as follows:

●

If conversion to the specified

type

is guaranteed to succeed, the value of the

expression

is returned as an instance of the specified

type

. An example is casting from a subclass to a superclass.

If conversion to the specified

type

is guaranteed to fail, a compile-time error is raised.

●

Otherwise, if it’s not known at compile time whether the conversion will succeed, the type of the cast expresion is an optional of the specified

type

. At runtime, if the cast succeeds, the value of

expression

is wrapped in an optional and returned; otherwise, the value returned is nil . An example is casting from a superclass to a subclass.

class

SomeSuperType {} class

SomeType: SomeSuperType {} class

SomeChildType: SomeType {} let s = SomeType() let x = s as

SomeSuperType // known to succeed; type is SomeSuperType

367

Expressions

Primary Expressions let y = s as

Int // known to fail; compile-time error let z = s as

SomeChildType // might fail at runtime; type is SomeChildType?

Specifying a type with as provides the same information to the compiler as a type annotation, as shown in the following example: let y1 = x as

SomeType // Type information from 'as' let y2: SomeType = x // Type information from an annotation

The is operator checks at runtime to see whether the

expression

is of the specified

type

. If so, it returns true ; otherwise, it returns false .

The check must not be known to be true or false at compile time. The following are invalid:

"hello" is

String

"hello" is

Int

For more information about type casting and to see more examples that use the type-casting operators, see

Type Casting

(page 267).

Grammar of a type-casting operatortype-casting-operatoristypeas?type

Primary Expressions

Primary expressions

are the most basic kind of expression. They can be used as expressions on their own, and they can be combined with other tokens to make prefix expressions, binary expressions, and postfix expressions.

Grammar of a primary expressionprimary-expressionidentifiergeneric-argument-clauseprimary-expressionliteral-expressionprimary-expressionself-expressionprimary-expressionsuperclass-expressionprimary-expressionclosure-expressionprimary-expressionparenthesized-expressionprimary-expressionimplicit-member-expressionprimary-expressionwildcard-expression

Literal Expression

literal expression

consists of either an ordinary literal (such as a string or a number), an array or dictionary literal, or one of the following special literals:

Literal

__FILE__

Type

String

Value

The name of the file in which it appears.

368

Expressions

Primary Expressions

Literal

__LINE__

__COLUMN__

__FUNCTION__

Type

Int

String

Value

The line number on which it appears.

The column number in which it begins.

The name of the declaration in which it appears.

Inside a function, the value of __FUNCTION__ is the name of that function, inside a method it is the name of that method, inside a property getter or setter it is the name of that property, inside special members like init or subscript it is the name of that keyword, and at the top level of a file it is the name of the current module.

array literal

is an ordered collection of values. It has the following form:

[value 1 , value 2 , ... ]

The last expression in the array can be followed by an optional comma. An empty array literal is written as an empty pair of brackets ( [] ). The value of an array literal has type T[] , where T is the type of the expressions inside it. If there are expressions of multiple types, T is their closest common supertype.

dictionary literal

is an unordered collection of key-value pairs. It has the following form:

[key 1 : value 1 , key 2 : value 2 , ... ]

The last expression in the dictionary can be followed by an optional comma. An empty dictionary literal is written as a colon inside a pair of brackets (

[:]

) to distinguish it from an empty array literal. The value of a dictionary literal has type Dictionary<KeyType, ValueType> , where KeyType is the type of its key expressions and ValueType is the type of its value expressions. If there are expressions of multiple types,

KeyType and

ValueType are the closest common supertype for their respective values.

Grammar of a literal

Self Expression

The self expression is an explicit reference to the current type or instance of the type in which it occurs. It has the following forms: self self

.member name

369

Expressions

Primary Expressions self

[subscript index ] self

(initializer arguments ) self

init

(initializer arguments )

In an initializer, subscript, or instance method, self refers to the current instance of the type in which it occurs.

In a static or class method, self refers to the current type in which it occurs.

The self expression is used to specify scope when accessing members, providing disambiguation when there is another variable of the same name in scope, such as a function parameter. For example: class

SomeClass { var greeting: String init

(greeting: String) { self

.greeting = greeting

}

In a mutating method of value type, you can assign a new instance of that value type to self . For example: struct

Point { var x = 0.0, y = 0.0

mutating func moveByX(deltaX: Double, y deltaY: Double) { self

= Point(x: x + deltaX, y: y + deltaY)

}

Grammar of a self expressionself-expressionselfself-expressionself.identifierself-expressionself[expression]self-expressionself.init

Superclass Expression

superclass expression

lets a class interact with its superclass. It has one of the following forms: super

.member name super

[subscript index ]

370

Expressions

Primary Expressions super

init

(initializer arguments )

The first form is used to access a member of the superclass. The second form is used to access the superclass’s subscript implementation. The third form is used to access an initializer of the superclass.

Subclasses can use a superclass expression in their implementation of members, subscripting, and initializers to make use of the implementation in their superclass.

Grammar of a superclass expressionsuperclass-expressionsuperclass-method-expressionsuperclass-subscript-expressionsuperclass-initializer-expressionsuperclass-method-expressionsuper.identifiersuperclass-subscript-expressionsuper[expression]superclass-initializer-expressionsuper.init

Closure Expression

closure expression

creates a closure, also known as a

lambda

or an

anonymous function

in other programming languages. Like function declarations, closures contain statements which they execute, and they capture values from their enclosing scope. It has the following form:

{ (parameters ) -> return type in

statements

}

The

parameters

have the same form as the parameters in a function declaration, as described in

Function

Declaration

(page 396).

There are several special forms that allow closures to be written more concisely:

●

A closure can omit the types of its parameters, its return type, or both. If you omit the parameter names and both types, omit the in keyword before the statements. If the omitted types can’t be inferred, a compile-time error is raised.

A closure may omit names for its parameters. Its parameters are then implicitly named

$ followed by their position: $0 , $1 , $2 , and so on.

●

A closure that consists of only a single expression is understood to return the value of that expression.

The contents of this expression is also considered when performing type inference on the surrounding expression.

The following closure expressions are equivalent: myFunction {

(x: Int, y: Int) -> Int in

371

Expressions

Primary Expressions

} return x + y myFunction {

(x, y) in return x + y

} myFunction { return

$0 + $1 } myFunction { $0 + $1 }

For information about passing a closure as an argument to a function, see

Function Call Expression

(page 374).

A closure expression can explicitly specify the values that it captures from the surrounding scope using a

capture list

. A capture list is written as a comma separated list surrounded by square brackets, before the list of parameters. If you use a capture list, you must also use the in keyword, even if you omit the parameter names, parameter types, and return type.

Each entry in the capture list can be marked as weak or unowned to capture a weak or unowned reference to the value.

myFunction { print( self

.title) } myFunction { [ weak self

] in print( self

!.title) }

// strong capture

// weak capture myFunction { [ unowned self

] in print( self

.title) } // unowned capture

You can also bind arbitrary expression to named values in the capture list. The expression is evaluated when the closure is formed, and captured with the specified strength. For example:

// Weak capture of "self.parent" as "parent" myFunction { [ weak parent = self

.parent] in print(parent!.title) }

For more information and examples of closure expressions, see

Closure Expressions

(page 138).

Grammar of a closure expressionclosure-expression{closure-signaturestatements}closure-signatureparameter-clausefunction-resultinclosure-signatureidentifier-listfunction-resultinclosure-signaturecapture-listparameter-clausefunction-resultinclosure-signaturecapture-listidentifier-listfunction-resultinclosure-signaturecapture-listincapture-list[capture-specifierexpression]capture-specifierweakunownedunowned(safe)unowned(unsafe)

372

Expressions

Primary Expressions

Implicit Member Expression

implicit member expression

is an abbreviated way to access a member of a type, such as an enumeration case or a class method, in a context where type inference can determine the implied type. It has the following form:

.member name

For example: var x = MyEnumeration.SomeValue

x = .AnotherValue

Grammar of a implicit member expressionimplicit-member-expression.identifier

Parenthesized Expression

parenthesized expression

consists of a comma-separated list of expressions surrounded by parentheses. Each expression can have an optional identifier before it, separated by a colon ( : ). It has the following form:

(identifier 1 : expression 1 , identifier 2 : expression 2 , ... )

Use parenthesized expressions to create tuples and to pass arguments to a function call. If there is only one value inside the parenthesized expression, the type of the parenthesized expression is the type of that value.

For example, the type of the parenthesized expression (1) is Int , not (Int) .

Grammar of a parenthesized expressionparenthesized-expression(expression-element-list)expression-element-listexpression-elementexpression-element,expression-element-listexpression-elementexpressionidentifier:expression

Wildcard Expression

wildcard expression

is used to explicitly ignore a value during an assignment. For example, in the following assignment 10 is assigned to x and 20 is ignored:

(x,

) = (10, 20)

// x is 10, 20 is ignored

Grammar of a wildcard expressionwildcard-expression_

373

Expressions

Postfix Expressions

Postfix expressions

are formed by applying a postfix operator or other postfix syntax to an expression.

Syntactically, every primary expression is also a postfix expression.

The Swift standard library provides the following postfix operators:

●

++ Increment

Decrement

For information about the behavior of these operators, see

Basic Operators

(page 58) and

Advanced

Operators

(page 327).

Grammar of a postfix

Function Call Expression

function call expression

consists of a function name followed by a comma-separated list of the function’s arguments in parentheses. Function call expressions have the following form:

function name (argument value 1 , argument value 2 )

The

function name

can be any expression whose value is of a function type.

If the function definition includes names for its parameters, the function call must include names before its argument values separated by a colon (

). This kind of function call expression has the following form:

function name (argument name 1 : argument value 1 , argument name 2 : argument value

2 )

A function call expression can include a trailing closure in the form of a closure expression immediately after the closing parenthesis. The trailing closure is understood as an argument to the function, added after the last parenthesized argument. The following function calls are equivalent:

// someFunction takes an integer and a closure as its arguments someFunction(x, {$0 == 13}) someFunction(x) {$0 == 13}

If the trailing closure is the function’s only argument, the parentheses can be omitted.

374

Expressions

Postfix Expressions

// someFunction takes a closure as its only argument myData.someMethod() {$0 == 13} myData.someMethod {$0 == 13}

Grammar of a function call expressionfunction-call-expressionpostfix-expressionparenthesized-expressionfunction-call-expressionpostfix-expressionparenthesized-expressiontrailing-closuretrailing-closureclosure-expression

Initializer Expression

initializer expression

provides access to a type’s initializer. It has the following form:

expression .

init

(initializer arguments )

You use the initializer expression in a function call expression to initialize a new instance of a type. Unlike functions, an initializer can’t be used as a value. For example: var x = SomeClass.someClassFunction // ok var y = SomeClass.

init

// error

You also use an initializer expression to delegate to the initializer of a superclass.

class

SomeSubClass: SomeSuperClass { init

() {

// subclass initialization goes here super

init

()

}

Grammar of an initializer expressioninitializer-expressionpostfix-expression.init

Explicit Member Expression

explicit member expression

allows access to the members of a named type, a tuple, or a module. It consists of a period ( .

) between the item and the identifier of its member.

expression .member name

375

Expressions

Postfix Expressions

The members of a named type are named as part of the type’s declaration or extension. For example: class

SomeClass { var someProperty = 42

} let c = SomeClass() let y = c.someProperty

// Member access

The members of a tuple are implicitly named using integers in the order they appear, starting from zero. For example: var t = (10, 20, 30) t.0 = t.1

// Now t is (20, 20, 30)

The members of a module access the top-level declarations of that module.

Grammar of an explicit member expressionexplicit-member-expressionpostfix-expression.decimal-digitexplicit-member-expressionpostfix-expression.identifiergeneric-argument-clause

Postfix Self Expression

A postfix self expression consists of an expression or the name of a type, immediately followed by .self

. It has the following forms:

expression .

self

type .

self

The first form evaluates to the value of the

expression

. For example, x.self

evaluates to x .

