We are living in an information age dependent upon digital information. Digital information is electronic information, the result of computer processing. Every type of job relies upon getting information, using it, managing it, and relaying information to others. Computers enable the efficient processing and storage of information.

1.1 Classifications of Computer

The capability of computer depends upon the amount of data stored in the main memory, the speed of operation, the number of peripheral devices, amount and types of programs available for the use with the computer system. Accordingly, computer can be classified as follows:

Mainframe Computer

Mini Computer

Personal Computer

1.1.1 Mainframe computers

, the larger of the computers can literally fill a room.

These large computers are used to fulfill the computing needs of large companies and corporations and are also used in large telecommunications centers. They are very powerful with huge amount of storage and processing capability. The drawbacks to the mainframe computer for use as a personal computer are its size, its immense amount of computing power, and its price, which can run into crores of rupees.

1.1.2 Mini computer was developed to serve the computing needs of smaller companies and the larger departments of corporations. It has essentially the same

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UOM-S007 functionality of the larger mainframe computer but on a smaller scale. The mainframe was scaled into a smaller package with most of its functions remaining and a little less storage and processing power, sold at reduced price. Because of advances in technology, today's minicomputer can fulfill the entire computing needs of a small- to medium-sized company as well as serve as a very powerful communications server. But mini computer are much too big, in terms of processing power and size, not to mention price, to be used as a personal computer.

1.1.3 Personal computer is the smallest one and is often seen on the desk therefore is referred to as desktop. It has a good processing power, though not of the same degree as of mini or mainframe, with a much smaller size, with affordable price and is quite effective for personal uses.

Two further types of computer need mentioning i.e. Super Computer & Embedded

Computer. A Super Computer is an extremely powerful computer used mostly in research and space, military and governmental applications. A super computer is the costliest one and can cost crores of rupees. It is equivalent of thousands of personal computers that share in the processing load to solve very large and complex problems in hours or days instead of weeks, months, or years. A supercomputer is the largest and most powerful computer, sometimes equaling the power of several mainframes combined.

An Embedded computer is built into another device to control, monitor, or manage some activity for the device. Virtually all electronic devices have an embedded computer built inside for example a microwave oven, modern televisions etc. They have very small and single purpose processors. A personal computer also has an embedded computer in its microprocessor but it is a multifunctional device capable of controlling more than a single process or activity.

1.2. Role of Computers in Society

As we hurtle towards the 21st century, we must accept the inevitability of a computer revolution in the near future. It is an-inseparable part of development, as demonstrated by other countries. Computers are no longer luxury or the sole property of the advanced countries. Their appropriate uses in India can help us solve the unique problems of a developing country and bring about the

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UOM-S007 desired changes in increasing literacy, optimizing resources, increasing efficiency, productivity and quality.

Already computers have become such an important part of our livesin airports, banks, railway stations and every well-equipped modern office. As computer continues to proliferate in ever increasing numbers across large segments of Government, business and industry, the common man is beginning to believe hesitantly that computers can actually deliver a good part of the promise that they had offered. Society is gradually accepting the fact that computers will indeed change the manner in which the things are done.

Computers can substantially save valuable man-hours by helping people through communication to make reservation of tickets, operate their bank accounts, to pay for electricity water and telephone bills, insurance premium and also do routine shopping. Trains can be operated automatically by computers and traffic signals be computer co-ordinate to produce best traffic patterns, increase reliability and safety and generally provide for more efficient services.

The basic industry of India is 'agriculture'. In areas of agriculture and irrigation, computers are making possible better matching of soil characteristics and crop. This coupled with better use of resources like water, fertilizers and sunlight and more precise prediction of monsoons can help India in increasing crop yields manifold.

Computer in health is bringing new hope for the sick. In areas of health and medicine, expert systems and data bases on blood groups availability, eye banks medical history of patients etc, can bring about a marked improvement in our health services. Expert system can help in more accurate diagnosis of ailments 'Hospital Information Systems' can help improve the efficiency of our hospitals reduce mortality and death-rates and in general provide better and speedier health care to our people.

While this realization is gaining firmer ground in areas like the utility services, railways, airlines, agriculture, health etc., as well as organization control, there is area where the role of computers as the prime agents of change has still not been recognized. That is the area of education. In our country there are over

5,00,000 primary schools of which l/3rd are single-teacher schools. 64% of total population of our country is illiterate. The number of illiterates at present is higher than that at independence. To tackle a problem of such gigantic proportions, it is essential that a modern aids offered by Information Technology are made use of to spread education to the rural areas where most of the illiteracy is concentrated.

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Computer based lessons developed in various subjects by experts in that area could be used to educate the masses. The computer is a rapidly evolving tool that can now deal quite effectively with all fine forms of information that man deals with for better education are -data, text, image, graphics and voice.

One thought can take place in our minds for a moment that 'the computer will replace the teacher-that would be a suicidal thought. But we should fully accept the reality that the computer will radically change the manner in which teaching-learning processes take place. The role of the teacher will undergo a radical change. From being a mere "information dumping machine", the teacher will once again rise to the height of being a mentor, philosopher and guide developing, instilling values, ideas, creating challenges and nurturing feelings, sentiments and empathy in young minds. In the wider prospective, these are what are required for building a strong nation-intellectually spiritually and economically.

In the most important area of government administration, to enable administration take the right decision at the right time, accurate, relevant and upto-date information should be made available to them. Modern computerized communication network can significantly help bureaucracy cut its red tape.

Therefore, computers are synonymous with development. With appropriate computer usage and quality of life applications, India will be able to effectively tackle its unique problems. The entire society will undergo a transformation and what would emerge is a society that is more intellectually aware and which values its time, intellect and dignity. A society armed with computer expertise can meet with confidence the exciting new India of tomorrow.

1.3 Inside Computers

1.3.1 Computer and its functions:

Computer is an electronic data processing device capable of doing arithmetic computations and other complex operations at a very high speed. The computer does these operations on the basis of instructions given to it by a human being.

Thus a computer does not do anything by itself; it is only a tool and does what you ask to do. If you feed wrong information into it, the result also will be wrong.

Basic functions that a computer can perform are:

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Input

Process

Store

Output

For different functions the computer has different component namely:

Input Unit

Central Processing Unit o

Control Unit o

Arithmetic & Logic Unit o

Memory Unit

Output Unit

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Input Unit - It consists of devices through which the data and/or program can be communicated with the computer. The input device converts the data and/or program from the human readable form to the machine readable form i.e. into a machine code. The various input devices in computer are:

Key board

Floppy/Compact disc

Magnetic tapes

Mouse

Camera/Scanner/Microphone

Central Processing Unit - Control Unit, Arithmetic & Logical Unit and Memory

Unit collectively act like the heart of the computer and are referred to as the central processing unit. It is here that actual processing of data takes place on execution of the programs.

Control Unit is responsible for overall control of program execution. It receives instruction from memory unit and on deciding the action to be taken, directs other units of the computer to carry out respective functions. This unit, thus, performs the following important functions:

Directing the flow of data

Executing instructions operations

Looking-after hardware and program errors

Control the sequence of the operation of various units.

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Arithmetical & Logical Unit - All calculating functions like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division are carried out in this unit.

Memory Unit - This unit stores instructions and/or data. This unit is also called as main or internal memory. In this context two terms needed to be introduced i.e.

RAM & ROM.

RAM (Random Access Memory) is the actual usable memory where the instructions and data are made to reside during execution. The contents of this area exist there as long as power is on.

ROM (Read Only Memory) contains programs (of permanent nature) in machine code which do not get wiped out even when power goes off. The method of storage of this memory is such that, it is neither erasable nor replaceable. Programs in this area include operating system, monitor programs, etc.

Auxiliary or external memory is the additional memory used to supplement the storage capability. Magnetic tape, floppy, disc, etc. are examples of this category.

Output Unit - The final result for a given problem residing in main memory can be inscribed on an appropriate output device in the output unit of the computer. The output can be in either visual or audio or printer form. The output devices which are in use today are:

Printer

Visual Display Unit

The various input and output devices of the computer are termed are termed as

Computer Peripheral

Computer Software

The physical and tangible components of the computer i.e. those components which can be touched and seen are called Hardware. It includes central processing units consisting of resistors, capacitors, ICs etc. and peripherals consisting of input devices and output devices.

But all these devices are mere junks of there is no proper software. Software is the program which gives life to the hardware. There are three major categories of software viz.

Operating System

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Language Processor

Application Package

Operating System - These are programs usually written by computer manufacturers. These programs are inbuilt into the computer and are used to govern the control of the computer hardware components, such as processors, memory devices and input/output devices. They, in fact, act as an interface between the user's programs and the computer components and facilitate in the execution of programs.

Language Processor - This software is used to translate the programmer written instructions into machine code instructions. This is machine-dependent software and is popularly known as assembler /compiler.

Application Package - Application programs are user-written programs to perform certain specific jobs. They are unique in their construction and can be used only for identical jobs. MS Word, Excel, etc. are common example of it.

1.3.2. Hardware:

Computers generally are of three type i.e. mainframe, mini and personal. What we see on our desk is a personal computer. It has only been developed after the mainframe and mini computer. Mainframe and mini computers, though fast in processing, were large in size, costly and needed experts for use and application.

But the Personal Computer (PC) has removed all these limitations and has made the computing popular. Now we shall study the component of a typical personal computer. In other words we shall study the hardware of a PC.

The hard wares of a typical PC include:

Visual display unit

Keyboard / Mouse

System unit, which contains the motherboard, disk drive, expansion card, and input/output ports

Printer

Visual Display Unit (VDU) -

The two general categories of PC visual presentation are monitor and display. A

monitor has a Cathode Ray Tube (CRT) and looks something like a traditional television set. On the other hand, a display is a flat-panel Liquid Crystal Display

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(LCD) that can be attached to a PC or hung on the wall. A display is really an adaptation of the monitor, but because it uses different technology, they are treated as two different components.

A monitor has some advantages over the display. It is bright, well-lit, and economical and produces excellent color and graphic qualities. A monitor uses the same technology common to the television set. The monitor is basically a funnel shaped glass tube (technically known as cathode ray tube) that uses electron guns to light up (technically known as excite) phosphor elements on the back of display glass. The lighted phosphorous blend to form images and movements and is shown through the display of the CRT for the user to view. The user views the phosphorous through a single pane of glass, which is why the display is so bright and why it is easily viewed from an angle.

But if there is limitation of space on a desk or worktable an LCD display is a more suitable option than a CRT monitor. A typical CRT monitor are 12 inch or more from front to back, which can take a considerable amount of workspace on a desk.

Flat-panel LCD displays are typically only a few inches deep including its foot, which makes them perfect for small desks or places where a large CRT monitor would negatively impact the aesthetics or decor. Even the new PCs that are integrated into the same package as a flat-panel display are only inches in depth.

Flat-panel LCD display are backlit, which means the light source of the display shine through several layers of filters and glass before on see it. This is why LCD displays appear to be less bright than a CRT-style display and less legible from an angle. However, LCD displays are digital, which means they are able to reproduce images more accurately, especially colors.

The monitor and display can be found in different sizes. The most popular sizes are

14-inch, 15-inch, 17-inch, 19-inch and 21-inch. This is the size of the CRT or LCD measured diagonally from a top corner to an opposite bottom corner (in the same way a television set is measured and marketed). The viewable size of CRT, however, is a bit less than its nominal size for the front bezel (the plastic around the edge of the display) covers up a small portion of the display.

The images displayed on a monitor are created from a pattern of dots in much the same way as the photographs in a newspaper. Dots are shaded lighter or darker so that ones eyes can form a visual image from them. The CRT creates these dots from the phosphor on the back of its screen using masking methods that isolate each dot so that it can be illuminated by an electron gun.

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A monochrome, or single color, monitor has phosphor of only one color, so that when the phosphor dots are illuminated, the text and the graphic image is a single color on a contrasting background. Typically, the background is black and the display color is green, amber or white.

The image produced on a color monitor is created by illuminated small triangles of phosphor dots called picture elements, or pixels for short. In the CRT, one-third of the dots are red dots, one-third are green dots, and one-third are blue dots. These different colored dots are interspersed evenly on the screen so that a dot of each color can be grouped with a dot of each of the other colors to form a triangle or pixel.

A color CRT has three electron guns that are used to light up the phosphors in each pixel. The combinations and intensities used to illuminate the phosphors define the image produced on the screen. The electronic guns sweep over the pixels from side to side, one row at a time, to create or refresh the displayed image.

LCD displays are of two different types: passive matrix and active matrix. A passive matrix display has a layer of LCD elements on a grid (matrix) of wires. When current is applied to the wire intersections, the diodes (pixels) are lighted. A passive matrix refreshes the display by applying current to the pixels at a fixed rate. Active matrix displays control each LCD element (diode) individually with one or more transistors that continually refresh each element of the display.

Keyboard

The most common input device is the keyboard. The keyboard allows a user to communicate with the PC through keystrokes that represent character data and commands. Virtually every PC sold has a keyboard included as a part of its standard package. In fact, most people take their keyboard for granted and rarely even think about it.

Most keyboard layouts are still a variation on the key layout of a typewriter, at least for the alphabetic, numerical, and special character keys. However, keyboards also include a variety of other keys that are dedicated to specific functions or are assigned functions by the software running on the PC, such as a keyboard‘s function keys.

Mouse

The mouse is a very natural, intuitive, inexpensive pointing device on a graphical user interface like Windows. Two types o mouse in use today are:

Mechanical Mouse

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Optical Mouse

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Mechanical Mouse

In a mechanical mouse, the movement of a rubber ball causes a pair of wheels to spin that sensors detect to send data signal to the PC. Later modification came to it and light emitting diodes were used to sense mouse movements and thus termed as optomechanical mouse. A little modification of optomechanical mouse when a finger wheel was attached on the top of it, typically between the two buttons i.e. left click button and right click button. The wheel allows the user to scroll forward and backward through a document in place of clicking on a window‘s scroll bar or using the PAGE UP and PAGE DOWN keys or the cursor control arrow keys or the cursor control arrow keys.

Optical Mouse

The optical mouse eliminates the mouse ball, replacing it with a optical sensors that track the movement of the mouse against the background of the mouse pad or whichever flat surface it‘s on. One real advantage to the optical mouse over the optomechanical mouse is that it does not require internal cleaning. Because it has eliminated all moving parts, the optical mouse does not pick up dust and other debris that could clog up the optomechanical mouse and require it to be regularly cleaned. Another advantage is that, according to manufacturer claims, an optical mouse is at least 33 percent faster and many times more accurate than an optomechanical mouse.

1.3.3 Internal Hardware

The major components within a typical system case are:

Microprocessors

Motherboard

Chipsets and Controllers

BIOS

Computer Memory

Cache Memory

Hard Disks and Floppy Disks

CD-ROMs

Expansion Cards

Power Supply

Now we will discuss in brief each of these components.

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Microprocessors

The microprocessor is a multi function integrated circuit that is, in essence, the computer. The processor, which is also called the central processing unit (CPU), is made up of several parts. These parts work together to carry out the instructions and actions that translate to a word processing system or a game on the PC.

Microprocessor of Intel is very popular and has a very higher clock speed. The clock speeds of the Pentium I processor of Intel range from 60 MHz to 200 MHz and that of Pentium IV range from 1.3 GHz to 3 GHz.

The primary parts of the CPU are Control Unit, Protection Test Unit, Arithmetic and

Logic Unit, Floating Point Unit, Memory Management Unit, Bus Interface Unit, The

Prefetch Unit, Decode Unit and Registers.

Motherboard

A motherboard (also known as a main board or system board) aggregates all of the

PC's primary system components on a single printed circuit board. In the motherboard's single board design all the Pc's electronic circuitry that provides the conduit through which all operations flow is located on the motherboard.

The major components found in a typical motherboard are CPU slot and socket,

Chipset, Memory sockets, BIOS ROM, CMOS battery, Power connectors, I/O

Connectors and Expansion Slots.