The second form evaluates to the value of the

type

. Use this form to access a type as a value. For example, because

SomeClass.self

evaluates to the

SomeClass type itself, you can pass it to a function or method that accepts a type-level argument.

Grammar of a self expressionpostfix-self-expressionpostfix-expression.self

376

Expressions

Postfix Expressions

Dynamic Type Expression

A dynamicType expression consists of an expression, immediately followed by .dynamicType

. It has the following form:

expression .

dynamicType

The

expression

can’t be the name of a type. The entire dynamicType expression evaluates to the value of the runtime type of the

expression

, as the following example shows: class

SomeBaseClass { class func printClassName() { println("SomeBaseClass")

}

} class

SomeSubClass: SomeBaseClass { override class func printClassName() { println("SomeSubClass")

}

} let someInstance: SomeBaseClass = SomeSubClass()

// someInstance is of type SomeBaseClass at compile time, but

// someInstance is of type SomeSubClass at runtime someInstance.

dynamicType

.printClassName()

// prints "SomeSubClass"

Grammar of a dynamic type expressiondynamic-type-expressionpostfix-expression.dynamicType

Subscript Expression

subscript expression

provides subscript access using the getter and setter of the corresponding subscript declaration. It has the following form:

expression [index expressions ]

377

Expressions

Postfix Expressions

To evaluate the value of a subscript expression, the subscript getter for the

expression

’s type is called with the

index expressions

passed as the subscript parameters. To set its value, the subscript setter is called in the same way.

For information about subscript declarations, see

Protocol Subscript Declaration

(page 406).

Grammar of a subscript expressionsubscript-expressionpostfix-expression[expression-list]

Forced-Value Expression

forced-value expression

unwraps an optional value that you are certain is not nil . It has the following form:

expression !

If the value of the

expression

is not nil , the optional value is unwrapped and returned with the corresponding nonoptional type. Otherwise, a runtime error is raised.

Grammar of a forced-value expressionforced-value-expressionpostfix-expression!

Optional-Chaining Expression

optional-chaining expression

provides a simplified syntax for using optional values in postfix expressions.

It has the following form:

expression ?

On its own, the postfix ?

operator simply returns the value of its argument as an optional.

Postfix expressions that contain an optional-chaining expression are evaluated in a special way. If the optional-chaining expression is nil , all of the other operations in the postfix expression are ignored and the entire postfix expression evaluates to nil . If the optional-chaining expression is not nil , the value of the optional-chaining expression is unwrapped and used to evaluate the rest of the postfix expression. In either case, the value of the postfix expression is still of an optional type.

If a postfix expression that contains an optional-chaining expression is nested inside other postfix expressions, only the outermost expression returns an optional type. In the example below, when c is not nil , its value is unwrapped and used to evaluate both .property

and .performAction() , and the entire expression c?.property.performAction() has a value of an optional type.

var c: SomeClass?

378

Expressions

Postfix Expressions var result: Bool? = c?.property.performAction()

The following example shows the behavior of the example above without using optional chaining.

if let unwrappedC = c { result = unwrappedC.property.performAction()

}

Grammar of an optional-chaining expressionoptional-chaining-expressionpostfix-expression?

379

Statements

In Swift, there are two kinds of statements: simple statements and control flow statements. Simple statements are the most common and consist of either an expression or a declaration. Control flow statements are used to control the flow of execution in a program. There are three types of control flow statements in Swift: loop statements, branch statements, and control transfer statements.

Loop statements allow a block of code to be executed repeatedly, branch statements allow a certain block of code to be executed only when certain conditions are met, and control transfer statements provide a way to alter the order in which code is executed. Each type of control flow statement is described in detail below.

A semicolon ( ; ) can optionally appear after any statement and is used to separate multiple statements if they appear on the same line.

Loop Statements

Loop statements allow a block of code to be executed repeatedly, depending on the conditions specified in the loop. Swift has four loop statements: a for statement, a for in statement, a while statement, and a do while statement.

Control flow in a loop statement can be changed by a break statement and a continue statement and is discussed in

Break Statement

(page 387) and

Continue Statement

(page 387) below.

Grammar of a loop statementloop-statementfor-statementloop-statementfor-in-statementloop-statementwhile-statementloop-statementdo-while-statement

For Statement

A for statement allows a block of code to be executed repeatedly while incrementing a counter, as long as a condition remains true.

A for statement has the following form: for

initialization ; condition ; increment {

380

Statements

Loop Statements

}

statements

The semicolons between the

initialization

condition

, and

increment

are required. The braces around the

statements

in the body of the loop are also required.

A for statement is executed as follows:

The

initialization

is evaluated only once. It is typically used to declare and initialize any variables that are needed for the remainder of the loop.

The

condition

expression is evaluated.

If true , the program executes the

statements

, and execution continues to step 3. If false , the program does not execute the

statements

or the

increment

expression, and the program is finished executing the for statement.

The

increment

expression is evaluated, and execution returns to step 2.

Variables defined within the

initialization

are valid only within the scope of the for statement itself.

The value of the

condition

expression must have a type that conforms to the LogicValue protocol.

Grammar of a for statementfor-statementforfor-init;expression;expressioncode-blockfor-statementfor(for-init;expression;expression)code-blockfor-initvariable-declarationexpression-list

For-In Statement

A for in statement allows a block of code to be executed once for each item in a collection (or any type) that conforms to the

Sequence protocol.

A for in statement has the following form: for

item

collection {

statements

}

The generate method is called on the

collection

expression to obtain a value of a generator type—that is, a type that conforms to the Generator protocol. The program begins executing a loop by calling the next method on the stream. If the value returned is not

None

, it is assigned to the

item

pattern, the program executes the

statements

, and then continues execution at the beginning of the loop. Otherwise, the program does not perform assignment or execute the

statements

, and it is finished executing the for in statement.

381

Statements

Loop Statements

Grammar of a for-in statementfor-in-statementforpatterninexpressioncode-block

While Statement

A while statement allows a block of code to be executed repeatedly, as long as a condition remains true.

A while statement has the following form: while

condition {

statements

}

A while statement is executed as follows:

The

condition

is evaluated.

If true

, execution continues to step 2. If false

, the program is finished executing the while statement.

The program executes the

statements

, and execution returns to step 1.

Because the value of the

condition

is evaluated before the

statements

are executed, the

statements

in a while statement can be executed zero or more times.

The value of the

condition

must have a type that conforms to the

LogicValue protocol. The condition can also be an optional binding declaration, as discussed in

Optional Binding

(page 53).

Grammar of a while statementwhile-statementwhilewhile-conditioncode-blockwhile-conditionexpressiondeclaration

Do-While Statement

A do while statement allows a block of code to be executed one or more times, as long as a condition remains true.

A do while statement has the following form: do

{

statements

} while

condition

A do while statement is executed as follows:

The program executes the

statements

, and execution continues to step 2.

382

Statements

Branch Statements

The

condition

is evaluated.

If true , execution returns to step 1. If false , the program is finished executing the do while statement.

Because the value of the

condition

is evaluated after the

statements

are executed, the

statements

in a do while statement are executed at least once.

The value of the

condition

must have a type that conforms to the LogicValue protocol. The condition can also be an optional binding declaration, as discussed in

Optional Binding

(page 53).

Grammar of a do-while statementdo-while-statementdocode-blockwhilewhile-condition

Branch Statements

Branch statements allow the program to execute certain parts of code depending on the value of one or more conditions. The values of the conditions specified in a branch statement control how the program branches and, therefore, what block of code is executed. Swift has two branch statements: an if statement and a switch statement.

Control flow in a switch statement can be changed by a break statement and is discussed in

Break

Statement

(page 387) below.

Grammar of a branch statementbranch-statementif-statementbranch-statementswitch-statement

If Statement

An if statement is used for executing code based on the evaluation of one or more conditions.

There are two basic forms of an if statement. In each form, the opening and closing braces are required.

The first form allows code to be executed only when a condition is true and has the following form: if

condition {

statements

}

The second form of an if statement provides an additional

else clause

(introduced by the else keyword) and is used for executing one part of code when the condition is true and another part code when the same condition is false. When a single else clause is present, an if statement has the following form: if

condition {

383

Statements

Branch Statements

statements to execute if condition is true

} else

{

statements to execute if condition is false

}

The else clause of an if statement can contain another if statement to test more than one condition. An if statement chained together in this way has the following form: if

condition 1 {

statements to execute if condition 1 is true

} else if

condition 2 {

statements to execute if condition 2 is true

} else

{

statements to execute if both conditions are false

}

The value of any condition in an if statement must have a type that conforms to the LogicValue protocol.

The condition can also be an optional binding declaration, as discussed in

Optional Binding

(page 53).

Grammar of an if statementif-statementifif-conditioncode-blockelse-clauseif-conditionexpressiondeclarationelse-clauseelsecode-blockelseif-statement

Switch Statement

A switch statement allows certain blocks of code to be executed depending on the value of a control expression.

A switch statement has the following form: switch

control expression { case

pattern 1 :

statements

case

pattern 2

where

condition :

statements

384

Statements

Branch Statements case

pattern 3

where

condition ,

pattern 4

where

condition :

statements

default

statements

}

The

control expression

of the switch statement is evaluated and then compared with the patterns specified in each case. If a match is found, the program executes the

statements

listed within the scope of that case.

The scope of each case can’t be empty. As a result, you must include at least one statement following the colon

( : ) of each case label. Use a single break statement if you don’t intend to execute any code in the body of a matched case.

The values of expressions your code can branch on is very flexible. For instance, in addition to the values of scalar types, such as integers and characters, your code can branch on the values of any type, including floating-point numbers, strings, tuples, instances of custom classes, and optionals. The value of the

control expression

can even be matched to the value of a case in an enumeration and checked for inclusion in a specified range of values. For examples of how to use these various types of values in switch statements, see

Switch

(page 105) in the

Control Flow

(page 95) chapter.

A switch case can optionally contain a guard expression after each pattern. A

guard expression

is introduced by the keyword where followed by an expression, and is used to provide an additional condition before a pattern in a case is considered matched to the

control expression

. If a guard expression is present, the

statements

within the relevant case are executed only if the value of the

control expression

matches one of the patterns of the case and the guard expression evaluates to true . For instance, a

control expression

matches the case in the example below only if it is a tuple that contains two elements of the same value, such as

(1, 1)

case let

(x, y) where x == y:

As the above example shows, patterns in a case can also bind constants using the keyword let (they can also bind variables using the keyword var ). These constants (or variables) can then be referenced in a corresponding guard expression and throughout the rest of the code within the scope of the case. That said, if the case contains multiple patterns that match the control expression, none of those patterns can contain constant or variable bindings.

A switch statement can also include a default case, introduced by the keyword default . The code within a default case is executed only if no other cases match the control expression. A switch statement can include only one default case, which must appear at the end of the switch statement.

385

Statements

Labeled Statement

Although the actual execution order of pattern-matching operations, and in particular the evaluation order of patterns in cases, is unspecified, pattern matching in a switch statement behaves as if the evaluation is performed in source order—that is, the order in which they appear in source code. As a result, if multiple cases contain patterns that evaluate to the same value, and thus can match the value of the control expression, the program executes only the code within the first matching case in source order.

Switch Statements Must Be Exhaustive

In Swift, every possible value of the control expression’s type must match the value of at least one pattern of a case. When this simply isn’t feasible (for instance, when the control expression’s type is

Int

), you can include a default case to satisfy the requirement.

Execution Does Not Fall Through Cases Implicitly

After the code within a matched case has finished executing, the program exits from the switch statement.

Program execution does not continue or “fall through” to the next case or default case. That said, if you want execution to continue from one case to the next, explicitly include a fallthrough statement, which simply consists of the keyword fallthrough

, in the case from which you want execution to continue. For more information about the fallthrough statement, see

Fallthrough Statement

(page 388) below.

Grammar of a switch statementswitch-statementswitchexpression{switch-cases}switch-casesswitch-caseswitch-casesswitch-casecase-labelstatementsdefault-labelstatementsswitch-casecase-label;default-label;case-labelcasecase-item-list:case-item-listpatternguard-clausepatternguard-clause,case-item-listdefault-labeldefault:guard-clausewhereguard-expressionguard-expressionexpression

Labeled Statement

You can prefix a loop statement or a switch statement with a

statement label

, which consists of the name of the label followed immediately by a colon (:). Use statement labels with break and continue statements to be explicit about how you want to change control flow in a loop statement or a switch statement, as discussed in

Break Statement

(page 387) and

Continue Statement

(page 387) below.

The scope of a labeled statement is the entire statement following the statement label. You can nest labeled statements, but the name of each statement label must be unique.

For more information and to see examples of how to use statement labels, see

Labeled Statements

(page 116)

in the

Control Flow

(page 95) chapter.

Grammar of a labeled statementlabeled-statementstatement-labelloop-statementstatement-labelswitch-statementstatement-labellabel-name:label-nameidentifier

386

Statements

Control Transfer Statements

Control transfer statements can change the order in which code in your program is executed by unconditionally transferring program control from one piece of code to another. Swift has four control transfer statements: a break statement, a continue statement, a fallthrough statement, and a return statement.

Grammar of a control transfer statementcontrol-transfer-statementbreak-statementcontrol-transfer-statementcontinue-statementcontrol-transfer-statementfallthrough-statementcontrol-transfer-statementreturn-statement

Break Statement

A break statement ends program execution of a loop or a switch statement. A break statement can consist of only the keyword break , or it can consist of the keyword break followed by the name of a statement label, as shown below.

break break

label name

When a break statement is followed by the name of a statement label, it ends program execution of the loop or switch statement named by that label.

When a break statement is not followed by the name of a statement label, it ends program execution of the switch statement or the innermost enclosing loop statement in which it occurs.

In both cases, program control is then transferred to the first line of code following the enclosing loop or switch statement, if any.

For examples of how to use a break statement, see

Break

(page 113) and

Labeled Statements

(page 116) in the

Control Flow

(page 95) chapter.

Grammar of a break statementbreak-statementbreaklabel-name

Continue Statement

A continue statement ends program execution of the current iteration of a loop statement but does not stop execution of the loop statement. A continue statement can consist of only the keyword continue , or it can consist of the keyword continue followed by the name of a statement label, as shown below.

continue continue

label name

387

Statements

Control Transfer Statements

When a continue statement is followed by the name of a statement label, it ends program execution of the current iteration of the loop statement named by that label.

When a continue statement is not followed by the name of a statement label, it ends program execution of the current iteration of the innermost enclosing loop statement in which it occurs.

In both cases, program control is then transferred to the condition of the enclosing loop statement.

In a for statement, the increment expression is still evaluated after the continue statement is executed, because the increment expression is evaluated after the execution of the loop’s body.

For examples of how to use a continue statement, see

Continue

(page 113) and

Labeled Statements

(page

116) in the

Control Flow

(page 95) chapter.

Grammar of a continue statementcontinue-statementcontinuelabel-name

Fallthrough Statement

A fallthrough statement consists of the fallthrough keyword and occurs only in a case block of a switch statement. A fallthrough statement causes program execution to continue from one case in a switch statement to the next case. Program execution continues to the next case even if the patterns of the case label do not match the value of the switch statement’s control expression.

A fallthrough statement can appear anywhere inside a switch statement, not just as the last statement of a case block, but it can’t be used in the final case block. It also cannot transfer control into a case block whose pattern contains value binding patterns.

For an example of how to use a fallthrough statement in a switch statement, see

Control Transfer

Statements

(page 112) in the

Control Flow

(page 95) chapter.

Grammar of a fallthrough statementfallthrough-statementfallthrough

Return Statement

A return statement occurs only in the body of a function or method definition and causes program execution to return to the calling function or method. Program execution continues at the point immediately following the function or method call.

A return statement can consist of only the keyword return

, or it can consist of the keyword return followed by an expression, as shown below.

return return

expression

388

Statements

Control Transfer Statements

When a return statement is followed by an expression, the value of the expression is returned to the calling function or method. If the value of the expression does not match the value of the return type declared in the function or method declaration, the expression’s value is converted to the return type before it is returned to the calling function or method.

When a return statement is not followed by an expression, it can be used only to return from a function or method that does not return a value (that is, when the return type of the function or method is Void or () ).

Grammar of a return statementreturn-statementreturnexpression

389

Declarations

declaration

introduces a new name or construct into your program. For example, you use declarations to introduce functions and methods, variables and constants, and to define new, named enumeration, structure, class, and protocol types. You can also use a declaration to extend the the behavior of an existing named type and to import symbols into your program that are declared elsewhere.

In Swift, most declarations are also definitions in the sense that they are implemented or initialized at the same time they are declared. That said, because protocols don’t implement their members, most protocol members are declarations only. For convenience and because the distinction isn’t that important in Swift, the term

declaration

covers both declarations and definitions.

Grammar of a decl ondecl mport-decl ondecl onvari ondecl ontypeal ondecl on-decl ondecl ondecl onstruct-decl arati ass-decl onprotocol arati ni ondecl al arati on-decl ondecl onsubscri arati onoperator-decl ondecl ondecl onsdecl arati fi arati arati ngoverri cunownedunowned(safe)unowned(unsafe)weak

Module Scope

The module scope defines the code that’s visible to other code in Swift source files that are part of the same module. The top-level code in a Swift source file consists of zero or more statements, declarations, and expressions. Variables, constants, and other named declarations that are declared at the top-level of a source file are visible to code in every source file that is part of the same module.

Grammar of a top-level declarationtop-level-declarationstatements

Code Blocks

code block

is used by a variety of declarations and control structures to group statements together. It has the following form:

{

statements

}

The

statements

inside a code block include declarations, expressions, and other kinds of statements and are executed in order of their appearance in source code.

390

Declarations

Import Declaration

Grammar of a code blockcode-block{statements}

Import Declaration

import declaration

lets you access symbols that are declared outside the current file. The basic form imports the entire module; it consists of the import keyword followed by a module name: import

module

Providing more detail limits which symbols are imported—you can specify a specific submodule or a specific declaration within a module or submodule. When this detailed form is used, only the imported symbol (and not the module that declares it) is made available in the current scope.

import

import kind module .symbol name import

module .submodule

Grammar of an import declarationimport-declarationattributesimportimport-kindimport-pathimport-kindtypealiasstructclassenumprotocolvarfuncimport-pathimport-path-identifierimport-path-identifier.import-pathimport-path-identifieridentifieroperator

Constant Declaration

constant declaration

introduces a constant named value into your program. Constant declarations are declared using the keyword let and have the following form: let

constant name : type = expression

A constant declaration defines an immutable binding between the

constant name

and the value of the initializer

expression

; after the value of a constant is set, it cannot be changed. That said, if a constant is initialized with a class object, the object itself can change, but the binding between the constant name and the object it refers to can’t.

When a constant is declared at global scope, it must be initialized with a value. When a constant declaration occurs in the context of a class or structure declaration, it is considered a

constant property

. Constant declarations are not computed properties and therefore do not have getters or setters.

If the

constant name

of a constant declaration is a tuple pattern, the name of each item in the tuple is bound to the corresponding value in the initializer

expression

391

Declarations

Variable Declaration let

(firstNumber, secondNumber) = (10, 42)

In this example, firstNumber is a named constant for the value

, and secondNumber is a named constant for the value 42 . Both constants can now be used independently: println("The first number is \(firstNumber).")

// prints "The first number is 10." println("The second number is \(secondNumber).")

// prints "The second number is 42."

The type annotation ( :

type

) is optional in a constant declaration when the type of the

constant name

can be inferred, as described in

Type Inference

(page 361).

To declare a static constant property, mark the declaration with the static keyword. Static properties are discussed in

Type Properties

(page 179).

For more information about constants and for guidance about when to use them, see

Constants and

Variables

(page 37) and

Stored Properties

(page 170).

Grammar of a constant declarationconstant-declarationattributesdeclaration-specifiersletpattern-initializer-listpattern-initializer-listpattern-initializerpattern-initializer,pattern-initializer-listpattern-initializerpatterninitializerinitializer=expression

Variable Declaration

variable declaration

introduces a variable named value into your program and is declared using the keyword var .

Variable declarations have several forms that declare different kinds of named, mutable values, including stored and computed variables and properties, stored variable and property observers, and static variable properties.

The appropriate form to use depends on the scope at which the variable is declared and the kind of variable you intend to declare.

Note:

You can also declare properties in the context of a protocol declaration, as described in

Protocol Property Declaration

(page 405)

You can override a property in a subclass by prefixing the subclass’s property declaration with the override keyword, as described in

Overriding

(page 203).

392

Declarations

Variable Declaration

Stored Variables and Stored Variable Properties

The following form declares a stored variable or stored variable property: var

variable name : type = expression

You define this form of a variable declaration at global scope, the local scope of a function, or in the context of a class or structure declaration. When a variable declaration of this form is declared at global scope or the local scope of a function, it is referred to as a

stored variable

. When it is declared in the context of a class or structure declaration, it is referred to as a

stored variable property

The initializer

expression

can’t be present in a protocol declaration, but in all other contexts, the initializer

expression

is optional. That said, if no initializer

expression

is present, the variable declaration must include an explicit type annotation ( :

type

As with constant declarations, if the

variable name

is a tuple pattern, the name of each item in the tuple is bound to the corresponding value in the initializer

expression

As their names suggest, the value of a stored variable or a stored variable property is stored in memory.

Computed Variables and Computed Properties

The following form declares a computed variable or computed property:

}

} var

variable name : type { get

{

statements

} set

(setter name ) {

statements

You define this form of a variable declaration at global scope, the local scope of a function, or in the context of a class, structure, enumeration, or extension declaration. When a variable declaration of this form is declared at global scope or the local scope of a function, it is referred to as a

computed variable

. When it is declared in the context of a class, structure, or extension declaration, it is referred to as a

computed property

393

Declarations

Variable Declaration

The getter is used to read the value, and the setter is used to write the value. The setter clause is optional, and when only a getter is needed, you can omit both clauses and simply return the requested value directly, as described in

Read-Only Computed Properties

(page 176). But if you provide a setter clause, you must also

provide a getter clause.

The

setter name

and enclosing parentheses is optional. If you provide a setter name, it is used as the name of the parameter to the setter. If you do not provide a setter name, the default parameter name to the setter is newValue , as described in

Shorthand Setter Declaration

(page 175).

Unlike stored named values and stored variable properties, the value of a computed named value or a computed property is not stored in memory.

For more information and to see examples of computed properties, see

Computed Properties

(page 173).

Stored Variable Observers and Property Observers

You can also declare a stored variable or property with willSet and didSet observers. A stored variable or property declared with observers has the following form: var

variable name : type = expression { willSet

(setter name ) {

}

statements

} didSet

(setter name {

statements

stored variable observers

. When it is declared in the context of a class or structure declaration, the observers are referred to as

property observers

You can add property observers to any stored property. You can also add property observers to any inherited property (whether stored or computed) by overriding the property within a subclass, as described in

Overriding

Property Observers

(page 207).

394

Declarations

Type Alias Declaration

The initializer

expression

is optional in the context of a class or structure declaration, but required elsewhere.

The type annotation is required in all variable declarations that include observers, regardless of the context in which they are declared.