Chipset

The chipset is technically a group of chips that helps the processor and other components on the PC communicate with and control all of the devices plugged into the motherboard. The chipset controls the bits (data, instructions, and control signals) that flow between the CPU, system memory and over the motherboard's bus. The controller chip also manages data transfers between the CPU, memory and peripheral devices and provides support for the expansion bus and power management features of the system.

BIOS

A PC's BIOS (Basic Input / Output System) includes the programming to perform three vital useful functions for the PC:

It boots the computer.

It validates the PC's configuration.

It provides an interface between the hardware of the PC and its software.

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ROM

ROM (Read Only Memory) is an electronic component. The data stored on ROM can not be changed. Moreover it is nonvolatile i.e. it keeps its content even without a power source. This makes it ideal for storing the PC's startup instructions and system BIOS.

CMOS

CMOS memory is based on Complementary Metal Oxide Semiconductor technology and requires only about one-millionth of an ampere to hold any data stored on it.

Using only a lithium battery, CMOS memory is able to store the startup configuration of a PC for many years. The term CMOS is still synonymous with the

PC's startup configuration data.

RAM

RAM (Random Access Memory) is used in the PC for its primary memory. RAM is where all active programs and data are stored to that they are readily available and easily accessed by the CPU and other component of PC. When a program is executed, a copy of the program from the hard disk is copied into RAM. Once it is in RAM, the instructions that make up the program are passed one at a time to the

CPU for execution. Any data that the program accepts or reads from a disk is also stored in RAM. It is a volatile but very fast in accessing the data. For example accessing data from a hard disk takes from 8 to 16 milli-second while the same data from RAM takes from 50 to 80 nano-second. The size of the RAM is measured in bytes e.g. kilobyte or megabyte.

Cache Memory

Cache memory is very fast computer memory that is used to hold frequently requested data and instructions. A cache is any buffer storage used to improve computer performance by reducing its access time. The cache is commonly found between RAM and CPU. To speed up the transfer of data and programs from the hard disk drive to RAM, also, a disk cache is used.

Hard Disk & Floppy Disk Drives

Hard disk and floppy disk are types of secondary storage, with the PC's RAM providing its primary storage. Hard disk drive is electronic equipment which stores the data on the hard disk of the system. Whereas floppy disk drive stores the data of the system on the floppies which are kept outside the system and helps in the transfer of data from one system to another.

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CD-ROM Drive with Writer

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CD-ROM (Compact Disk Read Only Memory) Drive is a new invention and has solved the problem of secondary storage. A huge data can be stored on a single CD.

The technology used is same as that of audio CD. Earlier once the data stored on a

CD was not re-writable but now the data can be written, read and re-written on the

CD through the CD Drive.

Expansion Card

Expansion cards are used to connect different peripherals (like ports providing network connection, memory expansion etc.) of the computer to its motherboard.

Power Supply

The PC's power supply unit converts AC power from the wall socket to DC power for the computer. Even the devise outside the computer case use DC power. In making this conversion, the functions the power supply performs are conversion, rectification, filtering, regulation, isolation, cooling, and power management.

Peripheral devices such as printers, external modems and disk drive use Ac power converters to convert AC power to DC power.

1.4 Operating Systems

An operating system is a collection of programs that is needed to start and operate the computer system. It works mostly in the background, specially when one start the computer system, it is the operating system which takes over and does the household routines on the computer system and hands over the computer to that self for operation. Moreover it checks for the various commands that are given to the computer to ensure that nothing wrong is happening.

Operating system also acts as an interface between a user and the hardware of the computer. It controls and coordinates the use of the hardware among the various application programs and thus acts as a Resource Manager.

We can thus summarize the functions of operating system as follows –

Execution of program

Input/Output operation

Handling File System

Detection of errors

Allocation of resources

Information and Resource Protection

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All these services are ensured by the functions provided by an operating system.

The functions offered by different operating system differs from one operating system differs from one operating system to another, but more or less they provide the same services. Most commonly used operating systems are:

MS DOS

Windows

UNIX

Linux

1.4.1 MS DOS (MicroSoft Disk Operating System)

Microsoft's Disk Operating System, simply known as MS DOS had been the prominent software for the running of the Personal Computer (PC). Actually it was the big factor in popularizing the PC. Starting with version 1.0 MS DOS has now come to the version 7.

The operating system should always remain in the main memory. The process of transferring the operating system to the main memory is known as booting. The operating system contains three files for booting viz.:

IO.SYS hidden file

MSDOS.SYS hidden file

COMMAND.COM

If the floppy contains these three files in the 0 track then it is called as booting floppy.

There is a program called Bootstrap (Boot Program) in BIOS chip in the computer.

It does the following functions.

Testing the Hardware as per configuration

Search the OS and transfer the same i.e. it reads the boot sector, which contains DOS boot record and then transfers the same to the main memory.

The boot record copies the IO.SYS, which contains SYSINT. Once IO.SYS is loaded, boot record is not required. The SYSINIT will take care of further action. Now

MSDOS.SYS is loaded. Now SYSINIT searches for the CONFIG.SYS file and then loads the same and gives instruction to MSDOS.SYS to act on CONFIG.SYS. The

SYSINIT instructs the MSDOS.SYS to load COMMAND.COM.

The COMMAND.COM contains the I/O operation and internal commands. It is the command interpreter. After the loading of the COMMAND.COM the

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AUTOEXEC.BAT file will be executed. Finally the prompt will be displayed on the

VDU indicating that the booting is successfully completed and now the PC is ready to accept any command.

A command is something you use to instruct MS-DOS what to do. All commands are entered in the command line following the MS-DOS prompt. A command is entered along with the necessary parameters and switches. So,

Command - what is to be done (What to do)

Parameters - to act upon what (Where to do)

Switches - how the command is to be carried out (How to do)

DOS commands are divided into internal commands and external commands.

Internal command are memory resident. They are available in command.com.

The external commands are available in the form of a file, whose name is same as the command with extension as either COM or EXE. Whenever the command is issued the processor refers to the file and executes the command.

1.4.2 Windows

Windows is also a product of Microsoft. From Windows 95 to Windows xp it has seen several version with each newer version improved over the older. What makes it different from the MS-DOS is that it is based on Graphic User Interface (GUI).

Here the user is not required to write a command in the command line as in the

MS DOS rather he can use different menus of commands available on the screen.

Moreover it is mouse compatible. So a user is required to click the mouse only to access different commands.

Another feature of this operating system is that multiple works can be carried out through several windows which can be operated simultaneously. For example, while the system is copying the file from the computer to floppy one can also read another file. This feature of window has made it much popular and time saving.

1.4.3 UNIX

A multi-user, multitasking operating system that is widely used as the master control program in workstations and servers. The Open Group holds the trademark for the UNIX name (spelled in upper case) on behalf of the industry and provides compliance certification to the UNIX standard.

Unix is written in C. Both Unix and C were developed by AT&T and freely distributed to government and academic institutions, causing it to be ported to a

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Unix became synonymous with "open systems."

Unix is made up of the kernel, file system and a shell, which is the command line interface with more than 600 commands for manipulating data and text. The major shells are the Bourne shell (original), C shell and Korn shell.

Varieties of commercial applications run on Unix servers, and many Web sites run under Unix. Over the years, there have been many different versions of the OS, and, except for the PC world, where Windows dominates, almost every hardware vendor offers Unix as its primary or secondary operating system. Sun has been singularly instrumental in commercializing Unix with its Solaris OS (formerly

SunOS). HP, IBM, SCO and Digital (before it merged with Compaq) have also been major Unix promoters.

1.4.4 LINUX

A very popular version of the Unix operating system that runs on a variety of hardware platforms including x86, Itanium, PowerPC and IBM's entire product line.

Linux is widely used as a server OS and is gaining ground in the desktop market.

In 1990, Finnish computer science student Linus Torvalds turned Minix, a popular classroom teaching tool, into Linux, which is closer to the real Unix. Torvalds created the kernel, and most of the supporting applications and utilities came from the GNU project of the Free Software Foundation. Many programmers have contributed to the Linux/GNU system.

Linux is the most popular open source operating system in use now. Its source code is available free of charge; however, Linux is distributed along with technical support and training for a fee from several vendors such as Red Hat Software

(www.redhat.com) and SUSE Inc. (www.suse.com). The distribution CD-ROMs include the complete source code as well as hundreds of tools, applets and utilities.

1.5.Storage devices

Most of the storage media in PC systems operate on magnetic principles. Hard disk is the largest external memory of a PC system. It can be classified as exchangeable

& fixed. It is attached to a PC system through an IDE(Intelligent Drive Electronics) adapter port or SCSI(Small Computer System Interface) adapter port. It is available in different capacities like 20 GB, 40 GB, 80 GB,100 GB etc.

A Hard Disk Drive is a sealed unit that a PC uses for non-volatile data storage.

Nonvolatile, or permanent storage, in this case, means that the storage device

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Disk fails, the consequences are usually very serious.

1.5.1 Hard Disk

A Hard disk drive contains rigid, disk-shaped platters, usually constructed of aluminium or glass. A motor spins the platters at 5400 or 7200 rpm when the drive is operating. In order to increase the amount of information the drive can store, most hard disks have multiple platters and read/write heads.

Data is stored on the surface of a platter in sectors and tracks. Tracks are concentric circles and sectors are pie-shaped wedges on a track.

A sector contains a fixed number of bytes- say 256 or 512 bytes. Sectors are often grouped together into clusters.

The identically positioned tracks on each side of every platter together make up a cylinder. A HDD normally has one head per platter side, with all the heads on a common carrier device, or rack.

The process of low-level formatting a drive establishes the tracks and sectors on the platter. The starting and ending points of each sector are written onto the platter.

High level formatting then writes the file-storage structures like the file-allocation table into the sectors. This process prepares the drive to hold files.

A Hard disk drive is designed to be used with more than one operating system.

Partitioning enables a single HDD to run more than one type of Operating System or it can enable a single Operating System to use the disk as several volumes or

Operating System assigns a drive letter or name.

1.5.2 Floppy Disk

Floppy disk is another magnetic storage device. It is made of thin, flexible Mylar plastic coated with magnetic material and protected by an envelop. Earlier, 5.25” floppy disk with capacity 360 KB were in use. Nowadays 3.25” floppy disks are only available in the market with capacity 1.44MB.

On the basis of recording density and capacity of a sector, floppy can be classified as single density and double density disk.

The major parts of a Floppy disk drive include:

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1) Read/write head: Located on both sides of a diskette, they move together on the same assembly.

2) Drive motor: A very small motor that spins at either 300 or 360 rotations per minute.

3) Stepper motor: This motor makes a precise number of stepped revolutions to move the read/write head assembly to the proper track position.

4) Mechanical frame: A system of levers that opens the little protective window on the diskette to allow the read/write heads to touch the dual-sided diskette media.

5) Circuit board: Contains all of the electronics to handle the data read from or written to the diskette.

1.5.3 CDROM

CDROMs are used for storing large software packages and can contain all types of multimedia data storing over 650MB of data. They are optical storage devices.A CD is a simple piece of plastic about 1.2 mm thick and 12cm in diameter. CD consists of an injection-molded piece of clear polycarbonate plastic. Once the clear piece of polycarbonate is formed, a thin, reflective aluminum layer is sputtered onto the disc, to make the surface reflective. The colour of a CD can be cyanine-green,

Phthalo cyanine- yellow or azo-blue. Then a thin acrylic layer is sprayed over the aluminum to protect it. The label is then printed onto the acrylic.

A CD has a single spiral track of data, circling from the inside of the disc to the outside. The data track is approximately 0.5 microns wide, with 1.6 microns separating one track from the next. The track always circles from the inside of

the disc to the outside.

1.6 Programming

1.6.1 Overview:

Computer programming (often shortened to programming or coding) is the process of designing, writing, testing, debugging, and maintaining the source code of computer programs. This source code is written in one or more programming languages. The purpose of programming is to create a set of instructions that computers use to perform specific operations or to exhibit desired behaviors. The process of writing source code often requires expertise in many

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1.6.2 Need for Languages:

A programming language is an artificial language designed to communicate instructions to a machine, particularly a computer. Programming languages can be used to create programs that control the behavior of a machine and/or to express algorithms precisely.

The earliest programming languages predate the invention of the computer, and were used to direct the behavior of machines such as Jacquard looms and player pianos. Thousands of different programming languages have been created, mainly in the computer field, with many more being created every year. Most programming languages describe computation in an imperative style, i.e., as a sequence of commands, although some languages, such as those that support functional programming or logic programming, use alternative forms of description.

The description of a programming language is usually split into the two components of syntax (form) and semantics (meaning). Some languages are defined by a specification document (for example, the C programming language is specified by an ISO Standard), while other languages, such as Perl 5 and earlier, have a dominant implementation that is used as a reference.

A vocabulary and set of grammatical rules for instructing a computer to perform specific tasks. The term programming language usually refers tohigh-level languages, such as BASIC, C, C++, COBOL, FORTRAN, Ada, and Pascal.

Each language has a unique set of keywords (words that it understands) and a special syntax for organizing program instructions.

High-level programming languages, while simple compared to human languages, are more complex than the languages the computer actually understands,

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UOM-S007 called machine languages. Each different type of CPU has its own unique machine language.

Lying between machine languages and high-level languages are languages called assembly languages. Assembly languages are similar to machine languages, but they are much easier to program in because they allow a programmer to substitute names for numbers. Machine languages consist of numbers only.

Lying above high-level languages are languages called fourth-generation

languages (usually abbreviated 4GL). 4GLs are far removed from machine languages and represent the class of computer languages closest to human languages.

Regardless of what language you use, you eventually need to convert your program into machine language so that the computer can understand it. There are two ways to do this: compile the program

interpret the program

See compile and interpreter for more information about these two methods.

The question of which language is best is one that consumes a lot of time and energy among computer professionals. Every language has its strengths and weaknesses. For example, FORTRAN is a particularly good language for processing numerical data, but it does not lend itself very well to organizing large programs.

Pascal is very good for writing well-structured and readable programs, but it is not as flexible as the C programming language. C++ embodies powerful objectoriented features, but it is complex and difficult to learn.

The choice of which language to use depends on the type of computer the program is to run on, what sort of program it is, and the expertise of the programmer.

1.6.3 Skills Needed In Programming

Programming does not represent a theoretical subject like Biology, Physics,

Mathematics or Chemistry. Consequently it is not necessary to have an advanced degree in order to do very well or rather become perfect at programming.

In comparison to a variety of so-called physical tasks such as writing poetries, singing, painting, gymnastics or rhyming, programming is not in need of special innate talents or skills. So programming does not require strength, power, condition or coordination. In order to do very well at programming it is necessary to be careful and have a special capacity like craftsmanship.

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Things that are required for doing very well at programming are attention to detail, specialized and technical knowledge, stupidity, good memory and the specific ability to think in an abstract way in both all respects and every sense.

1. Attention to detail: Considering the matter of programming details are playing a significant and very important role. So if the respective programming language says it is necessary to declare and specify variables before using them, you have to do so. However, if the programming language requires the usage of parentheses, brackets and square brackets, you have to do so as well.

2. Specialized and Technical knowledge: If you want to do very well at programming you should have a profound specialized and technical knowledge considering programming languages, programming in general, web hosting , servers, etc. Be sure that you possess expert knowhow considering all things that have to do with web sites and web development as well as other related issues such as for instance configuration, optimization and practical use of both servers and web hosting.

3. Stupidity: You certainly will not believe, but in spite of all it is true that computers are incredibly stupid. Fact is that computers do only those things you tell them to do – no more, no less. When it comes to programming in connection with the so-called stupidity of computers it is helpful to think as stupidly as computers do.

4. Good Memory: Programming requires a very good memory. Because of the fact that there are loads of important things and details to remember, it is essential to be able to memorize basic and relevant programming facts.

Some of these are for instance the syntax of the respective programming language, prewritten functions and parameters, variables and specific functions, bugs you have had in the past and you want to avoid in the future, etc. So the more of this basic know-how and details you are able to keep in mind, the more successful you will be at programming.

5. Ability to think in an abstract way: The specific ability to think in an abstract way on several levels as well as in all respects is certainly the most essential skill in programming. Strictly speaking computers do represent one of the most extensive and complex systems of all which do require knowing and memorizing every single basic aspect and function of this system at all levels as well as in all respects.

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1.7.Networking Basics:

The term network usually means a set of computers and peripherals (printers, modems, plotters, scanners, and so on) that are connected together by some medium. The connection can be direct (through a cable) or indirect (through a modem). The different devices on the network communicate with each other through a predefined set of rules called the protocol. Computer networks allow people and machines to communicate, using a number of services.

The networking of computers become essential for two reasons:

Data Sharing

Resource Sharing

Data Sharing

Networks offer the capabilities of multi-user access to the organisational Data.

Shared files may exist in one location with multiple people accessing them or updating parts of them. Database applications are found in virtually every computerised organisation. Transmitting E-mail is one method of sharing data.

This avoids the face to face contact of people and improves the faster data flow.

Not only data files may be shared, but executable files may be shared as well. When a user invokes an executable file on a network server, a copy of it is transmitted over the network into the memory of the local user's workstation. That is where the actual execution takes place, not on the file server

Resource Sharing

One of the distinct benefits of networking is the ability to share peripherals. For example Laser Printer is costly and for a small office one can not afford to purchase more than one printer to attach for each PCs. Instead one Laser Printer can be shared by more PCs when the PCs are connected through Network. The ability of sharing printers and disk space has been the driving force behind many companies installing PC-based networks.

Line Configuration:

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The Line configuration defines the attachment of Network devices to a link. There are basically two type of line configurations are there, they are:

Point to Point

Multi Point

The Point to Point line configuration provides a dedicated link between two Network devices. The entire band width is available for transmission.

The Multi point Line configuration is also called Multi drop. In Multi Point Line configuration more than two devices share the media. The bandwidth is shared either Spatially or Temporally. If several devices can use the link simultaneously it is a spatially shared line configuration. If the user must take turns, it is a time shared Line configuration

Topology

The Physical layout or how the transmission media are wired together is known as the Physical topology.

There are different type of topologies used in the Network they are:



BUS Topology

 Ring Topology



Star Topology



Mesh Topology

 Tree Topology

The Bus Topology

The bus network is the simplest, comprising a single main communications pathway with each device attached to a single transmission media.

Terminat or

A bus topology is a multipoint line configuration. A bus topology uses a single transmission media to which network devices are attached. This single

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UOM-S007 transmission media acts as backbone. Because all workstations share this bus, a workstation checks for any information that might be coming down the backbone before sending their messages. All messages pass the other workstations on the way to their destinations. Each workstation then checks the address of each message to see if it matches its own.

The primary advantage of a bus network is that it allows for a high-speed bus.

Another advantage of the bus network is that it is usually immune to problems.

Ends are terminated with a terminator called Head End to avoid signal reflection.

Advantages of a BUS Topology

Easy to connect a computer or peripheral to a linear bus.

Requires less cable length than a star topology.

Disadvantages of a Bus Topology

Entire network shuts down if there is a break in the main cable.

Terminators are required at both ends of the backbone cable.

Difficult to identify the problem if the entire network shuts down.

Not meant to be used as a stand-alone solution in a large building.

Ring Topology

Ring topologies consist of several nodes joined together to form a circle. In a ring topology each device has a dedicated point to point line configuration only with the other two devices on the either side of it. Ring consists of series of 150 Ω shielded twisted pair cable connecting each station to its neighbour. Output port of one device is connected to input port of its neighbour. Messages move from one node to the next, in one direction only. When a node receives a message that is addressed to itself, the message is copied and sent back with a modification that indicates it was received. Data was transmitted Uni-directionally around the ring.

Each workstation acted as a repeater, accepting and responding to packets addressed to it, and forwarding on the other packets to the next workstation

―downstream.‖ (i.e the frame is passed to each station in sequence, where the frame is examined, regenerated and then passed to the neighbour).

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Ring Topology

Multi Access Unit

A disabled or disconnected node may block the Ring. To avoid this an automatic switch will by pass the faulty NIC. Once the node comes live it will be put in to the Ring. For practical purpose these switches are combined into a centralised devices called Multi Access Unit (MAU). The Multi Access Unit will have multiple ports to connect the devices.

Advantages:

The benefit of such LANs was that response time was fairly predictable.

Disadvantages:

The more devices there were in the ring, the longer the network delays.The entire network could be completely disabled if one of the workstations failed.

Star Topology

The star topology uses a central device with drop cables extending in all directions.

Each networked device is connected point-to-point to the central device, or hub. In

Star topology, each node has a dedicated Point to Point link only to the Hub. The devices are not directly linked. All messages in a star topology must go through the central device (Hub) before reaching their destination. It also acts as a repeater for the data flow. This configuration is common with twisted pair cable; however, it can also be used with coaxial cable or fibre optic cable.

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Easy to install and wire.

No disruptions to the network then connecting or removing devices.

Easy to detect faults and to remove parts.

Disadvantages of a Star Topology

Requires more cable length than a linear topology.

If the hub or concentrator fails, nodes attached are disabled.

More expensive than linear bus topologies because of the cost of the concentrators.

The protocols used with star configurations are usually Ethernet or LocalTalk.

Token Ring uses a similar topology, called the star-wired ring.

Tree Toplology

In tree topology devices are connected to a secondary hub and that in turn connected to central Hub. A tree topology combines characteristics of linear bus and star topologies. It consists of groups of star-configured workstations connected to a linear bus backbone cable. Tree topologies allow for the expansion of an existing network, and enable schools to configure a network to meet their needs.

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Advantages of a Tree Topology

Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.

Supported by several hardware and software vendors.

Disadvantages of a Tree Topology

Overall length of each segment is limited by the type of cabling used.

If the backbone line breaks, the entire segment goes down.

More difficult to configure and wire than other topologies.

Mesh Topology

Mesh topology is uncommon today because of its sheer impracticality. In a mesh topology system, every node is connected to every other node. The pervading thought behind this is to offer the maximum amount of reliability for data transit and fault-tolerance.

1.8 Virus:

A computer virus is a program that spreads by first infecting files or the system areas of a computer or network router's hard drive and then making copies of itself.

Some viruses are harmless, others may damage data files, and some may destroy files. Viruses used to be spread when people shared floppy disks and other portable media, now viruses are primarily spread through email messages.

Unlike worms, viruses often require some sort of user action (e.g., opening an email attachment or visiting a malicious web page) to spread.

A virus is simply a computer program--it can do anything that any other program you run on your computer can do. Some viruses are designed to deliberately damage files, and others may just spread to other computers. A worm is a type of virus that can spread without human interaction. Worms often spread from computer to computer and take up valuable memory and network bandwidth, which can cause a computer to stop responding. Worms can also allow attackers to gain access to your computer remotely.

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A Trojan horse is a computer program that is hiding a virus or other potentially damaging program. A Trojan horse can be a program that purports to do one action when, in fact, it is performing a malicious action on your computer. Trojan horses can be included in software that you download for free or as attachments in email messages.

Most viruses, Trojan horses, and worms are activated when you open an attachment or click a link contained in an email message. If your email client allows scripting, then it is possible to get a virus by simply opening a message. It's best to limit what HTML is available in your email messages. The safest way to view email messages is in plain text.

Most users get viruses from opening and running unknown email attachments.

Never open anything that is attached to an email message unless you know the contents of the file. If you receive an attachment from a familiar email address, but were not expecting anything, you should contact the sender before opening the attachment. If you receive a message with an attachment and you do not recognize the sender, you should delete the message.

Selecting the option to view your email messages in plain text, not HTML, will also help you to avoid a virus.

Tips to avoid virus:

Install anti-virus software from a reputable vendor. Update it and use it regularly.

In addition to scanning for viruses on a regular basis, install an "on access" scanner (included in most anti-virus software packages) and configure it to start each time you start up your computer. This will protect your system by checking for viruses each time you run an executable file.

Use a virus scan before you open any new programs or files that may contain executable code. This includes packaged software that you buy from the store as well as any program you might download from the internet.

If you are a member of an online community or chat room, be very careful about accepting files or clicking links that you find or that people send you within the community.

Make sure you back up your data (documents, bookmark files, important email messages, etc.) on disc so that in the event of a virus infection, you do not lose valuable work.

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1.9 Hacking:

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Hacking is the practice of modifying the features of a system, in order to accomplish a goal outside of the creator's original purpose. The person who is consistently engaging in hacking activities, and has accepted hacking as a lifestyle and philosophy of their choice, is called a

hacker

Computer hacking

is the most popular form of hacking nowadays, especially in the field of computer security, but hacking exists in many other forms, such as phone hacking, brain hacking, etc. and it's not limited to either of them.

Due to the mass attention given to blackhat hackers from the media, the whole hacking term is often mistaken for any security related cyber crime. This damages the reputation of all hackers, and is very cruel and unfair to the law abiding ones of them, from who the term itself originated. The goal of this website is to introduce people the true philosophy and ethics of hackers, hopefully clearing their name and giving them the social status they deserve.

Common Methods for Hacking Computer Terminals(Servers):

This comprises of either taking control over terminal(or Server) or render it useless or to crash it.. following methods are used from a long time and are still used.

1.Denial Of Service

DoS attacks give hackers a way to bring down a network without gaining internal access.

DoSattacks work by flooding the access routers with bogus traffic(which can be e-mail or Transmission Control Protocol, TCP, packets).

2.Sniffing

Sniffing refers to the act of intercepting TCP packets. This interception can happen through simple eavesdropping or something more sinister.

3. Spoofing

Spoofing is the act of sending an illegitimate packet with an expected acknowledgment (ACK), which a hacker can guess, predict, or obtain by snooping

4. Viruses and Worms

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Viruses and worms are self-replicating programs or code fragments that attach themselves to other programs (viruses) or machines (worms). Both viruses and worms attempt to shut down networks by flooding them with massive amounts of bogus traffic, usually through e-mail.

5. Back Doors

Hackers can gain access to a network by exploiting back doors administrative shortcuts, configuration errors, easily deciphered passwords, and unsecured dialups. With the aid ofcomputerized searchers (bots), hackers can probably find any weakness in the network.

6. Trojan Horses

Trojan horses, which are attached to other programs, are the leading cause of all break-ins. When a user downloads and activates a Trojan horse, the software can take the full control over the system and you can remotely control the whole system.. great..!!! They are also reffered as RATs(Remote Administration tools)

7. Keyloggers

Consider the situation, everything you type in the system is mailed to the hacker..!!

Wouldn't it be easy to track your password from that.. Keyloggers perform similar functionallities.. So next time you type anything.. Beware..!! Have already posted about keyloggers and ways to protect yourself from them..

8. Social Engineering

This was one of the oldest trick to hack.. Try to convince your user that you are a legitimate person from the system and needs your password for the continuation of the service or somemaintainence.. This won't work now since most of the users are now aware about the Scam.. But this Social Engginering concept is must for you to have to convince victim for many reasons..!!!

9.Phishing

This is another type of keylogging, here you have to bring the user to a webpage created by you resembling the legitimate one and get him to enter his password, to get the same in your mail box..!! Use social engginering..

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10. Fake Messengers

So its a form of phishing in the application format.. getting user, to enter the login info in the software and check your maill..!!!

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UNIT II - WORD PROCESSING

MS-WORD or Word in short, is a comprehensive word processing software package.

It provides all the features of a most advanced electronic typewriter. In addition to these, many other features are also available in Word.

Some of the important features are given below. You can

Insert characters, words, sentences, paragraphs or pages of text anywhere in the opened file.

Alter, insert, delete, or correct any character, paragraph, page at any time in the file.

Move a selected portion of text to any location in the file using a few keystrokes or mouse clicks.

Copy a section of text and insert it in any location using a few key strokes or mouse clicks.

Find and replace a character, a word or phrase repeatedly.

View the document in its true form or in miniaturized form.

Insert pictures and objects in the existing text.

Check the spelling and correct the wrongly typed words.

Check the grammar in a portion or entire document in the file.

Check the words with similar and opposite meaning for a given word.

Create a multi column document.

Introduce numbering and bullet in the document.

Insert a table.

Use different fonts of different styles for a part/entire file.

Superscript or subscript.

Draw shapes using available drawing tools.

Create borders and shades.

Create headers and footers.

Resize the pages and so on.

A typical Word screen looks like Fig-1.1

Elements of Word Window

Word is built around a set of interactive windows (rectangular on-screen boxes) through which you communicate with the Word Program.

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Figure 1.1 shows two windows on the screen, one nested within the other. They are called

Application window and

Document window.

Application Window -Application window is the outer window that contains the workspace for all word-processing procedures. Application window frames the entire screen of the monitor. You use it to communicate with the Word program.

Document Window -Document window sits within application window. It is the inner window where the text and images are entered.

Control Menu Box- This appears at the top-left corner of the window. When clicked, it displays menu options to move, resize, close a window, or switch to other applications.

Sizing Buttons-They are located in the upper-right corner of the window. They are called minimize button, maximize/resize button, close button.

Minimize button- This  is located to the left of the resizing button. A click on it reduces a Window to a button on Taskbar.

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Maximize/resize button- The  button, when clicked enlarges a program window to fill the entire screen or enlarge a document window to increase the work area inside an application window.

Close button- Clicking on this button closes the window.

Title Bar- Title Bar is the band displaying the name of the application. Title bar is a part of the application window. The inner window displays the contents of the current document. Title bar displays the name of the opened document as

Document1. If you open one more document, the name of that document will be displayed as Document2. When you save the documents, Save As dialog box appears and now you can opt for same name or a new one.

Menu Bar- It contains different menus located below the Title bar. You can select any of the options by clicking on it or pressing Alt key and then the underlined alphabet (Hot key). Refer figure 1.1. When you click on a menu, a list of options drops down. From it select any option by clicking on it. If an item appears dimmed

(usually in gray shade), it means that it is not available for use.

Standard Toolbar- This bar is usually located below the menu bar. It contains the tools that are used very frequently while working with the documents. Each tool is activated by clicking on its icon. See fig 1.1

Formatting Toolbar- This toolbar contains drop down menus for different headings, types and sizes of fonts, borders and shades and also options of text attributes, text alignments, bullets and indents. See fig.1.1.

Ruler- Ruler contains scales that indicate the tabs, indents, and margin/paragraph settings for the line/paragraph in which the insertion point is currently positioned.

The settings of current paragraph may be quickly changed through the use of the mouse and the ruler.

Insertion Point- It is the vertical blinking line in the document window that indicates current location and where the next text entry or graphics will be inserted.

I-Beam-Pointer- It is the shape of the mouse pointer when it navigates within the text area of the document window. (The pointer will take different shapes depending on its location in the Word window and the Word procedures currently in use.)

Status Bar- It is the bar at the bottom of the Word window that includes the page number; section number, current page / total pages, the position of the insertion

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Scroll Bars- They are the bars along the sides and/or bottom of a window, a dialog box, or a list. They indicate that there is more information to be seen by scrolling.

To scroll through a document content, click on the beginning or end arrows located on the scroll bar, or drag the scroll box slowly along the bar. The location of the scroll box on the bar indicates the position of currently displayed information in relation to the entire document.

The files in Word normally are called documents and DOC is the extension attached by the system to the name of a Word file

2.1.1 Opening a Document

In File menu,

Click New for opening a new document.

Click Open for the existing document

Otherwise the respective icons in the standard tool bar can be clicked.

If you click New, the New dialog box appears. In that, choose blank document (in

General tab option). Click OK. A blank document is opened with its name as

Document1, say, on the title bar. While saving this document, Save in dialog box will appear. Choose the drive/folder/file‘s name and then click on the Save button.

The document will be saved with this new name.

If you click Open in the file menu, Open dialog box appears. Choose the drive/folder/file to be opened and click on the Open button. The particular document will be opened.