The willSet and didSet observers provide a way to observe (and to respond appropriately) when the value of a variable or property is being set. The observers are not called when the variable or property is first initialized.

Instead, they are called only when the value is set outside of an initialization context.

A willSet observer is called just before the value of the variable or property is set. The new value is passed to the willSet observer as a constant, and therefore it can’t be changed in the implementation of the willSet clause. The didSet observer is called immediately after the new value is set. In contrast to the willSet observer, the old value of the variable or property is passed to the didSet observer in case you still need access to it. That said, if you assign a value to a variable or property within its own didSet observer clause, that new value that you assign will replace the one that was just set and passed to the willSet observer.

The

setter name

and enclosing parentheses in the willSet and didSet clauses are optional. If you provide setter names, they are used as the parameter names to the willSet and didSet observers. If you do not provide setter names, the default parameter name to the willSet observer is newValue and the default parameter name to the didSet observer is oldValue

The didSet clause is optional when you provide a willSet clause. Likewise, the willSet clause is optional when you provide a didSet clause.

For more information and to see an example of how to use property observers, see

Property Observers

(page

177).

Class and Static Variable Properties

To declare a class computed property, mark the declaration with the class keyword. To declare a static variable property, mark the declaration with the static keyword. Class and static properties are discussed in

Type

Properties

(page 179).

Grammar of a variable arati abl arati abl arati stvari arati abl arati oncode-bl abl arati abl e-nametype-annotati erabl arati abl e-nametype-annotati erabl arati abl e-nametype-annotati bl abl on-headatt arati ergett erercl ererbutesgetcode-bl erri namecode-bl erer) ergett erkeyword-bl sett keyword-cl gett ri keyword-cl ri ll bl cl dSetwi di cl cl ri namecode-bl butesdi er-

Type Alias Declaration

type alias declaration

introduces a named alias of an existing type into your program. Type alias declarations begin with the keyword typealias and have the following form: typealias

name = existing type

395

Declarations

Function Declaration

After a type alias is declared, the aliased

name

can be used instead of the

existing type

everywhere in your program. The

existing type

can be a named type or a compound type. Type aliases do not create new types; they simply allow a name to refer to an existing type.

See also

Protocol Associated Type Declaration

(page 407).

Grammar of a type alias declarationtypealias-declarationtypealias-headtypealias-assignmenttypealias-headtypealiastypealias-nametypealias-nameidentifiertypealias-assignment=type

Function Declaration

A :newTerm`function declaration` introduces a function or method into your program. A function declared in the context of class, structure, enumeration, or protocol is referred to as a

method

. Function declarations are declared using the keyword func and have the following form: func

function name (parameters ) -> return type {

statements

}

If the function has a return type of Void , the return type can be omitted as follows: func

function name (parameters ) {

statements

}

The type of each parameter must be included—it can’t be inferred. By default, the parameters to a function are constants. Write var in front of a parameter’s name to make it a variable, scoping any changes made to the variable just to the function body, or write inout to make those changes also apply to the argument that was passed in the caller’s scope. For a discussion of in-out parameters, see

In-Out Parameters

(page 130).

Functions can return multiple values using a tuple type as the return type of the function.

A function definition can appear inside another function declaration. This kind of function is known as a

nested function

. For a discussion of nested functions, see

Nested Functions

(page 135).

396

Declarations

Function Declaration

Parameter Names

Function parameters are a comma separated list where each parameter has one of several forms. The order of arguments in a function call must match the order of parameters in the function’s declaration. The simplest entry in a parameter list has the following form:

parameter name : parameter type

For function parameters, the parameter name is used within the function body, but is not used when calling the function. For method parameters, the parameter name is used as within the function body, and is also used as a label for the argument when calling the method. The name of a method’s first parameter is used only within the function body, like the parameter of a function. For example: func f(x: Int, y: String) -> String { return y + String(x)

} f(7, "hello") // x and y have no name class

C { func f(x: Int, y: String) -> String { return y + String(x)

}

} let c = C() c.f(7, y: "hello") // x has no name, y has a name

You can override the default behavior for how parameter names are used with one of the following forms:

external parameter name local parameter name : parameter type

#parameter name : parameter type

local parameter name : parameter type

A second name before the local parameter name gives the parameter an external name, which can be different than the local parameter name. The external parameter name must be used when the function is called. The corresponding argument must have the external name in function or method calls.

397

Declarations

Function Declaration

A hash symbol ( # ) before a parameter name indicates that the name should be used as both an external and a local parameter name. It has the same meaning as writing the local parameter name twice. The corresponding argument must have this name in function or method calls.

An underscore (

) before a local parameter name gives that parameter no name to be used in function calls.

The corresponding argument must have no name in function or method calls.

Special Kinds of Parameters

Parameters can be ignored, take a variable number of values, and provide default values using the following forms:

: <#parameter type#.

parameter name : parameter type ...

parameter name : parameter type = default argument value

A parameter named with an underscore ( _ ) is explicitly ignored an can’t be accessed within the body of the function.

A parameter with a base type name followed immediately by three dots (

...

) is understood as a variadic parameter. A function can have at most one variadic parameter, which must be its last parameter. A variadic parameter is treated as an array that contains elements of the base type name. For instance, the variadic parameter Int...

is treated as Int[] . For an example that uses a variadic parameter, see

Variadic

Parameters

(page 128).

A parameter with an equals sign ( = ) and an expression after its type is understood to have a default value of the given expression. If the parameter is omitted when calling the function, the default value is used instead.

If the parameter is not omitted, it must have its name in the function call. For example, f() and f(x: 7) are both valid calls to a function with a single default parameter named x , but f(7) is invalid because it provides a value without a name.

Special Kinds of Methods

Methods on an enumeration or a structure that modify self must be marked with the mutating keyword at the start of the function declaration.

Methods that override a superclass method must be marked with the override keyword at the start of the function declaration. It is an error to override a method without the override keyword or to use the override keyword on a method that doesn’t override a superclass method.

398

Declarations

Enumeration Declaration

Methods associated with a type rather than an instance of a type must be marked with the static attribute for enumerations and structures or the class attribute for classes.

Curried Functions and Methods

Curried functions and methods have the following form: func

function name (parameters )(parameters ) -> return type {

statements

}

A function declared this way is understood as a function whose return type is another function. For example, the following two declarations are equivalent: func addTwoNumbers(a: Int)(b: Int) -> Int { return a + b

} func addTwoNumbers(a: Int) -> (Int -> Int) { func addTheSecondNumber(b: Int) -> Int { return a + b

} return addTheSecondNumber

} addTwoNumbers(4)(5) // Returns 9

Multiple levels of currying are allowed.

Grammar of a function arati on-decl on-headfuncti c-parameteron-si on-headatt on-speci on-namei fi on-si cl on-r tfuncti esul cl )( stparameterparameter stparameteri namel -parameternamel -parameternamei fi namei fi

Enumeration Declaration

enumeration declaration

introduces a named enumeration type into your program.

399

Declarations

Enumeration Declaration

Enumeration declarations have two basic forms and are declared using the keyword enum . The body of an enumeration declared using either form contains zero or more values—called

enumeration cases

—and any number of declarations, including computed properties, instance methods, static methods, initializers, type aliases, and even other enumeration, structure, and class declarations. Enumeration declarations can’t contain destructor or protocol declarations.

Unlike classes and structures, enumeration types do not have an implicitly provided default initializer; all initializers must be declared explicitly. Initializers can delegate to other initializers in the enumeration, but the initialization process is complete only after an initializer assigns one of the enumeration cases to self

Like structures but unlike classes, enumerations are value types; instances of an enumeration are copied when assigned to variables or constants, or when passed as arguments to a function call. For information about value types, see

Structures and Enumerations Are Value Types

(page 159).

You can extend the behavior of an enumeration type with an extension declaration, as discussed in

Extension

Declaration

(page 409).

Enumerations with Cases of Any Type

The following form declares an enumeration type that contains enumeration cases of any type: enum

enumeration name { case

enumeration case 1

case

enumeration case 2 (associated value types )

}

Enumerations declared in this form are sometimes called

discriminated unions

in other programming languages.

In this form, each case block consists of the keyword case followed by one or more enumeration cases, separated by commas. The name of each case must be unique. Each case can also specify that it stores values of a given type. These types are specified in the

associated value types

tuple, immediately following the name of the case. For more information and to see examples of cases with associated value types, see

Associated

Values

(page 151).

Enumerations with Raw Cases Values

The following form declares an enumeration type that contains enumeration cases of the same basic type: enum

enumeration name : raw value type {

400

Declarations

Enumeration Declaration

} case

enumeration case 1 = raw value 1 case

enumeration case 2 = raw value 2

In this form, each case block consists of the keyword case , followed by one or more enumeration cases, separated by commas. Unlike the cases in the first form, each case has an underlying value, called a

raw value

, of the same basic type. The type of these values is specified in the

raw value type

and must represent a literal integer, floating-point number, character, or string.

Each case must have a unique name and be assigned a unique raw value. If the raw value type is specified as

Int and you don’t assign a value to the cases explicitly, they are implicitly assigned the values 0 , 1 , 2 , and so on. Each unassigned case of type

Int is implicitly assigned a raw value that is automatically incremented from the raw value of the previous case.

enum

ExampleEnum: Int { case

A, B, C = 5, D

}

In the above example, the value of ExampleEnum.A

is 0 and the value of ExampleEnum.B

is 1 . And because the value of ExampleEnum.C

is explicitly set to 5 , the value of ExampleEnum.D

is automatically incremented from 5 and is therefore 6 .

The raw value of an enumeration case can be accessed by calling its toRaw method, as in

ExampleEnum.B.toRaw() . You can also use a raw value to find a corresponding case, if there is one, by calling the fromRaw method, which returns an optional case. For more information and to see examples of cases with raw value types, see

Raw Values

(page 153).

Accessing Enumeration Cases

To reference the case of an enumeration type, use dot ( .

) syntax, as in EnumerationType.EnumerationCase

When the enumeration type can be inferred from context, you can omit it (the dot is still required), as described in

Enumeration Syntax

(page 148) and

Implicit Member Expression

(page 373).

To check the values of enumeration cases, use a switch statement, as shown in

Matching Enumeration Values with a Switch Statement

(page 150). The enumeration type is pattern-matched against the enumeration case patterns in the case blocks of the switch statement, as described in

Enumeration Case Pattern

(page 420).

Grammar of an enumeration ionenumtr ontr enumuni st namegener er yl st s} st member st uni st member ondecl oncaseoncasetr oncasest li casecaseuni case, st eyl li st namet eier val namegener ier if er s} st sr val member val sr val member ar val caseval auseat st val st caser enumval st li casenamer val val

401

Declarations

Structure Declaration

structure declaration

introduces a named structure type into your program. Structure declarations are declared using the keyword struct and have the following form: struct

structure name : adopted protocols {

declarations

}

The body of a structure contains zero or more

declarations

. These

declarations

can include both stored and computed properties, static properties, instance methods, static methods, initializers, type aliases, and even other structure, class, and enumeration declarations. Structure declarations can’t contain destructor or protocol declarations. For a discussion and several examples of structures that include various kinds of declarations, see

Classes and Structures

(page 156).

Structure types can adopt any number of protocols, but can’t inherit from classes, enumerations, or other structures.

There are three ways create an instance of a previously declared structure:

●

Call one of the initializers declared within the structure, as described in

Initializers

(page 209).

If no initializers are declared, call the structure’s memberwise initializer, as described in

Memberwise

Initializers for Structure Types

(page 215).

●

If no initializers are declared, and all properties of the structure declaration were given initial values, call the structure’s default initializer, as described in

Default Initializers

(page 214).

The process of initializing a structure’s declared properties is described in

Initialization

(page 209).

Properties of a structure instance can be accessed using dot ( .

) syntax, as described in

Accessing Properties

(page

158).