2.1.2 Saving a Document

As you enter information into a new document, the information is temporarily stored in the computer‘s memory. The computer‘s memory will be erased when the computer is turned off (or when you exit from your program). Saving the document as a file on a disk provides a permanent copy of the document. A saved file can be recalled later and its contents can be edited and can then be saved with modifications included in it.

When you save a document as a file, you must give a name to it and specify the location (drive and folder) where the file is to be stored.

Complete the following steps to save the current document.

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Click on the Save button on the Standard toolbar to display the Save As dialog box

(see fig 2.2)

Locate the blinking insertion point in the File name text box. Type the name

CTTC and do not press Enter.

Find the Drives‘ list in the Save in text box. Drop down the menu to choose the drive.

Click either on the name of the drive shown in the Save in textbox, or on the dropdown arrow. Choose one from the list.

If necessary, use the scroll bar to select the name of the drive.

Locate the directory from the list below the Save in text box. Click on the appropriate folder.

Click on the Save button to save the file.

After the file has been saved, note that the title bar on the window now reads

Microsoft word-CTTC.

Modifying and Saving the Document- You have saved the document as CTTC.doc.

But still the document is open. Make some changes or go to the end of the document by pressing Ctrl key and then End key. Enter you name there at the end.

You can save this document as a new file also. If you save this document as RTTC, say, your name will appear in RTTC.doc only. The CTTC.doc will be left unchanged.

To save it as CTTC itself,

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Click on the save button on the Standard Toolbar. No dialog box is presented.

To save it as RTTC, say,

In the File menu, choose Save As option and complete the operations.

2.1.3 Closing a Document and Exiting Word

If the current file is not saved and if you try to close it, a dialog box appears with options whether to save the changes in the file or not. Choosing Yes saves the file under its current name and closes it. If the document is new and has not been saved earlier, Yes option displays the Save As dialog box and complete the operations.

There are numerous ways to exit Word safely. The ways to exit safely from Word are listed as follows. We can use any one method

Open the File menu and click on the Exit option.

Double-click on the Word window control-menu box.

Press the Alt key and F4 key.

Click on the Close x box in the application window.

If the current document has not been saved when you enter the Exit command,

Word displays a dialog box asking with options whether the changes are to be saved or not before exiting the program. On clicking the Yes button, Word saves the document with changes included in it.

Note: Always close all running programs before turning off the computer.

2.2 Entering Text

When the document is opened, the blinking insertion point it is automatically positioned at the top of the document. The default margins are 1.25‖ on left and right, and 1‖ on top and bottom. The standard paper size is 8.5‖ by 11‖(Letter size), default font is 10-point regular Times New Roman. The default document view is

Normal.

In the following exercise, a detailed description of few facilities provided by Word is discussed.

Type the following paragraph. As you key in, notice that the insertion point moves to the right. At the end of one line(boundary fixed by the right margin), Word wraps to move the insertion point automatically to the next line. If you make a mistake while entering, leave it, as you can correct it later.

―Microsoft Word word-processor is being used to create this document. I am looking forward to learning about some of the things that I can do with word so far.

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I have read how to start and exit Word and how to work with some of the dialog boxes. When I complete this section, I will have learned to display- the paragraph marks and symbols that Word uses to organize my document and to select, delete and replace text.‖

Press the tab key once and press Enter.

Press the Enter key again.

Click on the Show/Hide ¶ button to display the tab stops, paragraph and space

markers in your document.

Fig. 2.1 displays one such paragraph.

A paragraph can contain any amount of text or blank lines ending with a paragraph marker. The document on your screen (See figure 2.1) should consist of three paragraph markers. The first paragraph contains the text just entered. The next two paragraphs consist of blank lines. Space is displayed as a dot (•) and tab stop as right pointing arrow ( ).

Note: The dot representing space and the paragraph marker and tab stops are referred to as ‗Non printable characters‘. Though they appear on the screen, they will not appear in print outs.

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Edit and Format

Word offers too many ways to change the appearance of the document. One may change the indents, adjust space between lines or paragraphs and so on. The work of executing such jobs as above is called editing and formatting.

2.2.1 Editing Text

You can open an existing file for modifications, printing etc.

Complete the following exercise to practice opening a file.

Invoke Word.

Click the Open button on the Standard toolbar or from File Menu, click Open to display the Open dialog box.

If necessary, open the Look in drop down list box by clicking on drop down arrow.

Select the Folder in which the file is available.

Move the pointer into the File name text box and double-click to select the current entry or Type Intro.Doc in that text box and press Enter.

Intro.Doc file now is opened. Verify that the Title bar of the window contains

Microsoft Word - Intro.

Open the File menu and click on the Save As option to get the Save As dialog box. Then save the file as ALTTC.

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2.2.2 Formatting Text

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So far, you have entered only plain text. Altering the style or size of the characters is called formatting. Formatting work includes all the functions which contribute for change in appearance of the document.

Word offers many ways to change the appearance of the document. You can format individual character, word, change the indents, change at paragraph level. You can change the font type or size and so on. The Formatting toolbar contains a number of formatting buttons. Refer figure 2.1.

Fonts and its sizes- To change the type or size of the fonts, select the text.Then click the drop down font list on the Formatting toolbar.Select the font from the drop down list, to change the type.

Font type in the selected passage immediately changes. Now select size drop down list. Choose the size and click. The change is effected immediately.

Then, for illustration click B and observe.

Then click I and see.

Then click U and notice.

All the tree boxes are highlighted and the text now assumes bold, italic and underlined. Click B, I and U one by one again. The text assumes original shape and style.

These operations can be done from Format menu also.

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Click Format menu.

Select Font.

Font dialog box appears as shown in fig 3.2.

Choose a font, type and size. This box provides few more facilities also as described in the following.

Superscripts and Subscripts and other effects

To get the superscripts or subscripts and other effects, select the appropriate check box in the Font dialog box.

Bold Face, Italic and Underline - When you select any of these along with font, you get a preview with valuable information displayed below that box. Refer figure 3.2.

Other options can also be selected. See the effects in the preview window.

Getting Italic letters- Select the text and then click I button in Formatting tool bar.

Copying Font Styles- After font formatting you can apply the font formatting of the selected text to other paragraphs easily and repeatedly.

Select the new text paragraph- Choose Repeat Font formatting from Edit Menu and click on it or Press F4.

Changing Case- To change the case of the selected text click on the Format Menu.

Select Change Case and click on it. This opens the change case dialog box, which offers the following five choices.

Sentence Case: Changes the first letter of each sentence into capital.

Lower Case: Changes all the selected text into lower case.

Upper Case: Change the selected text into the upper case.

Title Case: Changes the first letter of each selected into Capital letter.

Toggle Case: Changes the upper case into lower and lower case into upper.

2.2.3 Inserting Bullets and Numbers

You can insert bullets or numbers to your text to give more attraction.

For inserting bullets, select the text and click on Bullets button or Number button in the Standard toolbar. There is the other way to do the above.

From Format menu select Bullets and Numbering and click. In Bullets and

Numbering dialog box, select either Bullets tab or Numbers tab and select any style.

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Removing Bullets and Number- Select the numbered or bulleted passage. Choose

Bullets and Numbering from Format menu. Bullets and Numbering dialog box opens.

Select None.

Select the numbered or bulleted text then click the highlighted Number button or

Bullet button in Standard toolbar to clear the bullets. These buttons are in toggle in nature.

2.3 Spell Check

Word provides a spell check tool that you can use to proof the spelling of the documents. You can check the spelling in entire document, a selection of text or a single word.

Word 97 and above can automatically check your spelling as you type if you want it to do. Word will either call the misspellings to your attention immediately or keep track of them for later. Possible errors are flagged with wavy red underlines so that they are easy to spot. You can hide the red lines while you work by checking the

Hide spelling errors in the document option in Spelling & Grammar tab of the

Option dialog box.

Select the text or a single word or paragraph for which the spelling is to be checked. To check the entire document make sure that nothing is selected.

(Press Ctrl +Home key to come to the beginning of the document).

Choose Spelling & Grammar from Tools Menu.

When the Spelling and Grammar checking begins, the Spelling and Grammar dialog box appears when the first error encountered. The dialog box suggests list of words which sounds like error word.

You can select a correct word from the list and click Change option button.

Change All: Option button changes all the instances of the error word with the selected word.

Ignore All: Ignore all the instances of the particular error word in the selected document.

Once the spell check is over, Word will display a dialog box stating that the Spell

check is over. Click on OK button to return to the document. Pressing F7 key or clicking Spell check button from the Standard tool bar also can activate spell check.

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2.4 Navigating In Word

– Keyboard and Mouse

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There are many ways to navigate from the beginning to the end of a Word document. You probably have your favorites, using the mouse or the keyboard. But let‘s look at the wide variety of choices that Word offers, and you‘ll probably find some new ones that you never knew existed.

Let‘s start with the basics: make sure you have a Word document of some length open as we do this; the instructions will be easier to follow.

Using the mouse

On the right side of your screen is a vertical scroll bar. (It has up and down arrows at either end, agray area in the middle, and a scroll box that moves from one end to the other to reflect your position in the document.)

To scroll through your document, do the following:

Click the up arrow to scroll up one line.

Click the down arrow to scroll down one line.

Click above the scroll box to scroll up one full screen.

Click below the scroll box to scroll down one full screen.

Drag the scroll box to go to a specific page in your document.

If your mouse has a scrolling wheel, turn it to scroll quickly to any part of your document.

Using KeyBoard

Somewhere on your keyboard, you have Page

Up andPage Down buttons that do exactly what they say: by pressing them, you move by pages through your document.

Near these keys are the Home and End keys.

These keys take you to the beginning or end of a line, respectively.

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Next, while holding down the Control ( Ctrl ) key, press the Home key. Your cursor jumped to the beginning of the document. If you hold down the Ctrl + End keys at the same time, you reach the end of your document.

With your Word program open, locate the right scroll bar. Right beneath it, you will see a double arrow pointing up, a small circle, small them to see the first row, and a double arrow pointing down. Click the small circle.

The Select Browse Object grid with 10 buttons appears. Run your mouse over what each button stands for. Notice that in the third button from the left is the Browse

by Footnote button .

Browsing with Edit > Go To

If you prefer working with menus, click Edit > Go To (shortcut: Ctrl + G). In the dialog box that opens, look at the objects listed in the left-hand box: Page, Section,

Line, Bookmark, Comment, Footnote, Endnote, Field, Table, Graphic, Equation,

Object, Heading. Click one that is familiar to you, and follow the instructions given to browse your document.

For instance, open a Word document that includes several pictures. Click Edit >

Go To, and select Graphic in the list. In the blank box to the right of the list, type

+2; the second graphic in your document appears on the screen.

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2.5 Document Formatting

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2.5.1 Paragraph Alignment

Margins define the upper, lower, left, right page boundaries of entire document.

Indents define the left and right boundaries of the selected paragraph/line with in the document. By default a paragraph‘s left and right indents align with left and right margins.

Let us correct the paragraph you have typed using the following tools/facilities provided by Word. At the end of this process, you will become familiar with deleting, inserting and replacing a portion of text. For this, you should know how to control the cursor. The following table shows the functions of Arrow keys and

Special keys. These keys can be used as an alternative to the mouse also.

Cursor control keys and action

Key press Action

Moves insertion point up one line

Moves insertion point down one line

Moves insertion point one character to the right

Moves insertion point one character to the left

Ctrl +

Moves insertion point one word to the right

Moves insertion point one word to the left

Moves insertion point to the beginning of the current paragraph

Moves insertion point to the beginning of the next paragraph

Home

End

Moves insertion point to the beginning of the line.

Moves insertion point to the end of the line.

Page up

Moves insertion point up in the screen.

Page Down

Moves insertion point down in the screen.

Ctrl + Home Moves insertion point to the top of the document

Ctrl + End Moves insertion point to the end of the document

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Place the I-Beam pointer before „h‟ in “have read‖ and click.

Point the I beam behind „d‟ in “read”.

Keep the shift key pressed. Click once.

Press Delete key once.

Key in the word ‗know‟.

Keep the insertion point in front of the word ―display-”.

Double click on disabled OVR in the Status bar.

Note that this enables over writing mode and OVR appears in Status bar. But it is always better to keep the OVR disabled.

Type the word identify.

Double click on OVR in the Status bar to disable it.

Inserting Text

Place the insertion point after the word “this‖.

Press space once and key in lesson.

Note: OVR in Status bar must be in disabled mode.

Deleting Text

Place the I beam pointer before ‗w‟ in the word “word processor” in the first line and click. The insertion pointer appears just in front of w. Press Delete key five times to remove word-. You can press back space key also for this operation. Then place the insertion pointer after ‗learning‟ in the second line and press backspace key thrice.

The backspace key deletes one character to the left of it and the delete key removes a character to the right.

Complete the following steps to correct the other errors in any document, in general.

Read the document on the screen and locate the errors.

Use either the cursor keys or the mouse to position the insertion point next to your first error, use the Backspace or the Delete key to remove incorrect letters, then enter your correction. Repeat this step as needed to correct the document.

Selecting and Replacing Text- Changing a string of text (letters, words, sentences, paragraphs or entire document) is usually a two step process. The first step is to identify the text to be changed by selecting it. Selected text appears in reverse video

(or highlighted).The second step is keying in the new text.

Complete the following exercises to practice selecting, and replacing text.

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Move the I-beam pointer after the word about in second line.

Click to position the insertion pointer and then select the text some of the things

I can do with word so far by dragging the mouse pointer across the words until they appear in reverse video. Release the mouse button once the text is selected.

When the proper text selected, enter the words the power of Word. The selected text is deleted when the first keyboard letter is pressed, and also the remaining text moves to maintain the proper spacing.

An easy way to select one word is to double-click on it. Locate the word will in the last sentence. Place the I-beam anywhere the word will and double-click for selecting. Type the word would. Double click on the word ―section‖. Press Delete to remove it.

For selecting a word, double click in the word. For selecting an entire line, move the mouse pointer to the left hand side near the margin area. The Mouse pointer changes to laterally inverted arrow. Now click. The entire line will be selected. To select the entire paragraph, move the Mouse pointer to the left hand side to the left margin area and double click, after the mouse pointer changes to arrow. The entire paragraph will be selected. To select the entire document, do the same operation as you have done for selecting a paragraph but click three times.

In the Edit menu, click Select All to select the entire document.

Undo and Redo- While working in a document, you would have committed many operations.. A click on the Undo button on the Standard tool bar will cancel the latest committed operations one by one. Click on Redo will cancel the last Undo operation.

Clicking on the underlined down arrow (also called a drop-down arrow) by the sides of the Undo and Redo buttons, displays a list of actions committed (undone or redone).

Complete the following exercise to practice using the Undo and Redo buttons.

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Move the insertion pointer to the beginning of the document. Select the phrase

Microsoft word.

Type Word star.

Click the Undo button to return Microsoft word.

Click the Redo button again to cancel a previous edit.

Click the Undo button to revert the action.

2.5.2 Indent Markers

The Ruler Provides Indent Markers displayed as refined triangles. Refer figure 3.4.

There are three types of indent markers.

First Line Indent: It is displayed by the inverted triangle in the ruler on the left side.

It indicates the indent of the first line of a paragraph.

Left Indent: Lower left triangle in the ruler is called left indent. It indicates the left boundary of every line in a paragraph other than first line

Right Indent: It is the triangle on the right end of the ruler indicating the right boundary for every line in a paragraph.

Setting the Indents

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Paragraph option in Format menu facilitates the user to fix how the text is to be positioned between the left and right indents. Word provides four types of paragraph alignment.

Left aligned: The text is aligned evenly along the left indent.

Centered: The text is centered between left and right indents.

Right aligned: The text is aligned evenly along the right indent.

Justified: The text with left and right indents. Word increases the space between the words, if required.

Alignment choices are displayed in Formatting bar also. Refer figure 3.4.

Setting Line Space

Word offers six line spacing options. They are Single, 1.5 lines, Double, Atleast,

Exactly and Multiple.