Structures are value types; instances of a structure are copied when assigned to variables or constants, or when passed as arguments to a function call. For information about value types, see

Structures and Enumerations

Are Value Types

(page 159).

You can extend the behavior of a structure type with an extension declaration, as discussed in

Extension

Declaration

(page 409).

Grammar of a structure declarationstruct-declarationattributesstructstruct-namegeneric-parameter-clausetype-inheritance-clausestruct-bodystruct-nameidentifierstruct-body{declarations}

402

Declarations

Class Declaration

class declaration

introduces a named class type into your program. Class declarations are declared using the keyword class and have the following form: class

class name : superclass , adopted protocols {

declarations

}

The body of a class contains zero or more

declarations

. These

declarations

can include both stored and computed properties, instance methods, class methods, initializers, a single destructor method, type aliases, and even other class, structure, and enumeration declarations. Class declarations can’t contain protocol declarations. For a discussion and several examples of classes that include various kinds of declarations, see

Classes and Structures

(page 156).

A class type can inherit from only one parent class, its

superclass

, but can adopt any number of protocols. The

superclass

appears first in the

type-inheritance-clause

, followed by any

adopted protocols

As discussed in

Initializer Declaration

(page 407), classes can have designated and convenience initializers.

When you declare either kind of initializer, you can require any subclass to override it by marking the initializer with the required attribute. The designated initializer of a class must initialize all of the class’s declared properties and it must do so before calling any of its superclass’s designated initializers.

A class can override properties, methods, and initializers of its superclass. Overridden methods and properties must be marked with the override keyword.

Although properties and methods declared in the

superclass

are inherited by the current class, designated initializers declared in the

superclass

are not. That said, if the current class overrides all of the superclass’s designated initializers, it inherits the superclass’s convenience initializers. Swift classes do not inherit from a universal base class.

There are two ways create an instance of a previously declared class:

●

Call one of the initializers declared within the class, as described in

Initializers

(page 209).

●

If no initializers are declared, and all properties of the class declaration were given initial values, call the class’s default initializer, as described in

Default Initializers

(page 214).

Access properties of a class instance with dot ( .

) syntax, as described in

Accessing Properties

(page 158).

Classes are reference types; instances of a class are referred to, rather than copied, when assigned to variables or constants, or when passed as arguments to a function call. For information about reference types, see

Structures and Enumerations Are Value Types

(page 159).

403

Declarations

Protocol Declaration

You can extend the behavior of a class type with an extension declaration, as discussed in

Extension

Declaration

(page 409).

Grammar of a class declarationclass-declarationattributesclassclass-namegeneric-parameter-clausetype-inheritance-clauseclass-bodyclass-nameidentifierclass-body{declarations}

Protocol Declaration

protocol declaration

introduces a named protocol type into your program. Protocol declarations are declared using the keyword protocol and have the following form: protocol

protocol name : inherited protocols {

protocol member declarations

}

The body of a protocol contains zero or more

protocol member declarations

, which describe the conformance requirements that any type adopting the protocol must fulfill. In particular, a protocol can declare that conforming types must implement certain properties, methods, initializers, and subscripts. Protocols can also declare special kinds of type aliases, called

associated types

, that can specify relationships among the various declarations of the protocol. The

protocol member declarations

are discussed in detail below.

Protocol types can inherit from any number of other protocols. When a protocol type inherits from other protocols, the set of requirements from those other protocols are aggregated, and any type that inherits from the current protocol must conform to all those requirements. For an example of how to use protocol inheritance, see

Protocol Inheritance

(page 301).

Note:

You can also aggregate the conformance requirements of multiple protocols using protocol composition types, as described in

Protocol Composition Type

(page 359)

and

Protocol

Composition

(page 302)

You can add protocol conformance to a previously declared type by adopting the protocol in an extension declaration of that type. In the extension, you must implement all of the adopted protocol’s requirements. If the type already implements all of the requirements, you can leave the body of the extension declaration empty.

By default, types that conform to a protocol must implement all properties, methods, and subscripts declared in the protocol. That said, you can mark these protocol member declarations with the optional attribute to specify that their implementation by a conforming type is optional. The optional attribute can be applied

404

Declarations

Protocol Declaration only to protocols that are marked with the objc attribute. As a result, only class types can adopt and conform to a protocol that contains optional member requirements. For more information about how to use the optional attribute and for guidance about how to access optional protocol members—for example, when you’re not sure whether a conforming type implements them—see

Optional Protocol Requirements

(page

306).

To restrict the adoption of a protocol to class types only, mark the entire protocol declaration with the class_protocol attribute. Any protocol that inherits from a protocol marked with the class_protocol attribute can likewise be adopted only by a class type.

Note:

If a protocol is already marked with the objc attribute, the class_protocol attribute is implicitly applied to that protocol; there’s no need to mark the protocol with the class_protocol attribute explicitly.

Protocols are named types, and thus they can appear in all the same places in your code as other named types, as discussed in

Protocols as Types

(page 293). However, you can’t construct an instance of a protocol, because

protocols do not actually provide the implementations for the requirements they specify.

You can use protocols to declare which methods a delegate of a class or structure should implement, as described in

Delegation

(page 294).

Grammar of a protocol onprotocol arati -nametype-i tance-cl -namei fi -member-decl ons}protocol onprotocol onprotocol onprotocol -member-decl al arati -member-decl onprotocol pt-decl -member-decl onprotocol -member-decl onsprotocol onprotocol

Protocol Property Declaration

Protocols declare that conforming types must implement a property by including a

protocol property declaration

in the body of the protocol declaration. Protocol property declarations have a special form of a variable declaration: var

property name : type { get set }

As with other protocol member declarations, these property declarations declare only the getter and setter requirements for types that conform to the protocol. As a result, you don’t implement the getter or setter directly in the protocol in which it is declared.

The getter and setter requirements can be satisfied by a conforming type in a variety of ways. If a property declaration includes both the get and set keywords, a conforming type can implement it with a stored variable property or a computed property that is both readable and writeable (that is, one that implements both a getter and a setter). However, that property declaration can’t be implemented as a constant property or a

405

Declarations

Protocol Declaration read-only computed property. If a property declaration includes only the get keyword, it can be implemented as any kind of property. For examples of conforming types that implement the property requirements of a protocol, see

Property Requirements

(page 288).

See also

Variable Declaration

(page 392).

Grammar of a protocol property declarationprotocol-property-declarationvariable-declaration-headvariable-nametype-annotationgetter-setter-keyword-block

Protocol Method Declaration

Protocols declare that conforming types must implement a method by including a protocol method declaration in the body of the protocol declaration. Protocol method declarations have the same form as function declarations, with two exceptions: They don’t include a function body, and you can’t provide any default parameter values as part of the function declaration. For examples of conforming types that implement the method requirements of a protocol, see

Method Requirements

(page 290).

To declare a class or static method requirement in a protocol declaration, mark the method declaration with the class keyword. Classes that implement this method also declare the method with the class keyword.

Structures that implement it must declare the method with the static keyword instead. If you’re implementing the method in an extension, use the class keyword if you’re extending a class and the static keyword if you’re extending a structure.

See also

Function Declaration

(page 396).

Grammar of a protocol method declarationprotocol-method-declarationfunction-headfunction-namegeneric-parameter-clausefunction-signature

Protocol Initializer Declaration

Protocols declare that conforming types must implement an initializer by including a protocol initializer declaration in the body of the protocol declaration. Protocol initializer declarations have the same form as initializer declarations, except they don’t include the initializer’s body.

See also

Initializer Declaration

(page 407).

Grammar of a protocol initializer declarationprotocol-initializer-declarationinitializer-headgeneric-parameter-clauseparameter-clause

Protocol Subscript Declaration

Protocols declare that conforming types must implement a subscript by including a protocol subscript declaration in the body of the protocol declaration. Protocol property declarations have a special form of a subscript declaration:

406

Declarations

Initializer Declaration subscript

(parameters ) -> return type { get set }

Subscript declarations only declare the minimum getter and setter implementation requirements for types that conform to the protocol. If the subscript declaration includes both the get and set keywords, a conforming type must implement both a getter and a setter clause. If the subscript declaration includes only the get keyword, a conforming type must implement

at least

a getter clause and optionally can implement a setter clause.

See also

Subscript Declaration

(page 410).

Grammar of a protocol subscript declarationprotocol-subscript-declarationsubscript-headsubscript-resultgetter-setter-keyword-block

Protocol Associated Type Declaration

Protocols declare associated types using the keyword typealias

. An associated type provides an alias for a type that is used as part of a protocol’s declaration. Accosiated types are similiar to type paramters in generic parameter clauses, but they’re associated with Self in the protocol in which they’re declared. In that context,

Self refers to the eventual type that conforms to the protocol. For more information and examples, see

Associated Types

(page 320).

See also

Type Alias Declaration

(page 395).

Grammar of a protocol associated type declarationprotocol-associated-type-declarationtypealias-headtype-inheritance-clausetypealias-assignment

Initializer Declaration

initializer declaration

introduces an initializer for a class, structure, or enumeration into your program.

Initializer declarations are declared using the keyword init and have two basic forms.

Structure, enumeration, and class types can have any number of initializers, but the rules and associated behavior for class initializers are different. Unlike structures and enumerations, classes have two kinds of initializers: designated initializers and convenience initializers, as described in

Initialization

(page 209).

The following form declares initializers for structures, enumerations, and designated initializers of classes: init

(parameters ) {

statements

}

407

Declarations

Deinitializer Declaration

A designated initializer of a class initializes all of the class’s properties directly. It can’t call any other initializers of the same class, and if the class has a superclass, it must call one of the superclass’s designated initializers.

If the class inherits any properties from its superclass, one of the superclass’s designated initializers must be called before any of these properties can be set or modified in the current class.

Designated initializers can be declared in the context of a class declaration only and therefore can’t be added to a class using an extension declaration.

Initializers in structures and enumerations can call other declared initializers to delegate part or all of the initialization process.

To declare convenience initializers for a class, prefix the initializer declaration with the context-sensitive keyword convenience .

convenience init

(parameters ) {

statements

}

Convenience initializers can delegate the initialization process to another convenience initializer or to one of the class’s designated initializers. That said, the initialization processes must end with a call to a designated initializer that ultimately initializes the class’s properties. Convenience initializers can’t call a superclass’s initializers.

You can mark designated and convenience initializers with the required attribute to require that every subclass implement the initializer. Because designated initializers are not inherited by subclasses, they must be implemented directly. Required convenience initializers can be either implemented explicitly or inherited when the subclass directly implements all of the superclass’s designated initializers (or overrides the designated initializers with convenience initializers). Unlike methods, properties, and subscripts, you don’t need to mark overridden initializers with the override keyword.

To see examples of initializers in various type declarations, see

Initialization

(page 209).

Grammar of an initializer declarationinitializer-declarationinitializer-headgeneric-parameter-clauseparameter-clauseinitializer-bodyinitializer-headattributesconvenienceinitinitializer-bodycode-block

Deinitializer Declaration

deinitializer declaration

declares a deinitializer for a class type. Deinitializers take no parameters and have the following form:

408

Declarations

Extension Declaration deinit

{

statements

}

A deinitializer is called automatically when there are no longer any references to a class object, just before the class object is deallocated. A deinitializer can be declared only in the body of a class declaration—but not in an extension of a class—and each class can have at most one.

A subclass inherits its superclass’s deinitializer, which is implicitly called just before the subclass object is deallocated. The subclass object is not deallocated until all deinitializers in its inheritance chain have finished executing.

Deinitializers are not called directly.

For an example of how to use a deinitializer in a class declaration, see

Deinitialization

(page 233).

Grammar of a deinitializer declarationdeinitializer-declarationattributesdeinitcode-block

Extension Declaration

extension declaration

allows you to extend the behavior of existing class, structure, and enumeration types.