By default it has single line spacing. To set line spacing, Paragraph option may be chosen in Format menu of Standard toolbar. See fig 3.5.

Place the insertion point anywhere within the line to be centered. Click on the

Center button in the formatting tool bar to align the line.

Starting Paragraphs with a Drop Cap

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You can add visual attraction to a paragraph by starting it with a drop cap, a large capital letter. When you select a drop cap format, Word places the selected text in a frame. The rest of the paragraph wraps beside the frame.

To create large dropped capital letters, follow the steps given below.

Select the first letter, word of the paragraph.

Choose Drop Cap from Format menu. The Drop Cap dialog box appears. See figure 3.6.

Select Dropped or In Margin in the Position group to place the drop cap.

Select a font from the Font box.

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In the Lines to drop text box, type or select the number of lines you want the capital to drop into the paragraph.

In the Distance from Text box type or select the distance you want between the drop cap and the paragraph text.

Finally click OK.

Note:

Dropped: Dropped flush with the left margin, inside the main text area.

In Margin: Dropped in the left margin.

Inserting Special Characters and Symbols

You can insert special characters and symbols in to the documents. To insert the symbols do the following steps.

Position the insertion point where you want to insert the symbol.

From Insert Menu choose Symbol and click. The Symbol dialog box appears.

See figure 3.8.

From the Font box select the font. Symbols available in that font will be displayed below it.

Select the symbol by clicking on it.

Click the Insert button and close the dialog box by clicking on Close.

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2.5.3 Headers and Footers

A header or footer is text or graphics that is usually printed at the top or bottom of every page in a document. A header is printed in the top margin; a footer is printed in the bottom margin.

Headers and footers can be as simple as the document title and a page number, but you can create headers and footers that contain graphics, multiple paragraphs, and fields. You can specify a different header or footer for odd and even pages or use a different header or footer for the first page of a section or document. If you divide a document into sections, you can use different headers and footers in each section. For example, you might want the header for each section to reflect the title of that section.

How to Add or Remove Headers and Footers

To create a header or footer, follow these steps:

1. On the View menu, click Header and Footer. Word displays the Header

and Footer toolbar and switches to print layout view.

2. To switch between the header and footer, click the Switch Between Header

and Footer button on the Header and Footer toolbar.

A non-printing dashed line encloses the header and footer areas. Text and graphics in the document are visible, but dimmed. To display or hide the document text, click the Show/Hide Document Text button on the Header and Footertoolbar.

You can type and format text in the header or footer area the same way you do in the main document. After you have created your header or footer, click Close on the Header and Footer toolbar to return to the main part of the document. In print layout view (on the View menu, click Print Layout), the headers and footers are

Visible but appear dimmed.

To edit an existing header or footer, either click Header and Footer on the View menu, or, in print layout view, double-click a dimmed header or footer to

Switch quickly to the header or footer.

To delete a header or footer, follow these steps:

1. Position the insertion point somewhere in the main text area of the document.

2. On the View menu, click Header and Footer.

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3. Select the header or footer information you want to delete, and then press

DELETE or BACKSPACE on the keyboard.

4. To return to the document, click Close on the Header and Footer toolbar, or double-click in the main text area of the document.

How Headers and Footers Affect Margin Settings

Word prints headers and footers in the top and bottom margins. If the header or footer is too large to fit in the margin, Word adjusts the top and bottom margin to accommodate the header or footer. That is, if the header or footer becomes too large vertically to fit in the margin, it starts expanding downward (for the header) and upward (for the footer), reducing the amount of text that can be displayed in the body of the document.

To prevent Word from moving the main document text (downward or upward) when the header or footer gets too large to fit in the margin, follow these steps:

1. On the File menu, click Page Setup.

2. Click the Margins tab.

3. Type a hyphen (-) before the Top or Bottom margin setting.

NOTE: If the header or footer is too large, it may overwrite (superimpose) the main document text.

How to Position Headers and Footers

You may want to change the position of headers and footers. You can change the horizontal position by doing the following:

Centering the header or footer between the left and right margins.

Aligning it with the left or right margin.

Running the header or footer text into the left or right margin.

The header and footer areas have two preset tab stops: centered between the default left and right margins (3 inches), and right aligned at the default right margin (6 inches). These tab stops make it easy to center a chapter title or place the page number flush with the right margin. If you change the margins of the document, you may want to adjust these stops.

To adjust the horizontal position of information inside a header or footer, follow these steps:

1. On the View menu, click Header and Footer.

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2. On the Header and Footer toolbar, click the Show Next and Show

Previous buttons to find the header or footer that you want to adjust.

3. To position the header or footer, do one or more of the following: o

To create left-aligned text in a header or footer, type the text. The starting position for the insertion point is left aligned with the left o o margin of the document.

To create center-aligned text in a header or footer, press the TAB key once to advance the insertion point to the center-aligned tab, and type the text. The text you type will be centered on the tab.

To create right-aligned text in a header or footer, press the TAB key one more time to advance the insertion point to the right-aligned tab, o and type the text.

To create a header or footer that runs into the left or right margins, you can set negative indents as follows: e. On the Format menu, click Paragraph. f. Click the Indents and Spacing tab. g. Type a negative number for the left and/or right indentation. For example, if you want the left-aligned text in the header to start 0.5 inches into the left margin, type -.5 for the left indentation. A negative left indentation moves text into the left margin, whereas a negative right indentation moves text to the right, into the right margin.

4. To make additional adjustments to the alignment, use the alignment buttons on the Formatting toolbar, set different tab stops on the ruler, or drag the indent markers on the ruler.

You can change the vertical position by adjusting the header or footer starting distance from the top or bottom edge of the page. You can also adjust the amount of space between the header or footer and the text in the main document. To perform these adjustments, follow these steps:

1. Position the insertion point in the specific area in the document that contains the header or footer that you want to adjust.

2. On the File menu, click Page Setup and then click the Margins tab. o

To change the distance from the edge of page to the header or footer, change the From Edge setting. The default setting is 0.5-inch.

Increasing the setting moves the entire header or footer closer to the center of the document. Decreasing the setting moves the entire header or footer closer to the edge of the page.

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To change the distance between the document text and a header or footer, change the Top and Bottommargin settings. Increasing the top margin moves the document text farther down on the page, while leaving the header in the same location. Decreasing the top margin moves the text of the document farther up on the page, while leaving the header in the same location. The same is true for the bottom margin and the footer.

3. To return to the document, click OK.

2.6 Page Formatting & Printing

2.6.1 Formatting the Pages

Word enables you to apply Page Setup formatting options to, a section, multiple sections, or entire document. What you format depends on the positioning of the cursor before you execute the Page Setup command. From File menu, click on Page

setup option. Page setup dialog box appears with four tabs, namely, Margin, Paper

size, Paper source, and Layout. The default measurement, Word uses is, inch. You can specify Centimeters(cm), points(pt) or picas (pl) by entering the two letter code after entering a measurement value.

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Margin tab

Choose the Top, Bottom, Left or Right margins. For each setting, type the amount of the margin or use the increment/decrement arrows (spin arrows). As you choose your margin setting, notice that the preview box exhibits how your page or pages will look like.

Click OK, after you have entered the new margin values.

2.6.2 Preview and Print a document

Before issuing the Print command, it is advantageous to preview (through your monitor) how your printed document will appear. To have a preview of the document, follow the steps given below.

When the document is opened on your screen, click the Print Preview icon.

The Print Preview window has its own toolbar and the pointer appears as a magnifying glass when placed inside your document.

As the preview is miniaturised, it is difficult to read the document. Place the magnifying glass inside the document and click once to display the document at 100%. Now you should be able to read your document.

Keeping the pointer inside the document, click the mouse again to return to the Print Preview appearance.

Locate the Zoom control box on the toolbar and notice that your document a currently being displayed at approximately 34%. Clicking on the Zoom control drop down arrow, results in display of a list of other percentages. To choose a new viewing percentage, either click on one of the options, or type the percentage directly into the Zoom control box.

Use the Zoom control box to display the document at 75%.

By default, the Magnifier button is activated when you click the Print Preview option. Click on that Magnifier button changes from the magnifying mode to the editing mode. The mouse becomes normal.

Make some changes.

Click on the Close button on the toolbar to close the Print Preview window.

Note if you want to print the document at this stage. Click on the Print button in the Print Preview toolbar or Print icon in the Standard toolbar to print. All the pages in the document will be printed.

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2.6.3 Adjusting margins in Print Preview

You can change any margins in Print Preview by using the rulers (Print Preview window displays a horizontal ruler and vertical ruler). The margins adjusted in

Print Preview apply to the entire document. If you want a specific portion of document to be adjusted then choose the option Page Setup in the File menu.

To change the document‘s margin in Print Preview

Choose Print Preview from File menu.

If the rulers are not displayed, click the Ruler from the View menu. The horizontal ruler shows the width of the entire page and the vertical ruler shows the height of the entire page. The margin areas are displayed in gray color on the rulers and the text area in white color.

Position the mouse pointer in the margin boundary, the spot where the gray and the white portion of the ruler meet. The mouse pointer changes in to a double-ended arrow.

Press and hold the mouse button. A dashed line appears through the page, indicating the margin position. Drag to adjust the margin and drop.

2.6.4 Printing of Document

Word gives a variety of printing options. The Print dialog box offers choices of what to print.

Choose Print from File menu, the Print dialog box appears.

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Choose the printer from the drop down list if you have installed more than one printer.

Select the Current page option to print the current page.

Select Pages option if you want to print some selected pages.

Select All for printing the entire document.

Select Document in Print what text box.

Enter the number of copies in the spin box.

Select All pages in range to print entire range or Even pages, to print only even pages or Odd pages to print only odd pages from the drop down list of the

Print text box.

Finally click OK. Refer figure 6.2.

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UNIT III - FILE MANAGEMENT

The data that we work with on computers is kept in a hierarchical file system in which directories have files and subdirectories beneath them. Although we use the computer operating system to keep our image data organized, how we name files and folders, how we arrange these nested folders, and how we handle the files in these folders are the fundamental aspects of file management. The operating system's organization of our data can be enhanced by the use of cataloging programs, which make organizing and finding image files easier than simply relying on the computer's directory structure. Another feature of catalog programs is that they can streamline backup procedures for better file protection.

Every Windows folder provides easy access to common file and folder management tasks. When you open any folder on your computer, a list of hyperlinked tasks is displayed next to the folder contents. You can select a file or folder, and then click a task to rename, copy, move, or delete it. You can also send a file in e-mail or publish it to the Web. In addition to the basic file and folder tasks provided in all Windows folders, there are several folders that provide links to specialized tasks. My Pictures and My Music folders provide task links that can help you manage your picture and music files. In the My Computer folder, you can view and select the drives on your computer, the devices with removable storage, and the files stored on your computer. You can use the task links in this folder to view information about your computer, change system settings using Control

Panel, and perform other system management tasks. Use the Recycle Bin tasks to empty the Recycle Bin or restore deleted files and folders to their original locations.

The Recycle Bin is displayed on your desktop

3.1 Understanding the Importance of File Management

The file manager handles all files on secondary storage media. To perform these tasks, file management must:

Be able to identify the numerous files by giving unique names to them

Maintain a list telling where exactly each file is stored, how many sectors on the medium it occupies, and in which order those sectors make up the file

Provide simple and fast algorithms to read and write files in cooperation with the device manager

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Give and deny access rights on files to users and programs

Allocate and deallocate files to processes in cooperation with the process manager

Provide users and programs with simple commands for file handling

File names, naming conventions

In order to make users, programs and the file manager itself able to identify the different files they must be given a unique file name.

The relative file name is what a user normally recognises as file name; it consists of a name and an extension, for instance problem.txt or forloop.cpp. Apart from some exceptions, relative file names look the same in all operating systems.

The name is normally given by the user, whereas the extension (which is separated from the name by a dot) generally indicates what kind of file it is.

The absolute file name is normally much longer than the user thinks it is. Here, the relative file name is preceded by the place on disk it is stored, that is: the drive name and the directory names in which to find that file.

So the absolute file name consists of:

1. drive name

2. directory name(s)

3. file name

4. extension

File name and extension are separated by a dot. The directories are separated by slashes (UNIX) or back slashes (Windows, DOS). Because drive names and file organization differ from OS to OS, absolute file names look different depending on what operating system is used.

For instance, a file with the relative name syllabus.doc, saved by the user Peter in the directory data would look like that in DOS: c:\data\syllabus.doc in LINUX: /usr/home/Peter/data/syllabus.doc

Note that the absolute file name changes when the location is different. The relative file name, however, stays the same. So, after saving that file on a floppy disk, the absolute file name of the backup would be in DOS: a:\syllabus.doc in LINUX: /mnt/fdd0/syllabus.doc

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3.2 Backing up files and folders

Backup lets you back up data to a file or to a tape. When you back up data to a file, you have to designate a file name and a location for the file to be saved. Backup files usually have the extension .bkf, but you can change it to any extension. A backup file can be saved to a hard disk, a floppy disk, or to any other removable or non removable media on which you can save a file.

When you back up data to a tape, you must have a tape device connected to your computer. Tapes are managed by Removable Storage. Although

Backup works together with Removable Storage, you might have to use Removable

Storage to perform certain maintenance tasks, such as preparing and ejecting tapes.

The following four steps describe a simple backup operation:

1 .

Select files, folders, and drives for backup

Backup provides you with a tree view of the drives, files, and folders that are on your computer, which you can use to select the files and folders that you want to back up. You can use this tree view the same way you use Windows

Explorer to open drives and folders and select files.

2.Select storage media or file location for backed-up data

Backup provides two options for selecting storage media:

You can back up your data to a file on a storage device. A storage device can be a hard disk, a Zip disk, or any type of removable or nonremovable media to which you can save a file. This option is always available.

You can back up your data to a tape device. This option is available only if you have a tape device installed on your computer or connected to it. If you back up data to a tape device, the media will be managed by Removable Storage.

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3. Set backup options

Backup provides an Options dialog box, which you can use to customize your backup operations. Using the Options dialog box, you can:

Select the type of backup that you want to do. Backup types include: copy, daily,

differential, incremental, and normal. Select whether you want a log file to record your backup actions. If you select this option, you can also select whether you want a complete log file or summary log file.Select whether you want to back up data that is stored on mounted drives.Designate file types that you want to exclude from a backup operation.Select whether you want to verify that the data was backed up correctly.

4. Start the backup

When you start a backup operation, Backup will prompt you for information about the backup job and give you the opportunity to set advanced backup options. After you have provided the information or changed your backup options, Backup will start backing up the files and folders you selected.

If you have scheduled the backup to run unattended, you will still be prompted for information about the backup job. However, after you have provided the information, Backup will not start backing up files; rather, it will add the scheduled backup to the Task Scheduler.

You must be an administrator or a backup operator to back up all files and folders. If you are a member of the Users or Power Users group, you must be the owner of the files and folders you want to back up, or you must have one or more of the following permissions for the files and folders you want to back up: Read, Read and Execute, Modify, or Full Control. For more information about permissions or user rights,

The registry, the directory service, and other key system components, are contained in the System State data. You must back up the System State data if you want to back up these components.

You can only back up the System State data on a local computer. You cannot back up the System State data on a remote computer.

You can schedule a backup so that it will run unattended at a specific time or frequency. You can schedule a backup after you click Start Backup.

If you have Windows Media Services running on your computer, and you want to back up the files associated with these services, see "Running

Backup with Windows Media Services" in the Windows Media Services online

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Media Services online documentation before you can back up or restore files associated with Windows Media Services.

If you are using Removable Storage to manage media, or you are using

Remote Storage to store data, you should regularly back up the files that are in the following folders:

Systemroot\System32\Ntmsdata

Systemroot\System32\Remotestorage

This will ensure that all of your Remote Storage and Removable Storage data can be restored.