Extension declarations begin with the keyword extension and have the following form: extension

type : adopted protocols {

declarations

}

The body of an extension declaration contains zero or more

declarations

. These

declarations

can include computed properties, computed static properties, instance methods, static and class methods, initializers, subscript declarations, and even class, structure, and enumeration declarations. Extension declarations can’t contain destructor or protocol declarations, store properties, property observers, or other extension declarations.

For a discussion and several examples of extensions that include various kinds of declarations, see

Extensions

(page 278).

Extension declarations can add protocol conformance to an existing class, structure, and enumeration type in the

adopted protocols

. Extension declarations can’t add class inheritance to an existing class, and therefore the

type-inheritance-clause

in an extension declaration contains only a list of protocols.

Properties, methods, and initializers of an existing type can’t be overridden in an extension of that type.

409

Declarations

Subscript Declaration

Extension declarations can contain initializer declarations. That said, if the type you’re extending is defined in another module, an initializer declaration must delegate to an initializer already defined in that module to ensure members of that type are properly initialized.

Grammar of an extension declarationextension-declarationextensiontype-identifiertype-inheritance-clauseextension-bodyextension-body{declarations}

Subscript Declaration

subscript

declaration allows you to add subscripting support for objects of a particular type and are typically used to provide a convenient syntax for accessing the elements in a collection, list, or sequence. Subscript declarations are declared using the keyword subscript and have the following form: subscript

(parameters ) -> return type { get

{

statements

} set

(setter name ) {

statements

}

Subscript declarations can appear only in the context of a class, structure, enumeration, extension, or protocol declaration.

The

parameters

specify one or more indexes used to access elements of the corresponding type in a subscript expression (for example, the i in the expression object[i] ). Although the indexes used to access the elements can be of any type, each parameter must include a type annotation to specify the type of each index. The

return type

specifies the type of the element being accessed.

As with computed properties, subscript declarations support reading and writing the value of the accessed elements. The getter is used to read the value, and the setter is used to write the value. The setter clause is optional, and when only a getter is needed, you can omit both clauses and simply return the requested value directly. That said, if you provide a setter clause, you must also provide a getter clause.

The

setter name

and enclosing parentheses are optional. If you provide a setter name, it is used as the name of the parameter to the setter. If you do not provide a setter name, the default parameter name to the setter is value

. That type of the

setter name

must be the same as the

return type

410

Declarations

Operator Declaration

You can overload a subscript declaration in the type in which it is declared, as long as the

parameters

or the

return type

differ from the one you’re overloading. You can also override a subscript declaration inherited from a superclass. When you do so, you must mark the overridden subscript declaration with the override keyword.

You can also declare subscripts in the context of a protocol declaration, as described in

Protocol Subscript

Declaration

(page 406).

For more information about subscripting and to see examples of subscript declarations, see

Subscripts

(page

195).

Grammar of a subscript declarationsubscript-declarationsubscript-headsubscript-resultcode-blocksubscript-declarationsubscript-headsubscript-resultgetter-setter-blocksubscript-declarationsubscript-headsubscript-resultgetter-setter-keyword-blocksubscript-headattributessubscriptparameter-clausesubscript-result->attributestype

Operator Declaration

operator declaration

introduces a new infix, prefix, or postfix operator into your program and is declared using the contextual keyword operator .

You can declare operators of three different fixities: infix, prefix, and postfix. The

fixity

of an operator specifies the relative position of an operator to its operands.

There are three basic forms of an operator declaration, one for each fixity. The fixity of the operator is specified by including the contextual keyword infix , prefix , or postfix between operator and the name of the operator. In each form, the name of the operator can contain only the operator characters defined in

Operators

(page 351).

The following form declares a new infix operator: operator infix operator name { precedence precedence level associativity associativity

}

infix operator

is a binary operator that is written between its two operands, such as the familiar addition operator (

) in the expression

1 + 2

Infix operators can optionally specify a precedence, associativity, or both.

The

precedence

of an operator specifies how tightly an operator binds to its operands in the absence of grouping parentheses. You specify the precedence of an operator by writing the contextual keyword precedence followed by the

precedence level

. The

precedence level

can be any whole number (decimal

411

Declarations

Operator Declaration integer) from 0 to 255; unlike decimal integer literals, it can’t contain any underscore characters. Although the precedence level is a specific number, it is significant only relative to another operator. That is, when two operators compete with each other for their operands, such as in the expression 2 + 3 * 5 , the operator with the higher precedence level binds more tightly to its operands.

The

associativity

of an operator specifies how a sequence of operators with the same precedence level are grouped together in the absence of grouping parentheses. You specify the associativity of an operator by writing the contextual keyword associativity followed by the

associativity

, which is one of the contextual keywords left , right , or none . Operators that are left-associative group left-to-right. For example, the subtraction operator ( ) is left-associative, and therefore the expression 4 - 5 - 6 is grouped as (4 - 5)

- 6 and evaluates to

-7

. Operators that are right-associative group right-to-left, and operators that are specified with an associativity of none don’t associate at all. Nonassociative operators of the same precedence level can’t appear adjacent to each to other. For example, 1 < 2 < 3 is not a valid expression.

Infix operators that are declared without specifying a precedence or associativity are initialized with a precedence level of 100 and an associativity of none

The following form declares a new prefix operator: operator prefix operator name {}

prefix operator

is a unary operator that is written immediately before its operand, such as the prefix increment operator (

) is in the expression

++i

Prefix operators declarations don’t specify a precedence level. Prefix operators are nonassociative.

The following form declares a new postfix operator: operator postfix operator name {}

postfix operator

is a unary operator that is written immediately after its operand, such as the postfix increment operator ( ++ ) is in the expression i++ .

As with prefix operators, postfix operator declarations don’t specify a precedence level. Postfix operators are nonassociative.

After declaring a new operator, you implement it by declaring a function that has the same name as the operator. To see an example of how to create and implement a new operator, see

Custom Operators

(page

342).

412

Declarations

Operator Declaration

Grammar of an operator declarationoperator-declarationprefix-operator-declarationpostfix-operator-declarationinfix-operator-declarationprefix-operator-declarationoperatorprefixoperator{}postfix-operator-declarationoperatorpostfixoperator{}infix-operator-declarationoperatorinfixoperator{infix-operator-attributes}infix-operator-attributesprecedence-clauseassociativity-clauseprecedence-clauseprecedenceprecedence-levelprecedence-levelDigit

0 through 255associativity-clauseassociativityassociativityassociativityleftrightnone

413

Attributes

Attributes

provide more information about a declaration or type. There are two kinds of attributes in Swift, those that apply to declarations and those that apply to types. For instance, the required attribute—when applied to a designated or convenience initializer declaration of a class—indicates that every subclass must implement that initializer. And the noreturn attribute—when applied to a function or method type—indicates that the function or method doesn’t return to its caller.

You specify an attribute by writing the @ symbol followed by the attribute’s name and any arguments that the attribute accepts:

@attribute name

@attribute name (attribute arguments )

Some declaration attributes accept arguments that specify more information about the attribute and how it applies to a particular declaration. These

attribute arguments

are enclosed in parentheses, and their format is defined by the attribute they belong to.

Declaration Attributes

You can apply a declaration attribute to declarations only. However, you can also apply the noreturn attribute to a function or method

type

assignment

Apply this attribute to functions that overload a compound assignment operator. Functions that overload a compound assignment operator must mark their initial input parameter as inout

. For an example of how to use the assignment attribute, see

Compound Assignment Operators

(page 340).

class_protocol

Apply this attribute to a protocol to indicate that the protocol can be adopted by class types only.

If you apply the objc attribute to a protocol, the class_protocol attribute is implicitly applied to that protocol; there’s no need to mark the protocol with the class_protocol attribute explicitly.

414

Attributes

Declaration Attributes exported

Apply this attribute to an import declaration to export the imported module, submodule, or declaration from the current module. If another module imports the current module, that other module can access the items exported by the current module.

final

Apply this attribute to a class or to a property, method, or subscript member of a class. It’s applied to a class to indicate that the class can’t be subclassed. It’s applied to a property, method, or subscript of a class to indicate that that class member can’t be overridden in any subclass.

lazy

Apply this attribute to a stored variable property of a class or structure to indicate that the property’s initial value is calculated and stored at most once, when the property is first accessed. For an example of how to use the lazy attribute, see

Lazy Stored Properties

(page 171).

noreturn

Apply this attribute to a function or method declaration to indicate that the corresponding type of that function or method, T , is @noreturn T . You can mark a function or method type with this attribute to indicate that the function or method doesn’t return to its caller.

You can override a function or method that is not marked with the noreturn attribute with a function or method that is. That said, you can’t override a function or method that is marked with the noreturn attribute with a function or method that is not. Similar rules apply when you implement a protocol method in a conforming type.

NSCopying

Apply this attribute to a stored variable property of a class. This attribute causes the property’s setter to be synthesized with a

copy

of the property’s value—returned by the copyWithZone method—instead of the value of the property itself. The type of the property must conform to the

NSCopying protocol.

The NSCopying attribute behaves in a way similar to the Objective-C copy property attribute.

NSManaged

Apply this attribute to a stored variable property of a class that inherits from

NSManagedObject to indicate that the storage and implementation of the property are provided dynamically by Core Data at runtime based on the associated entity description.

objc

Apply this attribute to any declaration that can be represented in Objective-C—for example, non-nested classes, protocols, properties and methods (including getters and setters) of classes and protocols,

415

Attributes

Declaration Attributes initializers, deinitializers, and subscripts. The objc attribute tells the compiler that a declaration is available to use in Objective-C code.

If you apply the objc attribute to a class or protocol, it’s implicitly applied to the members of that class or protocol. The compiler also implicitly adds the objc attribute to a class that inherits from another class marked with the objc attribute. Protocols marked with the objc attribute can’t inherit from protocols that aren’t.

The objc attribute optionally accepts a single attribute argument, which consists of an identifier. Use this attribute when you want to expose a different name to Objective-C for the entity the objc attribute applies to. You can use this argument to name classes, protocols, methods, getters, setters, and initializers.

The example below exposes the getter for the enabled property of the ExampleClass to Objective-C code as isEnabled rather than just as the name of the property itself.

@objc class

ExampleClass { var enabled: Bool {

}

@objc

(isEnabled) get

{

// Return the appropriate value

} optional

Apply this attribute to a protocol’s property, method, or subscript members to indicate that a conforming type isn’t required to implement those members.

You can apply the optional attribute only to protocols that are marked with the objc attribute. As a result, only class types can adopt and conform to a protocol that contains optional member requirements.

For more information about how to use the optional attribute and for guidance about how to access optional protocol members—for example, when you’re not sure whether a conforming type implements them—see

Optional Protocol Requirements

(page 306).

required

Apply this attribute to a designated or convenience initializer of a class to indicate that every subclass must implement that initializer.

Required designated initializers must be implemented explicitly. Required convenience initializers can be either implemented explicitly or inherited when the subclass directly implements all of the superclass’s

416

Attributes

Type Attributes designated initializers (or when the subclass overrides the designated initializers with convenience initializers).

Declaration Attributes Used by Interface Builder

Interface Builder attributes are declaration attributes used by Interface Builder to synchronize with Xcode. Swift provides the following Interface Builder attributes: IBAction , IBDesignable , IBInspectable , and IBOutlet .

These attributes are conceptually the same as their Objective-C counterparts.

You apply the IBOutlet and IBInspectable attributes to property declarations of a class. You apply the

IBAction attribute to method declarations of a class and the IBDesignable attribute to class declarations.

Type Attributes

You can apply type attributes to types only. However, you can also apply the noreturn attribute to a function or method

declaration

auto_closure

This attribute is used to delay the evaluation of an expression by automatically wrapping that expression in a closure with no arguments. Apply this attribute to a function or method type that takes no arguments and that returns the type of the expression. For an example of how to use the auto_closure attribute, see

Function Type

(page 355).

noreturn

Apply this attribute to the type of a function or method to indicate that the function or method doesn’t return to its caller. You can also mark a function or method declaration with this attribute to indicate that the corresponding type of that function or method,

, is

@noreturn T

Grammar of an attributeattribute@attribute-nameattribute-argument-clauseattribute-nameidentifierattribute-argument-clause(balanced-tokens)attributesattributeattributesbalanced-tokensbalanced-tokenbalanced-tokensbalanced-token(balanced-tokens)balanced-token[balanced-tokens]balanced-token{balanced-tokens}balanced-tokenAny identifier, keyword, literal, or operatorbalanced-tokenAny punctuation except (, ), [, ], {, or }

417

Patterns

pattern

represents the structure of a single value or a composite value. For example, the structure of a tuple

(1, 2) is a comma-separated list of two elements. Because patterns represent the structure of a value rather than any one particular value, you can match them with a variety of values. For instance, the pattern

(x, y) matches the tuple (1, 2) and any other two-element tuple. In addition matching a pattern with a value, you can extract part or all of a composite value and bind each part to a constant or variable name.

In Swift, patterns occur in variable and constant declarations (on their left-hand side), in for in statements, and in switch statements (in their case labels). Although any pattern can occur in the case labels of a switch statement, in the other contexts, only wildcard patterns, identifier patterns, and patterns containing those two patterns can occur.

You can specify a type annotation for a wildcard pattern, an identifier pattern, and a tuple pattern to constraint the pattern to match only values of a certain type.

Wildcard Pattern

wildcard pattern

matches and ignores any value and consists of an underscore ( _ ). Use a wildcard pattern when you don’t care about the values being matched against. For example, the following code iterates through the closed range 1..3

, ignoring the current value of the range on each iteration of the loop: for _ in

1...3 {

// Do something three times.

}

Grammar of a wildcard patternwildcard-pattern_

418

Patterns

Identifier Pattern

identifier pattern

matches any value and binds the matched value to a variable or constant name. For example, in the following constant declaration, someValue is an identifier pattern that matches the value 42 of type Int : let someValue = 42

When the match succeeds, the value

42 is bound (assigned) to the constant name someValue

When the pattern on the left-hand side of a variable or constant declaration is an identifier pattern, the identifier pattern is implicitly a subpattern of a value-binding pattern.

Grammar of an identifier patternidentifier-patternidentifier

Value-Binding Pattern

value-binding pattern

binds matched values to variable or constant names. Value-binding patterns that bind a matched value to the name of a constant begin with the keyword let

; those that bind to the name of variable begin with the keyword var .

Identifiers patterns within a value-binding pattern bind new named variables or constants to their matching values. For example, you can decompose the elements of a tuple and bind the value of each element to a corresponding identifier pattern.

let point = (3, 2) switch point {

// Bind x and y to the elements of point.

case let

(x, y): println("The point is at (\(x), \(y)).")

}

// prints "The point is at (3, 2)."

In the example above, let distributes to each identifier pattern in the tuple pattern (x, y) . Because of this behavior, the switch cases case let (x, y): and case (let x, let y): match the same values.

Grammar of a value-binding patternvalue-binding-patternvarpatternletpattern

419

Patterns

Tuple Pattern

tuple pattern

is a comma-separated list of zero or more patterns, enclosed in parentheses. Tuple patterns match values of corresponding tuple types.

You can constrain a tuple pattern to match certain kinds of tuple types by using type annotations. For example, the tuple pattern (x, y): (Int, Int) in the constant declaration let (x, y): (Int, Int) = (1,

2) matches only tuple types in which both elements are of type Int . To constrain only some elements of a tuple pattern, provide type annotations directly to those individual elements. For example, the tuple pattern in let (x: String, y) matches any two-element tuple type, as long as the first element is of type String .

When a tuple pattern is used as the pattern in a for in statement or in a variable or constant declaration, it can contain only wildcard patterns, identifier patterns, or other tuple patterns that contain those. For example, the following code isn’t valid because the element 0 in the tuple pattern (x, 0) is an expression pattern: let points = [(0, 0), (1, 0), (1, 1), (2, 0), (2, 1)]

// This code isn't valid.

for

(x, 0) in points {

/* ... */

}

The parentheses around a tuple pattern that contains a single element have no effect. The pattern matches values of that single element’s type. For example, the following are equivalent: let a = 2 // a: Int = 2 let

(a) = 2 // a: Int = 2 let

(a): Int = 2 // a: Int = 2

Grammar of a tuple patterntuple-pattern(tuple-pattern-element-list)tuple-pattern-element-listtuple-pattern-elementtuple-pattern-element,tuple-pattern-element-listtuple-pattern-elementpattern

Enumeration Case Pattern

enumeration case pattern

matches a case of an existing enumeration type. Enumeration case patterns appear only in switch statement case labels.

420

Patterns

Type-Casting Patterns

If the enumeration case you’re trying to match has any associated values, the corresponding enumeration case pattern must specify a tuple pattern that contains one element for each associated value. For an example that uses a switch statement to match enumeration cases containing associated values, see

Associated Values

(page

151).

Grammar of an enumeration case patternenum-case-patterntype-identifier.enum-case-nametuple-pattern

Type-Casting Patterns

There are two type-casting patterns, the is pattern and the as pattern. Both type-casting patterns appear only in switch statement case labels. The is and as patterns have the following form: is

type pattern

type

The is pattern matches a value if the type of that value at runtime is the same as the type specified in the right-hand side of the is pattern—or a subclass of that type. The is pattern behaves like the is operator in that they both perform a type cast but discard the returned type.

The as pattern matches a value if the type of that value at runtime is the same as the type specified in the right-hand side of the as pattern—or a subclass of that type. If the match succeeds, the type of the matched value is cast to the

pattern

specified in the left-hand side of the as pattern.

For an example that uses a switch statement to match values with is and as patterns, see

Type Casting for

Any and AnyObject

(page 271).

Grammar of a type casting patterntype-casting-patternis-patternas-patternis-patternistypeas-patternpatternastype

Expression Pattern

expression pattern

represents the value of an expression. Expression patterns appear only in switch statement case labels.

The expression represented by the expression pattern is compared with the value of an input expression using the Swift standard library ~= operator. The matches succeeds if the ~= operator returns true . By default, the

~= operator compares two values of the same type using the

== operator. It can also match an integer value with a range of integers in an Range object, as the following example shows: let point = (1, 2)

421

Patterns

Expression Pattern switch point { case

(0, 0): println("(0, 0) is at the origin.") case

(-2...2, -2...2): println("(\(point.0), \(point.1)) is near the origin.") default

: println("The point is at (\(point.0), \(point.1)).")

}

// prints "(1, 2) is near the origin."

You can overload the ~= operator to provide custom expression matching behavior. For example, you can rewrite the above example to compare the point expression with a string representations of points.

// Overload the ~= operator to match a string with an integer func

~=(pattern: String, value: Int) -> Bool { return pattern == "\(value)"

} switch point { case

("0", "0"): println("(0, 0) is at the origin.") case

("-2...2", "-2...2"): println("(\(point.0), \(point.1)) is near the origin.") default

: println("The point is at (\(point.0), \(point.1)).")

}

// prints "(1, 2) is near the origin."

Grammar of an expression patternexpression-patternexpression

422

Generic Parameters and Arguments

This chapter describes parameters and arguments for generic types, functions, and initializers. When you declare a generic type, function, or initializer, you specify the type parameters that the generic type, function, or initializer can work with. These type parameters act as placeholders that are replaced by actual concrete type arguments when an instance of a generic type is created or a generic function or initializer is called.

For an overview of generics in Swift, see

Generics

(page 310).

Generic Parameter Clause

generic parameter clause

specifies the type parameters of a generic type or function, along with any associated constraints and requirements on those parameters. A generic parameter clause is enclosed in angle brackets

(<>) and has one of the following forms:

<generic parameter list >

<generic parameter list where

requirements >

The

generic parameter list

is a comma-separated list of generic parameters, each of which has the following form:

type parameter : constraint

A generic parameter consists of a

type parameter

followed by an optional

constraint

. A

type parameter

is simply the name of a placeholder type (for instance, T , U , V , KeyType , ValueType , and so on). You have access to the type parameters (and any of their associated types) in the rest of the type, function, or initializer declaration, including in the signature of the function or initializer.

The

constraint

specifies that a type parameter inherits from a specific class or conforms to a protocol or protocol composition. For instance, in the generic function below, the generic parameter

T: Comparable indicates that any type argument substituted for the type parameter T must conform to the Comparable protocol.

func simpleMin<T: Comparable>(x: T, y: T) -> T {

423

Generic Parameters and Arguments

Generic Parameter Clause

} if x < y { return y

} return x

Because

Int and

Double

, for example, both conform to the

Comparable protocol, this function accepts arguments of either type. In contrast with generic types, you don’t specify a generic argument clause when you use a generic function or initializer. The type arguments are instead inferred from the type of the arguments passed to the function or initializer.

simpleMin(17, 42) // T is inferred to be Int simpleMin(3.14159, 2.71828) // T is inferred to be Double

Where Clauses

You can specify additional requirements on type parameters and their associated types by including a where clause after the

generic parameter list

. A where clause consists of the keyword where , followed by a comma-separated list of one or more

requirements

The

requirements

in a where clause specify that a type parameter inherits from a class or conforms to a protocol or protocol composition. Although the where clause provides syntactic sugar for expressing simple constraints on type parameters (for instance, T: Comparable is equivalent to T where T: Comparable and so on), you can use it to provide more complex constraints on type parameters and their associated types. For instance, you can express the constraints that a generic type T inherits from a class C and conforms to a protocol P as

As mentioned above, you can constrain the associated types of type parameters to conform to protocols. For example, the generic parameter clause <T: Generator where T.Element: Equatable> specifies that

T conforms to the Generator protocol and the associated type of T , T.Element

, conforms to the Equatable protocol (

T has the associated type

Element because

Generator declares

Element and

T conforms to

Generator ).

You can also specify the requirement that two types be identical, using the == operator. For example, the generic parameter clause

<T: Generator, U: Generator where T.Element == U.Element> expresses the constraints that T and U conform to the Generator protocol and that their associated types must be identical.

424

Generic Parameters and Arguments

Generic Argument Clause

Any type argument substituted for a type parameter must meet all the constraints and requirements placed on the type parameter.

You can overload a generic function or initializer by providing different constraints, requirements, or both on the type parameters in the generic parameter clause. When you call an overloaded generic function or initializer, the compiler uses these constraints to resolve which overloaded function or initializer to invoke.

You can subclass a generic class, but the subclass must also be a generic class.

Grammar of a generic parameter c-parameter-l rement-cl c-parameter-l c-parametergeneri c-parameter-l c-parametertype-name: denti rement-l rement-l rement, rement-l rementtype-i fi denti rementtype-i fi rementtype-i fi

Generic Argument Clause

generic argument clause

specifies the type arguments of a generic type. A generic argument clause is enclosed in angle brackets (<>) and has the following form:

<generic argument list >

The

generic argument list

is a comma-separated list of type arguments. A

type argument

is the name of an actual concrete type that replaces a corresponding type parameter in the generic parameter clause of a generic type. The result is a specialized version of that generic type. As an example, the Swift standard library defines a generic dictionary type as: struct

Dictionary<KeyType: Hashable, ValueType>: Collection,

DictionaryLiteralConvertible {

/* ... */

}

The specialized version of the generic

Dictionary type,

Dictionary<String, Int> is formed by replacing the generic parameters KeyType: Hashable and ValueType with the concrete type arguments String and Int . Each type argument must satisfy all the constraints of the generic parameter it replaces, including any additional requirements specified in a where clause. In the example above, the KeyType type parameter is constrained to conform to the Hashable protocol and therefore String must also conform to the Hashable protocol.