3.3 Navigating Through My Computer and Windows Explorer

As the name of the Windows operating system indicates, most of the information you view on your computer is displayed in a window. Files open in program windows (windows that host the program controls), and folders open in Windows

Explorer windows (windows that display the folder contents). Regardless of the content they display, all windows share certain common characteristics and can be manipulated in the same ways. You can change the appearance of windows by using controls built into their frames, as well as controls available from the desktop and from the Windows Taskbar. Windows provides many new windowmanagement controls that are very cool as well as useful.

3.4 Files and Folders

3.4.1 Creating a New Folder

To create a new folder, do the following

In My Computer or Windows Explorer window,

On the File Menu, point to New, and then click Folder. The new folder appears with a temporary name New Folder within a rectangle. Key in a new name inside the rectangle and then press Enter. A filename can contain 255 characters maximum, including spaces. But, it cannot contain any of the following characters viz. \, |, *,

?, ―, <, >, /.

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3.4.2 Changing the Name of a Folder

To change the name of a folder, do the following

In My Computer or Windows Explorer window, click once on the file or folder you want to rename. You do not need to open it. In the File menu, click Rename. Type the new name, and then press Enter.

3.4.3 Moving a file

There exist two methods to move a file from one folder to another.

Cut and Paste Method

In My Computer or Windows Explorer window, click on the file or folder.

In the Edit menu, click Cut.Open the folder in which you want to insert it.

In the Edit menu, click Paste.

Drag and drop method

In My Computer or Windows Explorer window, fix the file or folder to be moved.Make sure that the destination folder is also visible. Drag the file or folder to the destination folder and drop.You can use the right mouse button also for these operations. If you drag a file to a folder in the same disk, it will be moved. If you drag it to another disk, it will be copied.

Tips

You can hold down Shift or Ctrl key and drag for the following operations:

To move a file, use Shift.

To copy a file, use Ctrl.

To create a shortcut, use Ctrl + Shift

In My Computer or Windows Explorer window,

To select all the files and subfolders in a folder

Click on the Edit menu, and then click Select All.

To select a group of files those are next to each other,

Hold down the mouse button and drag to form a rectangle around the files.

Press Shift while clicking on each member or

Click on the first file in the group and hold down the Shift key and click on the last member.

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3.4.4 To select discrete items within a folder

Click on the first item.

Hold down the Ctrl key, and then click the items one by one.

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To change the appearance of items in a folder, do the following

In My Computer or Windows Explorer window,

Click on the View menu, and then click on one of the following options.

Large Icons, Small Icons, List or Details

Experiment to find the better display in View option

You can also sort the items by Name, Size, Date or Type while arranging Icons.

To see Hierarchy of Folders on a Disk drive

Click the Start button.

Point to Programs, and then click Windows Explorer.

Click on a folder on the left side of the window to display its contents on the right side.

Click the plus sign (+) in the tree to get the display of more folders.

To change the size of either side of the windows, drag and drop the bar that separates the two sides. To quickly open a folder and display its subfolders double click on the folder on the left side of the window.

To see all Files and Extensions

In My Computer or Windows Explorer window, open the folder you want to see.

In the View menu, click on Folder Options

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Click the View tab, and then select Show All Files

If you want to see all extensions, make sure that the Hide MS-DOS File Extensions box is not checked.

3.4.5 To open a File or Folder

Double-click on the My computer icon.

Double-click on the drive that contains the file

To open a file or folder, double-click on it.

To see what‘s on the Computer

Double-click on the My computer icon.

Double click on the icon for the drive you want to look at.

Windows displays the files and folders of the drive. Folders may contain files, programs and other folders.

To open a file or folder or to start a program double-click on it

To use shortcut menu, do the following

Instead of using the standard menus to find the option you need, use the right mouse button to click a file or folder. The menu that appears shows the most frequently used commands for that file or folder.

3.4.6 Deleting a File or Folder

In My Computer or Windows Explorer window, locate and fix the file or folder you want to delete.

Click on the file or folder.

In the File menu, click Delete.

After confirmation dialogue, the system puts them in Recycle Bin. If you want to retrieve a file you have deleted, look into the Recycle Bin. Your deleted file remains in it (until you empty it). You can also drag file or folder icon onto the Recycle Bin icon and drop to throw it into the bin.

Warning:

If you press Shift while dragging, the item will be deleted from the computer without being stored in the Recycle Bin.

To empty the Recycle Bin

Double-click on the Recycle Bin icon

In the File menu, click Empty Recycle Bin

If you want to remove only some of the items in the Recycle Bin, hold down the Ctrl key while clicking each item to select it.

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Click on the File menu, and click Delete

To permanently remove Files when you delete them

Using the right mouse button, click on the Recycle Bin icon, and then click

Properties. If you want to use different settings for different drives. Click Configure

Drives Independently, and then click on the tab of the drove whose settings you want to change. If you want to use the same settings for all drives, click Use One

Setting for All Drives. Make sure that the Do Not Move Files To The Recycle Bin box is checked.

Warning:

If this box is checked, you will be unable to recover any files you delete.

Delete confirmation messages

When you are deleting a file a confirmation dialog box appears to confirm deletion.

If you want this confirmation, do the following.

Using your right mouse button, click on the Recycle Bin icon, and then click

Properties.Make sure that the Display Delete Confirmation dialog check box is clear

This setting is unavailable if the Do Not Move Files To The Recycle Bin box is checked.

Capacity of the Recycle Bin

To change the capacity of the Recycle Bin, do the following.

Using your right mouse button, click on the Recycle Bin icon, and then click

Properties. If you want to use different settings for different drives, click Configure

Drives Independently, and then click on the tab of the drive whose settings you want to change If you want to use the same settings for all drives, click Use One

Setting for All Drives Drag the slider to increase or decrease the quantum of disk space reserved for storing deleted files.

Retrieving the deleted files or shortcuts

To retrieve deleted files or shortcuts, do the following.

Double-click on the Recycle Bin icon

Click on the file or shortcut you want to retrieve

To retrieve several items, hold down the Ctrl key while clicking each item

In the File menu, click Restore.

3.5 Sizing, Moving, and Arranging Windows

You can minimize, maximize, restore, or close a window by clicking the buttons at the right end of the title bar. Additionally, you can use the

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UOM-S007 following techniques to change the size or position of an individual window:

To change the location of a window, but not its size, drag it.

To change only the height of a window, drag the top or bottom border of its frame.

To maximize the height of a window without changing its width, drag the top border of its frame to the top edge of the screen or the bottom border of its frame to the bottom edge of the screen.

To change the width of a window, drag the left or right border of its frame.

To simultaneously change the height and width of a window, drag any corner of its frame.

To maximize the height and width of a window so that the window fills the screen, drag it to the top edge of the screen, or click the Maximize button.

To resize a window to the maximum height and half the screen width, drag it to the left or right edge of the screen. When you release the mouse button, the window expands to fill half the available horizontal space.

To restore a maximized or half-width window to its original size, drag its title bar away from the edge of the screen, or click the Restore Down button

Press this

Windows logo key+Up Arrow

Windows logo key+Down Arrow

Windows logo key+Home

Windows logo key+Left Arrow or

Windows logo key+Right Arrow

To do this

Maximize the Window

Resize the window from maximized to its original size or from its original size to minimized

Minimize or restore all other Windows

Snap the window to the left or right edge of the screen

3.6. Power Point

Power Point is a very powerful tool for preparing live, multimedia based presentation for conference, projects, planning and for showing details of existing systems in a very effective way.

Creating a presentation using Autocontent wizard

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1. Open the Power Point program by clicking on the Start→ Programs→ Microsoft

Power Point option. The Power Point startup dialog box as shown in fig 1.1. appears.

2. In the startup dialog box, select the Autocontent wizard and click OK.

If the Power Point program is already started, on the File menu, click New. Under

New, click From AutoContent Wizard,

3. Follow the instructions in the wizard as follows. AutoContent Wizard will create

8-12 slides with suggested contents which you can change.

4. Click next button in the wizard. In next screen press a category button for the type of presentation you are going to give and then select the presentation that best suit your needs and click next. You can add one of your presentations by choosing a category and then pressing add.

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5. In the next screen choose the type of output you will be using and the wizard will select the best color scheme for your presentation.

6. In the next screen, enter the presentation title and the information that you want to appear at the bottom of each slide and click finish button.

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7. The wizard will now finish creating your presentation which will be shown on the screen.

8. In the presentation, replace the text suggestions with the text you want, and then make any other changes you want, such as adding or deleting slides, adding art elements or animation effects, and inserting headers and footers.

9. When you finish, on the File menu, click Save, type a name in the File name box, and then click Save. The presentation is now saved to your hard drive of your system. You should save your work from time to time to avoid loss of data in the event of power failure.

Create a presentation using a design template

1. On the File menu, click New. Under New, click From Design Template.

Microsoft PowerPoint provides design templates that you can apply to a presentation to give it a fully designed, professional look.

2. In the Design Template Window, click a design template that you'd like to apply. Using the Design Template Window, you can preview and apply a design template to your presentation. Whenever you apply a design template, a slide master for that template is added to your presentation. If you apply a different

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3. To insert a new slide, on the toolbar, click New Slide, and click the layout you want for the slide. The same Design templates will be followed for the newly inserted slide. You can change that for the inserted slide using Format → Design templates.

4. Repeat step 3 and 5 to keep adding slides, and add any other design elements or effects you want.

5. The text will not be inserted automatically here. So type the text for each slide

(explained later).

6. To save the presentation, on the File menu, click Save; in the File name box type a name for the presentation, and then click Save.

Adding new slides:

After creating a presentation as above, you can add slides at any time as follows.

1. From the Insert menu click new slide or Click the New Slide button on the

Common Tasks toolbar. The New Slide dialogue box appears.

2. It asks you to choose an Auto Layout format. Select the desired format and click OK.

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Adding text to a slide

• The Slide layout contains two text boxes one for a title and another for the body. Try typing text into these boxes.

• Click in the Title text box. A thick gray border appears around the text box indicating that it is selected.

• Type a title.

• Click the body text box and type points. These points will come as a bulleted text.

Selecting a new bullet style.

• Click anywhere in the bulleted text to select it.

• Click the Format menu, then click Bullet. The Bullet dialog box will appear.

• Click the desired bullet in the symbol grid.

• If you want, select a new color for the bullet in the color list box.

• Click OK. The new bullet style will appear in your bulleted text.

Views of power point :

Power Point supports the following views.

• Normal View (A combination of the following views) o Outline view o Slide View o Notes Page

• Slide Sorter View

• Slide Show View

All View buttons are present at the lower left corner near the horizontal scroll bar.

Outline View.

By clicking the outline View button, the presentation appears as an outline, made up of titles and main text from each slide. Because you can see all your presentation in one window, rather than one slide at a time, it is an ideal place to plan, organize, or edit the text for your presentation.

Click this to switch to outline View

Slide View

Used for inserting and manipulating various objects such as

_ Text box objects

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_ Word art objects

_ Auto shapes

_ Picture from clipart/file

_ Tables

_ Charts

_ Movies and sounds

Adding a new text box.

In Power Point, you can add your own text boxes to any slide using the Text Box tool on the drawing toolbar.

Steps:

• Click on the drawing toolbar Text Box button. The pointer will change to a cross.

• Click on the slide where you want to place the text. A small text box will appear.

• Type a word in the text box. As you go on typing, the box will expand to fit the text.

• After you finish typing, click outside the text box. The border around the box will disappear.

Adding color to a text box

• Click the text box to select it.

• On the drawing toolbar, click the arrow beside the Fill Color button, then click any color of your choice, the text box will turn to that color.

Bordering a text box

• Click the text box to select it. A border will appear around the text box.

• On the drawing toolbar, click the arrow beside the Line style button, and then click on any line to get a line of desired width.

• Finally, click the Dash Style button and then click the square dot dash option. A dash style box will appear.

Adding a shape.

• Power Point lets you add a variety of shapes to the slides of your presentation. Try adding a star shape to your slide, using the AutoShape tool on the drawing toolbar.

• Click the AutoShapes button, point to Stars and Banners and then click the 5point star shape. The pointer will change into a cross.

• Click anywhere on the slide. A star of predefined size will be inserted.

• To make the shape larger (or smaller), drag a resizing handle (an arrow pointing in two directions). To resize the shape proportionally, hold down the SHIFT key as you drag.

Adding color and texture to a shape.

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• Click the star shape to select it.

• Click the arrow beside the Fill Color button and then click More Fill Colors. A

Colors dialog box appears.

• Click the Standard tab, then under Colors, click any color of your choice.

• Click OK to close the Colors dialog box.

• Next, try adding some texture to the shape.

• Click the star to select it.

• Click the arrow beside the Fill Color button, then click Fill Effects. The Fill Effects dialog box appears.

• Click the Texture tab.

• Click on a texture, and then click OK.

Adding clip art.

You can add clip art (in-built images, cartoons and shapes in the software) to any slide using the Insert then Picture buttons followed by Clip Art button on the

Standard Toolbar. Try adding a cartoon image to your slide.

• On the Standard Toolbar, click the Insert button then select Picture button followed by the Clip Art button.

• In the Categories list, click Cartoons. Power Point displays clip art from the

Cartoons category.

• Click an image to select it.

• Click the Insert button. The cartoon image is inserted on your slide.

Power Point also lets you insert images from files by doing as follows:

• Click the Insert menu, point to Picture, and then click From File. The Insert

Picture dialog box will appear.

• In the Look in box, find the drive and folder where the artwork is located.

• In the File name box, enter the name of the file. Then click the Insert button.

• The drawing is inserted on the slide.

Resizing clip art.

Like text boxes and shapes, its easy to change the size of a clip art image. Here‘s how:

• Click the cartoon image to select it.

• Place the pointer on a resizing handle (a two headed arrow, appears as the mouse is moved over the image).

• While holding down the mouse button, drag your mouse outwards. This will enlarge the image. If you drag your mouse inwards, you will reduce the size of the image.

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• When the image is the size you want, release the mouse button.

Adding a chart.

To add a chart to any slide, click the Insert Chart button on the Standard Toolbar.

When you insert a chart, a sample data sheet and corresponding bar chart will appear on your slide. Power Point has included some sample data in the first four columns. The bars in the chart are the graphical representation of the numbers in the data sheet. Notice how a higher number in the data sheet results in a taller corresponding bar. To create your own chart, you can replace the data in the sample data sheet with your own. Try adding a number to the chart to see how it changes the corresponding bar on the chart.

• On the data sheet, click in the first row of column A.

• Type in the number 50, then press Enter. The corresponding bar on the chart increases in height.

• Try adding other numbers into the datasheet to see how they affect the bars.

Note: If you need to make any revisions to the chart, double-click the chart and the data sheet will appear again. If the data sheet doesn‘t appear after you double-click the chart, click the View Data Sheet button on the Standard Toolbar.

You can also change the type of chart by double-clicking the chart and then

Clicking chart type from the Chart menu

Formatting the background

Changing background color of your slide

• Click the Format menu, then click Background. The Background dialog box will appear.

• In the Background fill section; click the arrow on the list box to open it.

• Click More colors to open the Colors dialog box.

• In the Colors section, click any color of your choice.

• Click apply to change the color or OK to close the Colors dialog box.

Changing your background pattern.

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• Click the Format menu, then click Background. The Background dialog box appears.

• Click the Background Fill list box, then click Fill Effects. The Fill Effects dialog box will appear.

• Click the Pattern tab, and then click the pattern you want in the pattern box. A preview of the pattern will appear in the Sample box.

• If you want to change the background and foreground colors of the pattern, select them from the Background and Foreground drop down lists.

• Click OK to close the Fill Effects dialog box. In the Background dialog box, click the Apply button.

Slide Sorter View

In Slide Sorter View, you see miniatures of all the slides in the presentation, complete with text and graphics. This view is useful for rearranging slides, and for adding transitions to slides.

There are two ways to switch to Slide Sorter View:

Click the Slide Sorter View button in the lower left corner of the Power Point window or you can click the View menu, then click Slide Sorter.