You can also replace a type parameter with a type argument that is itself a specialized version of a generic type (provided it satisfies the appropriate constraints and requirements). For example, you can replace the type parameter T in Array<T> with a specialized version of an array, Array<Int> , to form an array whose elements are themselves arrays of integers.

425

Generic Parameters and Arguments

Generic Argument Clause let arrayOfArrays: Array<Array<Int>> = [[1, 2, 3], [4, 5, 6], [7, 8, 9]]

As mentioned in

Generic Parameter Clause

(page 423), you don’t use a generic argument clause to specify the

type arguments of a generic function or initializer.

Grammar of a generic argument clausegeneric-argument-clause<generic-argument-list>generic-argument-listgeneric-argumentgeneric-argument,generic-argument-listgeneric-argumenttype

426

Summary of the Grammar

Statements

Grammar of a statementstatementexpression;statementdeclaration;statementloop-statement;statementbranch-statement;statementlabeled-statementstatementcontrol-transfer-statement;statementsstatementstatementsGrammar of a loop statementloop-statementfor-statementloop-statementfor-in-statementloop-statementwhile-statementloop-statementdo-while-statementGrammar of a for statementfor-statementforfor-init;expression;expressioncode-blockfor-statementfor(for-init;expression;expression)code-blockfor-initvariable-declarationexpression-listGrammar of a for-in statementfor-in-statementforpatterninexpressioncode-blockGrammar of a while statementwhile-statementwhilewhile-conditioncode-blockwhile-conditionexpressiondeclarationGrammar of a do-while statementdo-while-statementdocode-blockwhilewhile-conditionGrammar of a branch statementbranch-statementif-statementbranch-statementswitch-statementGrammar of an if statementif-statementifif-conditioncode-blockelse-clauseif-conditionexpressiondeclarationelse-clauseelsecode-blockelseif-statementGrammar of a switch statementswitch-statementswitchexpression{switch-cases}switch-casesswitch-caseswitch-casesswitch-casecase-labelstatementsdefault-labelstatementsswitch-casecase-label;default-label;case-labelcasecase-item-list:case-item-listpatternguard-clausepatternguard-clause,case-item-listdefault-labeldefault:guard-clausewhereguard-expressionguard-expressionexpressionGrammar of a labeled statementlabeled-statementstatement-labelloop-statementstatement-labelswitch-statementstatement-labellabel-name:label-nameidentifierGrammar of a control transfer statementcontrol-transfer-statementbreak-statementcontrol-transfer-statementcontinue-statementcontrol-transfer-statementfallthrough-statementcontrol-transfer-statementreturn-statementGrammar of a break statementbreak-statementbreaklabel-nameGrammar of a continue statementcontinue-statementcontinuelabel-nameGrammar of a fallthrough statementfallthrough-statementfallthroughGrammar of a return statementreturn-statementreturnexpression

Generic Parameters and Arguments

Grammar of a generic parameter c-parameter-l rement-cl c-parameter-l c-parametergeneri c-parameter-l c-parametertype-name: denti rement, rement-l rementtype-i er: fi denti rementtype-i fi rementtype-i fi erGrammar of a generic argument clausegeneric-argument-clause<generic-argument-list>generic-argument-listgeneric-argumentgeneric-argument,generic-argument-listgeneric-argumenttype

Declarations

Grammar of a arati mport-decl onconstant-decl ondecl abl ondecl arati ondecl onenum-decl onstruct-decl arati ass-decl onprotocol arati arati ni ondecl al arati on-decl ondecl ondecl onoperator-decl onsdecl ondecl on-speci on-speci on-speci arati ngoverri cunownedunowned(safe)unowned(unsafe)weakGrammar of a top-level declarationtop-level-declarationstatementsGrammar of a code blockcode-block{statements}Grammar of an import declarationimport-declarationattributesimportimport-kindimport-pathimport-kindtypealiasstructclassenumprotocolvarfuncimport-pathimport-path-identifierimport-path-identifier.import-pathimport-path-identifieridentifieroperatorGrammar of a constant declarationconstant-declarationattributesdeclaration-specifiersletpattern-initializer-listpattern-initializer-listpattern-initializerpattern-initializer,pattern-initializer-listpattern-initializerpatterninitializerinitializer=expressionGrammar of a variable

427

Summary of the Grammar

Patterns arati abl arati abl arati stvari arati abl arati oncode-bl abl arati abl e-nametype-annotati erabl arati abl e-nametype-annotati erabl arati abl e-nametype-annotati ti ni on-headatt arati ergett erercl erbutesgetcode-bl erri namecode-bl erkeyword-bl gett ergett sett keyword-cl gett ri keyword-cl ri ll bl cl dSetwi di cl cl ri namecode-bl butesdi erof a type alias declarationtypealias-declarationtypealias-headtypealias-assignmenttypealias-headtypealiastypealias-nametypealias-nameidentifiertypealias-assignment=typeGrammar of a function arati on-decl on-headfuncti of an enumeration on-headatt arati denti uncti ausesfuncti esul esul stparameterparameter stparameteri namel -parameternamel -parameternamei fi namei fi ibut ontr val namegener est s} yl member st uni st member st member oncaseoncasetr onst st st oncaseuni case, st casecaseenume{r val er if s} st sr val member sr val member val auser uecaseawst ueli st ueli caser ueval st namer val val ammar of a structure declarationstruct-declarationattributesstructstruct-namegeneric-parameter-clausetype-inheritance-clausestruct-bodystruct-nameidentifierstruct-body{declarations}Grammar of a class declarationclass-declarationattributesclassclass-namegeneric-parameter-clausetype-inheritance-clauseclass-bodyclass-nameidentifierclass-body{declarations}Grammar of a protocol onprotocol arati -nametype-i tance-cl -namei fi -member-decl al ti -member-decl onprotocol arati onprotocol ated-type-decl of a protocol property declarationprotocol-property-declarationvariable-declaration-headvariable-nametype-annotationgetter-setter-keyword-blockGrammar of a protocol method declarationprotocol-method-declarationfunction-headfunction-namegeneric-parameter-clausefunction-signatureGrammar of a protocol initializer declarationprotocol-initializer-declarationinitializer-headgeneric-parameter-clauseparameter-clauseGrammar of a protocol subscript declarationprotocol-subscript-declarationsubscript-headsubscript-resultgetter-setter-keyword-blockGrammar of a protocol associated type declarationprotocol-associated-type-declarationtypealias-headtype-inheritance-clausetypealias-assignmentGrammar of an initializer declarationinitializer-declarationinitializer-headgeneric-parameter-clauseparameter-clauseinitializer-bodyinitializer-headattributesconvenienceinitinitializer-bodycode-blockGrammar of a deinitializer declarationdeinitializer-declarationattributesdeinitcode-blockGrammar of an extension declarationextension-declarationextensiontype-identifiertype-inheritance-clauseextension-bodyextension-body{declarations}Grammar of a subscript declarationsubscript-declarationsubscript-headsubscript-resultcode-blocksubscript-declarationsubscript-headsubscript-resultgetter-setter-blocksubscript-declarationsubscript-headsubscript-resultgetter-setter-keyword-blocksubscript-headattributessubscriptparameter-clausesubscript-result->attributestypeGrammar of an operator declarationoperator-declarationprefix-operator-declarationpostfix-operator-declarationinfix-operator-declarationprefix-operator-declarationoperatorprefixoperator{}postfix-operator-declarationoperatorpostfixoperator{}infix-operator-declarationoperatorinfixoperator{infix-operator-attributes}infix-operator-attributesprecedence-clauseassociativity-clauseprecedence-clauseprecedenceprecedence-levelprecedence-levelDigit

0 through 255associativity-clauseassociativityassociativityassociativityleftrightnone

Patterns

Grammar of a patternpatternwildcard-patterntype-annotationpatternidentifier-patterntype-annotationpatternvalue-binding-patternpatterntuple-patterntype-annotationpatternenum-case-patternpatterntype-casting-patternpatternexpression-patternGrammar of a wildcard patternwildcard-pattern_Grammar of an identifier patternidentifier-patternidentifierGrammar of a value-binding patternvalue-binding-patternvarpatternletpatternGrammar of a tuple patterntuple-pattern(tuple-pattern-element-list)tuple-pattern-element-listtuple-pattern-elementtuple-pattern-element,tuple-pattern-element-listtuple-pattern-elementpatternGrammar of an enumeration case patternenum-case-patterntype-identifier.enum-case-nametuple-patternGrammar of a type casting patterntype-casting-patternis-patternas-patternis-patternistypeas-patternpatternastypeGrammar of an expression patternexpression-patternexpression

Attributes

428

Summary of the Grammar

Expressions

Grammar of an expressionexpressionprefix-expressionbinary-expressionsexpression-listexpressionexpression,expression-listGrammar of a prefix expressionprefix-expressionprefix-operatorpostfix-expressionprefix-expressionin-out-expressionin-out-expression&identifierGrammar of a binary expressionbinary-expressionbinary-operatorprefix-expressionbinary-expressionassignment-operatorprefix-expressionbinary-expressionconditional-operatorprefix-expressionbinary-expressiontype-casting-operatorbinary-expressionsbinary-expressionbinary-expressionsGrammar of an assignment operatorassignment-operator=Grammar of a conditional operatorconditional-operator?expression:Grammar of a type-casting operatortype-casting-operatoristypeas?typeGrammar

of a primary expressionprimary-expressionidentifiergeneric-argument-clauseprimary-expressionliteral-expressionprimary-expressionself-expressionprimary-expressionsuperclass-expressionprimary-expressionclosure-expressionprimary-expressionparenthesized-expressionprimary-expressionimplicit-member-expressionprimary-expressionwildcard-expressionGrammar of a literal of a self expressionself-expressionselfself-expressionself.identifierself-expressionself[expression]self-expressionself.initGrammar

of a superclass expressionsuperclass-expressionsuperclass-method-expressionsuperclass-subscript-expressionsuperclass-initializer-expressionsuperclass-method-expressionsuper.identifiersuperclass-subscript-expressionsuper[expression]superclass-initializer-expressionsuper.initGrammar

of a closure expressionclosure-expression{closure-signaturestatements}closure-signatureparameter-clausefunction-resultinclosure-signatureidentifier-listfunction-resultinclosure-signaturecapture-listparameter-clausefunction-resultinclosure-signaturecapture-listidentifier-listfunction-resultinclosure-signaturecapture-listincapture-list[capture-specifierexpression]capture-specifierweakunownedunowned(safe)unowned(unsafe)Grammar of a implicit member expressionimplicit-member-expression.identifierGrammar of a parenthesized expressionparenthesized-expression(expression-element-list)expression-element-listexpression-elementexpression-element,expression-element-listexpression-elementexpressionidentifier:expressionGrammar of a wildcard expressionwildcard-expression_Grammar of a postfix of a function call expressionfunction-call-expressionpostfix-expressionparenthesized-expressionfunction-call-expressionpostfix-expressionparenthesized-expressiontrailing-closuretrailing-closureclosure-expressionGrammar of an initializer expressioninitializer-expressionpostfix-expression.initGrammar of an explicit member expressionexplicit-member-expressionpostfix-expression.decimal-digitexplicit-member-expressionpostfix-expression.identifiergeneric-argument-clauseGrammar of a self expressionpostfix-self-expressionpostfix-expression.selfGrammar of a dynamic type expressiondynamic-type-expressionpostfix-expression.dynamicTypeGrammar of a subscript expressionsubscript-expressionpostfix-expression[expression-list]Grammar of a forced-value expressionforced-value-expressionpostfix-expression!Grammar of an optional-chaining expressionoptional-chaining-expressionpostfix-expression?