Presentation of Slides

Slide Show View

Slide show view takes up the full computer screen, like an actual slide show presentation. In this full-screen view, you see your presentation the way your audience will. You can see how your graphics, timings, movies, animated elements, and transition effects will look in the actual show.

Running Power Point show

• Starting the slide show can be done by clicking slide show→View Show or by pressing F5.

Navigation between the slides

• Click the mouse/Press SPACEBAR or ENTER to goto next slide/point

• Right Click & click previous to goto previous slide/point

• Enter slide no & press Enter to goto a particular slide

• Mark up slides during a slide show (Pointer Options->Pen)

Stopping the Slide Show.

Power Point lets you stop the slide show for any reason. Follow these steps:

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• Move the pointer on the screen and wait for the button to appear in the lower, left-hand corner of the screen.

• Click the button, and then click End Show or press Esc. The show stops.

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UNIT IV - SPREADSHEETS

Microsoft Excel is a most comprehensive spread sheet application. It is not only a tool for calculating, manipulating, analyzing data, but also a versatile organizational tool and an excellent tool for presenting information and graphics with many options.

Applications of Excel

Production planning: Quality control, Compiling test data.

Personal management: Payroll, Sales figures.

Investment management: Planning & auditing, Industrial statistic.

Warehouse management: Order entry - order processing & invoicing.

4.1 Starting Excel

Go to the Windows Start menu, then select Programs and click on Microsoft Excel icon.

Getting Started

As you click on the Microsoft Excel option, a Blank Spreadsheet Book 1 (called as a Workbook), appears on the screen (Figure 1.2) ; or you can select Open a document and select a spreadsheet you have already created.

Understanding Excel Workbooks

All Excel documents are workbooks. A workbook contains one or more sheets, which can be thought of as pages within the workbook. Workbooks can contain:

Worksheets: The names of the sheets appear on tabs at the bottom of the workbook window ( See Figure below), To move from sheet to sheet, click the

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In Microsoft Excel, a workbook is the file, in which you work and store your data.

Because each workbook can contain many Worksheets, you can organize various kinds of related information in a single file.

Understanding Worksheets

Worksheet, also called as spreadsheet, is the primary document to store and work with data. The worksheet contains Rows and Columns.

The intersection of a Row and a Column is known as cell, where you can store the data. Each cell is identified by their column letter and row number e.g. A1, B50,

C192 called address in CR (Column Row) format.

Cell can contain text, numbers or formula, which are used to perform calculation.

Cells can be formatted using variety of formatting options, such as font, borders, colour and alignment of data within the cell.

One Cell is always active and its Address is displayed in the Name box.

Various bars and buttons in a Worksheet

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Worksheet

Part

Scroll Bars

Purpose

Use these to view sections of the worksheet that are not currently visible by clicking on the arrows, or by moving the scroll box.

Row headers Identifies each row and can be used to select rows (by clicking on the headers).

Column headers

Identifies each column and can be used to select columns (by clicking on the headers).

Cursor

Tabs

Standard toolbar

Indicates the currently selected (or active) cell.

Selects each worksheet in the workbook.

Provides buttons to access common operations, such as opening and saving files, and cutting, copying, and pasting data.

Formatting toolbar

Provides buttons to access common formatting tasks, such as changing the fonts and alignments used to display data.

Formula bar Displays the contents of the active cell.

Status bar Displays the various messages as you use Excel.

Scroll buttons Scrolls among the worksheet tabs in a workbook.

Create a new workbook

1. On the File menu, click New. You will get a dialog box as shown in Figure 4-1.

Figure 4.1

2. To create a new, blank workbook, click the General tab, and then doubleclick the Workbook icon or click OK.

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4.2.Entering Text and Data

This Topic tells you how to write data into your worksheets, how to insert cells and delete selected ranges, columns, and rows.

Entering Data

You can enter either a value or a formula in any cell of an Excel worksheet. Values are numbers, sets of characters, date, or time; for example,

267.2, 04/08/81, 7:35 PM. Formulas are combinations of values, cell references, and operators that Excel uses to calculate a result.

When you place the cursor in a given cell and begin typing, your entry appears in the Formula bar at the top of window, as shown if Figure 2-1. In the Formula bar, the insertion pointer (the flashing vertical bar) indicates where the characters that you type will appear. As you type an entry, a Check button and an X (Cancel) button appear enabled in the Formula bar. You can click the Check button when you finish typing the entry to accept it, or you can just press Enter. If you decide that you don‘t want to use an entry, you can either click the X button in the

Formula bar or press the Esc key.

You may notice two additional buttons in the formula bar: a Names List box (to the left of the X button) and a Function Wizard button (to the right of the check button).

The Names list box displays the name or cell reference of currently active cell. Use the arrow next to Names list box to drop a list of name ranges for the current workbook. The Function Wizard button displays the

Function Wizard, which helps you construct formulas.

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Entering numbers

You can enter numbers into your spreadsheet in several ways.

A wonderful feature is that when a number is entered, Excel tries to figure out how the number will be used. This prevents your having to format each cell for each number you want to enter. The worksheet in figure 4--2 shows some of the ways that you can enter numbers in Excel. To enter a number, select the cell and then type the numbers.

Figure 4.2

Entering text

Your text entries can be any combination of letters, numbers, or other special characters. To enter text, select the desired cell and start typing.

When done with the entry, press Enter . By default, Excel aligns text at the left side of the cell. Suppose the text is too long, e.g. title of a table, first of all simply go on typing the text. Finally to fit the text in the cell , choose Format option from the main tool bar menu . It has many options like, format cells, rows, columns; with the help of which you can adjust the width and height of the cells.

Try this exercise

In the cell number Enter this

1234567890

$100.56

F34 2.1459E

G5 41.87%

Editing data

Excel gives you two ways to make changes to cells. One way is to edit the entry within the formula bar; the other is to perform editing within the cell itself.

Editing using the Formula bar

Move the cursor to the cell containing the data that you want to edit.

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Move the mouse pointer to the area over the Formula bar. (As you do so, the mouse pointer takes on the shape of an I-beam.)

Place the mouse pointer at the location where you want to start editing and then click. A flashing insertion pointer in the formula bar indicates where your editing will occur; you can then proceed to make your edits. Finally, press

Enter.

Using In-Cell Editing

Double-click the desired cell, or move the cursor to the cell and press F2.

When you do this, an insertion pointer appears within the cells itself.

Use the arrow keys to place the insertion pointer where you want it.

Make your edits and then press Enter.

Clearing Data from Cells

Excel provides different ways to clear, or erase, the contents of existing cells. The most obvious way is to select the cell or range of cells and press the Delete key.

Copy data within a row or column

Select the cells that contain the data you want to copy.

Drag the fill handle across the cells you want to fill &, release the mouse button.

Existing values or formulas in the cells you fill are replaced.

What is a Fill Handle?

When you select a cell to copy the contents, the cell is highlighted with dotted blinking lines .The fill handle is the small black square in the corner of the selection. . When you point to the fill handle, the pointer changes to a black cross.

To copy contents to adjacent cells or to fill in a series such as dates, drag the fill handle. To finish the work press Escape .

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Copy one selection to several locations

Select the cells you want to copy.

Click Copy .

Hold down CTRL and select the upper-left cell of each paste area.

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Click Paste .

To paste the same copy area again on a different worksheet, switch to the other sheet and repeat steps 3 and 4.

To cancel the moving border after you finish copying, press ESC.

Insert cells, rows, or columns

You can insert blank cells, rows, and columns and fill them with data.

Insert blank cells

Select a range of existing cells where you want to insert the new blank cells.

Select the same number of cells as you want to insert.

On the Insert menu, click Cells.

Click Shift cells right or Shift cells down.

Insert rows

To insert a single row, click a cell in the row immediately below where you want the new row.

On the Insert menu, click Rows.

Insert columns

To insert a single column, click a cell in the column immediately to the right of where you want to insert the new column.

On the Insert menu, click Columns.

4.3 Formatting

Sometimes you just need your spreadsheet to also look good.Whether you enter data yourself or import it form another source, the information doesn‘t always look good. Cells do not expand automatically to fit their contents, headings do not appear bold, columns may need split or combined, the list goes on.

1. Adjusting columns width and row height.

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Depending on the size of text or numbers you enter into Excel, the cells do not automatically expand. The fastest way to get ll of you column widths and height is to use the ‗double click‘ method.

You can either adjust all of your columns and rows or just a few. To adjust all of your columns and rows, select all of your worksheet.

1. Hit CTRL+A twice to select all cells on your work. book. (Hitting CTRL+A once will select any cells that contain data)

2. However your cursor on any columns line, or on any row then just double click.

If you only want to adjust the row or column height of a particular cell

1. Hover your cursor above the header border between the column you want to change and the neighboring column to it‘s right.

2. Double click.

2. View your page breaks.

Before you even attempt to print your worksheet, one major time saving formatting trick I use is to view my page breaks. This option is actually the default setting in

Excel 2007, but if you do need to display them for any reason:-

1. Office Button

2. Excel Options

3. Advanced

4. Show Page Breaks

Not only does this save a few trees with less waste paper, but time as well by getting the printout correct first time. If you ware using earlier version of Excel then hit

1. Tools

2. Options

3. View

4. Tick Page Breaks under Windows options

3. Use the Format Painter Option.

This is one of my favorite formatting tips. It‘s so easy to do that you literally kick yourself for all the time you wasted before you knew it. Seriously!

Either format one set of cells or a cell as you want, highlight it, hit the Format

Painter option (it‘s the little paintbrush on the Home Tab), highlight the cells you want to format and bingo, your cells become formatted. I use this sometimes if

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UOM-S007 there is formatting on an Excel sheet that I like. There is no messing around trying to recreate it when you can in a few clicks copy it using Format Painter.

4. Freeze Your Column Headings.

One of the most basic tips, is one of the most useful. Scrolling through a large spreadsheet with hundreds if not thousands of rows can become almost impossible when you lose sight of your column headings. To keep those ever helpful headings, just freeze them.

In Excel 2007

1. View Tab

2. Freeze Panes

3. Freeze Top Row

In earlier versions of Excel

1. Select the row directly below your headings

2. Window

3. Freeze Panes

Now you can scroll away without guessing what your column headings are.

5. Split One Column Into Many.

This tip is useful if you have inherited or imported data from an external source which is not in the format you require. For example a name file may have both the

First Name and Last name in the one column. With the Text To Columns option in excel, it is really easy to get your data exactly as you want. In this case into two columns, First Name and Last Name split into separate columns.

1. Select your column of data

2. Data Tab

3. Text To Columns

4. Delimited (unless all of your entries are the same length then used fixed width)

5. Next

6. Check Which options applied best to you i.e Space, comma, semi colon (in a

CSV file for example it‘s usually a Comma between the First Name and Last

Name).

7. Leave the Treat Consecutive delimiters as one checked.

8. Next

9. Finish

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4.4 Navigating within worksheet

The primary means of navigating within the worksheet is with the mouse. As you move the mouse pointer around the worksheet, the pointer changes shape depending on its location. In most areas of the worksheet, the pointer resembles a plus sign . In most areas outside of the worksheet or over the scroll bars, the pointer changes to shape to resemble an arrow . Table 1 below shows various key combinations for navigating in the worksheet.

Keys

Function

Arrow keys

Ctrl+ or Ctrl+

Ctrl+ or Ctrl+

Moves the cursor in direction of the arrow.

Moves the cursor to the top or bottom of a region of data.

Moves the cursor to the leftmost or rightmost of a region of data.

PgUp or PgDn

Ctrl+PgUp

Ctrl+PgDn or

Moves the cursor up or down one screen.

Moves the cursor to the preceding or the following worksheet.

Home

Ctrl+Home

End

Ctrl+End

End+Enter

Moves the cursor to the first cell in a row.

Moves the cursor to the upper-left corner of the worksheet.

Moves the cursor to the last cell in a row.

Moves the cursor to the first cell of the last row in a worksheet.

Moves the cursor to the last column in a row.

4.5 Formulas

– Entering ,Handling, copying

Working with Formulas:

In addition to entering values, you will use formulas throughout your worksheets. Excel uses the formulas that you enter to perform calculate based on the values in other cells of your worksheets. Formulas let you perform common math operations-addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division — using the clues in the worksheet cells.

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For example, say you want to add the values in cells B1 and B2 and then display the sum in cell B5. You could do so by placing the cursor in cell B5 and entering the simple formula, =B1+B2.

With Excel, you build a formula by indicating which values should be used and which calculations should apply to these values. Remember that in Excel, formulas always begin with an equal symbol.

Figure shows example of various formulas within a typical worksheet.

Creating formulas in the Formula bar or with edit directly in cell

If you place the cursor in any cell and then type an equal symbol, the symbol and a flashing cursor appear in the Formula bar. As you enter the formula, it appears within the Formula bar. When you press Enter, Excel performs the calculation based upon the formula and then displays, in the cell, the results of the calculation. If you‘ve turned on Edit directly in cell as described earlier in the chapter, you can double-click the cell and type the formula directly into the cell.

Creating formulas by pointing

One handy way to enter the cell reference that make up a major part of formulas is to point at the cells. Typing the entire formula manually invites mistakes that you can avoid by entering the cell references this way:

1. Place the cursor in the cell where you want to enter the formula.

2. Start the formulas by typing an equal sign (=).

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3. Point to the cell that you want as the first cell reference and then click.

(Alternatively, you can move the cursor there with the arrow keys.)

4. Type an operator (such as a plus or minus symbol) or other characters to continue the desired formula.

5. Point to the next cell that you want to use as a cell reference and then click

(or move the cursor there with arrow keys).

6. Repeat steps 4 and 5 as needed to complete to formula.

Allowed elements

Formulas are used to calculate a value based on a combination of other values.

These other values can be numbers, cell reference, operators (+, -, *, /), or other formulas. Formulas can also include names of other areas in the worksheet, as well as cell references in other worksheets. Individual cells are referred to by their coordinates (such as B5), and ranges of cells are referred to by the starting cell reference, followed by a colon, followed by the ending cell reference (such as

D10: D18). Cells in other worksheets are referred to by name of worksheet, followed by an exclamation point, followed by the cell reference (such as

Sheet2!E5).

The following table gives the math operators.

Arithmetic operators

Operator Function

Addition

Subtraction.

Multiplication

Division

Exponential

Percentage

In addition to the math operators, Excel accepts an ampersand (&) as a text operator for strings of text. The ampersand is used to combine text strings (this is known as concatenation). For example, if cell B12 contains Ram and cell B13 contains Mohan, the formula =B12 & B13 would yield the result, RamMohan.

Comparison operators are used to compare values and provide a logical value based on comparison. The following table described them

Operator

Function

Less than

Greater than

Less than or equal to

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>= Greater than or equal to

Equal to =

<> Not equal to

In cell, the simple comparison operators with cell reference to determine whether a desired result is true or false. For example, consider the worksheet shown Figure 2-9. In this example, the formulas in cells C2 through C5 are based on a comparison. Cell C2 contain the formula, =B2>48000. Cells C3, C4 and C5 contain similar formulas. The comparison translates to this: if the value in B2 is greater than 48000, then display a value of True in C2; otherwise, display a value of False in C2.

Excel has the following precise order of precedence in building formulas:

1. – (unary minus or negation)

2. % (percent)

3. ^ (exponentiation)

4. * or / (multiplication or division)

5. + or – (addition or subtraction)

6. & (text operator)

7. < > = (comparison operators)

Depending on how you structure your formulas, you may wish to alter the preceding order of precedence. For example, if you want to add the contents of cells

B2 and B3 and divide the resulting total by 5, you cannot use the simple formula

=B2+B3/5 because Excel performs division before addition in its order of precedence. If you used the formula above, the value in B3 would be divided by 5, and that value would be added to the value of B2—producing an erroneous result.

To change the order of precedence, insert parenthesis around calculation that is to

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UOM-S007 be performed first. Calculations surrounded by parenthesis are always performed first, no matter where they fall in the order of precedence. In our example then, the formula =(B2+B3)/5 gets the desired result. Excel would calculate the expression within the parenthesis first and then divide that figure by the constant.

Displaying and editing formulas

By default, Excel shows the results of the formula that you enter in cells, and not the actual formulas. But you can examine any formula by moving the cursor to the cell that contains it and then looking at the Formula bar. However you can see all the formulas in your worksheet. Follow the following steps:

1. Choose ToolsOptions.

2. With the Options dialog box appears, click the View tab.

3. Under the Window options, turn on the Formulas check box and then click OK.

The worksheet will show all your formulas in the cells, and Excel will automatically widen the columns to accommodate the formulas.

4.6 Charts

Charts graphically represent worksheet data. A collection of values from worksheet cells that you select are illustrated in charts as columns, lines, bars, pie slices, or other types of markers. Figure shows some example of typical charts. In a bar or column chart, the markers appear as columns; in a line chart, the markers appear as lines composed of small symbols. The markers in a pie chart appear as wedges of the pie.

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Most charts (with the exception of pie charts) have two axes: a horizontal axis called the X-axis or Category axis and a vertical axis called Y-axis or value axis

You can add descriptive text to a chart, such as a title and you can place the text in different locations. Your charts can also contain legends which indicates which data is represented by the markers of the chart.

Embedded Charts and Chart Sheets

You can add charts to Excel worksheet in one of two ways; as embedded charts or as chartsheets. Embedded charts are inserted into a existing worksheet page; hence, the page can show worksheet data with the chart. Chartsheets, on the other hand, are charts that are placed on separate sheets of a workbook, a part from any worksheet data.

Understanding the Parts of a Chart

The following parts can be found on two dimensional charts:

Chart - The chart is the entire area contained within the chart sheet.

Plot area - The plot area contains the chart's essential data: the value axis, the category axis, and all the markers that indicate the relative values of your data.

Markers - Markers are the bars, lines, points, or pie wedges that represent the actual data in the chart. The form of the markers depends on the type of chart that you choose such as the one shown in Figure 3-2, the markers appear as columns.

Chart title - The title is a text label that Excel places as a title within the chart.

Axis - In two-dimensional charts, the horizontal X-axis is called the category axis because categories of data are normally plotted along this line. The

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UOM-S007 vertical y-axis is called the value axis because values are normally shown along this line.

Tick marks - Tick marks are reference marks that separate the scales of the value axis and the categories of the category axis.

Text - Excel lets you create text labels as titles and as data labels

Legends-A legend defines the patterns or shadings that are used by the chart markers.

Create a chart using Chart Wizard

Excel makes adding charts a simple matter by providing a chart wizard that automatically appears when you add a new chart to a worksheet. Let us take an example for making a chart. Let there be two companies producing computers. First of all enter the relevant data in the workbook and select it as shown in figure 3.3.

Figure 3.3

Select Insert from the main menu, Click Chart Wizard .

The Chart Wizard displays a dialogue box that displays the standard and custom charts The first dialog box is shown in Figure 3.4 , You can select the chart that you want from the available chart types offered by Excel. Choose

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UOM-S007 the desired chart type and click on the Next button to move on to the next dialog box.

Figure 3.4

The second dialog box of Chart Wizard, as shown in Figure 3-5

Figure 3.5

It displays the range of cells that you have selected. This dialog box lets you control whether the data series should appear along the rows or along the columns,

After you make the desired selections and click on the Next button, the last

Chart Wizard dialog box appears, as shown in Figure 3-6. In this dialog box, you can specify whether you want an optional title for the chart, whether a

legend should be included, and whether optional titles for the axes should be

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UOM-S007 included. Write Production of computers for title, Months for x-axis and number of units for y-axis then click on the Next button.

You will get chart type dialog box. You can select whether to place the chart in a separate sheet or as an object in the same sheet. Select according to your will and click the Finish button. The Chart wizard adds the chart to your worksheet.

Figure 3.7

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Adding Titles

Click the chart to which you want to add a title.

On the Chart menu, click Chart Options, and then click the Titles tab.

To add a chart title, click in the Chart title box, and then type the text you want.

Add a legend to a chart

Click the chart to which you want to add a legend.

On the Chart menu, click Chart Options, and then click the Legend tab.

Select the Show legend check box.

Under Placement, click the option you want.

Saving and Printing Charts

Because charts are stored with worksheet pages, the tasks of saving and printing charts are no different from saving and printing worksheets.

When you save the worksheet by choosing FileSave, the chart gets saved along with the worksheet. You can print the chart by activating the page that contains the chart and choosing FilePrint. The Print dialog box that appears contains the same options that you use for printing worksheets.

4.7 Header and Footer

If you click on the Header/Footer tab of the Page Set-up dialog box, you see the options shown in Figure 4-4. You can use the Header/Footer tab's options to control the appearance and placement of headers and footers printed with your work sheet pages.

The Header/Footer tab options include the following:

Header and Footer: Use the Header and Footer text boxes to specify a header (for example, a title that appears at the top of every page) or a

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UOM-S007 footer (for example, a page number or the current date that appears at the bottom of every page).

Custom Header and Custom Footer: Use the Custom Header and Custom

Footer buttons to open dialog boxes that enable you to design a customized header or footer.

4.8 Centering data

Centering data within Excel is useful if you want to properly organize your data. The various tools in Excel that make this possible are easy enough to use. Here's how you center data within Excel:

Open the Excel file in question. Locate the Excel file and click on its icon twice for it to be opened.

Center data using the Formatting toolbar. Click on the top left cell, the

A1 cell first. Now, drag your mouse in a diagonal manner to highlight all of the other cells that need to have the data within them centered.

Another alternative would be to use your computer keyboard to perform this step. To do so, click on the A1 cell to highlight it first. Now, press the Shift key while simultaneously pressing the right arrow key.

Continue doing this until you highlight all of the cell headers in question. Now, press the down arrow key while still pressing the Shift key to highlight cells underneath the headers. Now, to finally center the data, go to the Formatting toolbar first and locate the Center tool. This is positioned in between the Align Left and Align Right tools. Simply click on the Center tool once for all of the data in the highlighted cells to be centered.

Center data using the Worksheet Menu Bar. Highlight all of the cells in question first. Now, click on the Format tab for a dropdown menu to appear. Select the first option Cells. Click on the Alignment tab from the

Format Cells dialog box. Go to the Text alignment section. Click the dropdown arrow under the Horizontal: section and select the option

Center. Click on the button OK for the changes to finally be applied on the Excel file.

Center and merge data if needed. Centering and merging data is sometimes necessary. To do this, highlight all of the cells first. Now, go to the Formatting toolbar and click on the Merge and Center tool that is

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UOM-S007 found right beside the Align Right tool. Now, if you want to do it the long way using the Worksheet Menu Bar, click on the Format tab once more.

Click on the Alignment tab and go to the Text alignment portion. Select the option Center from the Horizontal: section afterwards. Now, go to the

Text control section and tick the box right beside the Merge cells option.

Finally click on OK and the changes will be applied to the Excel file.

Bear in mind that only the data contained in the upper-left most cell will be saved when you use the Merge and Center tool so be very careful about using this feature.

4.9 Printing

With Excel, you can print in several ways with typeset-quality results from most laser printers. You have full control over different aspects of printing that affect the appearance of a worksheet, such as margins, page orientation, horizontal and vertical alignment, and the use of headers and footers.

You can also do many more than just print pages from a single workbook. You have the flexibility to print entire workbooks, sheets from a workbook, or a section of a sheet. These options are accessed via the Print button on the Standard toolbar or by choosing FilePrint. And if you've used Excel under previous versions of

Windows, you will also find that printing is considerably faster with Excel 97. (This speed is due more to the improved Windows-98 Print Manager than to Excel itself.)

The Basics of Printing

Because Excel makes a number of assumptions about how you want information printed when you choose FilePrint or when you click on the Print button on the Standard toolbar, you can perform basic printing with just a few steps. These steps are as follows (you'll learn about each step as you work through this chapter):

Select the area that you want to print.

Choose FilePrint to open the Print dialog box, as shown in Figure 4-1.

Use the options in the dialog box to decide what you want to print (the current selection, selected sheets, or the entire workbook), a range of pages (the default is All), and the number of copies.

Click on the OK button to begin the printing process.

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If you are sure that you can live with the default options that normally appear in the Print dialog box, you can make the process of printing even faster. Just select the tab of the worksheet that you want printed and click on the Print button on the Standard toolbar.

Tips: If you have multiple sheets that you want to print one after the other in a workbook by clicking on the Print button only once, you can easily do so. Click on the tab of the first worksheet that you want to print and then hold down the Ctrl key while you click on each additional worksheet tab that you want to print. When you have selected all the desired tabs, click on the Print button on the Standard toolbar.

Print dialog box:- After you choose FilePrint, the Print dialog box, which provides a number of useful options, appears. In the Printer list box, you can choose any printer that you have installed under Windows. In the Print What area, you can choose Selection to print a selected area of a worksheet, Selected Sheet(s) to print all the selected worksheets in a workbook, or Entire Workbook to print all the data stored in all pages of the workbook.

In the Page Range area of the dialog box, the All option (the default) prints all pages. If you select the Page(s) option instead, enter a range of pages in the from and to boxes. This option works well when you know precisely which pages you

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UOM-S007 want to print. For example, if you know that a worksheet produces a 12-page print run in its entirety, and you know that you need only pages 4 through 8 of that print run, you can turn on the Page(s) option and enter 4 in the from box and 8 in the to box.

In the Copies area, you can enter the number of copies that you want, and you can turn on the Collate option if you want the multiple copies to print in collated order.

Page Setup dialog box:- You can use Excel's Page Setup dialog box to change a variety of settings that will affect your printing of worksheets. After you choose File,

Page Setup, the Page Setup dialog box appears, as shown in Figure 14-2

This dialog box contains four tabs that affect four different areas of Excel printing: Page, Margins, Header/Footer, and Sheet. In addition to the tabs, the dialog box contains Print and Print Preview buttons. After making the desired changes to the settings, you can click on the Print button to begin printing, or you can click on the Print Preview button to see the worksheet in Print Preview mode.

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The Page tab options:-

You can use the Page tab's options to control print-related settings that affect all the pages of a print job, such as page orientation and paper size. The Page tab options include:

Orientation: In the Orientation area, choose whether to print in portrait

(default) or Landscape orientation. Think of a photograph: a portrait is taller than it is wide, while a picture of a beautiful mountain scene is wider than it is tall. So it goes with printing: portrait orientation prints lengthwise (like the pages of this handout), while landscape orientation prints "sideways" on the paper.

Scaling: Use the options in the Scaling area to reduce or enlarge your worksheets. These options are useful for making a worksheet that is slightly too big for a page fit on a single page. You can choose a percentage in the

Adjust To list box, or you can use the Fit To option to fit the printed worksheet to a specific number of pages wide by a specific number of pages tall by entering the dimensions in the boxes to the right of the option.

Paper Size: Use the Paper Size option to set the paper size. By default, the paper size is Letter (8.5x l1 inches).

Print Quality: Use the Print Quality option to set the level of print quality. The higher the setting, the nicer the appearance; however, in many cases, your printer takes longer to print documents at higher settings.

First Page Number: Use the First Page Number setting to start printing at a page other than page 1. The Auto default assumes that you want to start at page 1, but you can replace this entry by typing any number that you want into the box.

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The Margins tab options

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When you click on the Margins tab of the Page Setup dialog box, you see the options shown in Figure 4-3. You can use the Margins tab's options to control the settings that affect each page's margins, such as the size of the margins and whether printing is centred horizontally or vertically between margins.

The Margins tab options include the following:

Top, Bottom, Left, and Right: Use the Top, Bottom, Left, and Right options to specify a distance from the edge of the paper for the margins. Note that many laser printers will not print closer than 0.5 inch from the edge of the paper.

From Edge: Use the settings in the From Edge area to indicate how far headers or footers should print from the top or bottom edges.

Center on Page: The Center on Page options determine whether printing should be centered horizontally (between the left and right margins) and vertically (between the top and bottom margins) on the page.

The Sheet tab options

If you click on the Sheet tab of the Page Setup dialog box, you see the options shown in Figure 4-5. You can use the Sheet tab's options to control different print-related settings that affect individual worksheets.

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The Sheet tab options include the following:

Print Area: In the Print Area text box, you can enter a range of cells that you want to print, or you can enter the name of a named range. If you leave the entry blank,

Excel prints all cells that contain data in the worksheet or workbook.

Print Titles: In the Print Titles area, you can specify rows or columns that, you would like to see repeated on every page.

Print: Use the options in the Print area to tell Excel how to handle the printing of certain aspects of a worksheet or workbook. You can determine whether gridlines and notes should be included in the printing; whether the printer should use a faster draft-quality printing; whether color printers should print data only in black and white, even if the cells are formatted as colors; and whether row and column headings should be included.

Page Order- In the Page Order area, you can specify whether printing of multiplepage worksheets should occur from top to bottom and then from left to right, or from left to right and then from top to bottom.

Previewing Print Jobs

Previewing your work before you print it is very useful because you can find mistakes in the layout of your document before you print it, and it helps you to avoid wasting paper. You can also use the Zoom feature that allows you to take a closer look at the document and its contents.

To preview a worksheet, click on the Print Preview button on the

Standard toolbar or choose FilePrint Preview to put Excel in Print Preview mode, as shown in Fig. 4-6.

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In Print Preview mode, you can make modifications to the worksheet to further improve its appearance by clicking on the Setup button at the top of the screen to activate the Page Setup dialog box.

You can also modify the margins of your document in Print Preview by clicking on the Margins button at the top of the screen. Clicking on the Margins button activates the ―margin grid" (see Figure 4-7). You can move the margin lines by using the mouse. The margin grid feature is very helpful because it lets you see the document as it is being adjusted, and you can also get an idea as to whether the document will fit on a single page. If you intend to set margins in Print Preview, you may want to use the Zoom feature by clicking on the Zoom button at the top of the

Print Preview window. The Zoom feature helps you get a better look at what the margins will look like.

Print a worksheet on a specified number of pages

Click the worksheet.

On the File menu, click Page Setup, and then click the Page tab.

Click Fit to.

Enter the number of pages on which you want to print the work.

Printed data will not exceed the specified number of pages. Microsoft Excel will not enlarge the data to fill the pages.

Print a specific area of a worksheet

On the View menu, click Page Break Preview.

Select the area you want to print.

Right-click a cell within the selection, and then click Set Print Area on the shortcut menu.

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Tips: You can add additional cells to a print area in page break preview. Select the cells you want to add, right-click a cell in the selection, and then click Add to Print

Area on the shortcut menu.

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UNIT V - NETWORKS

5.1 INTERNET EXPLORER

Getting to know the Internet Explorer Window:

Title bar: Consists of:

Name of the current Web page

Minimize Button

Maximize Button

Close button

Location is at the top of the screen

Menu Bar: It contains a series of menus example: file – print.

If a menu choice is followed by ellipsis (….) a dialog box is opened.

This bar is directly below the title bar.

Tool Bar: Consists of group of buttons, which can be clicked to run frequently used commands.

Toolbar is made up of three sections:

Standard Section

Address Bar

Links Section

Standard section is directly below the menu bar. It displays a set of command buttons that duplicate many of the most frequently used menu commands.

Address bar is below the standard section. In this you can enter web site locations i.e. URL.

Link section is to the right of the address bar. It displays link buttons that you can assign to your most frequently used web site locations.

Activity Indicator: This is to the right of the standard section. When Internet

Explorer is sending and receiving data from the Internet, the Internet Explorer symbol in the indicator will be animated.

Main Window: This is the window below the toolbar. It displays the text, images and other graphic elements of the current web page or file.

Status Bar: This is at the bottom of the main window. It supplies information about the current web site, progress meter etc.

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Using Internet Explorer Effectively:

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Stopping the downloading of a web page: If the page takes too long to display or if you decide not to display the page the cross button on the tool bar is used for it.

Refreshing a web page: To start the downloading of the page afresh if the web page has not fully downloaded due to any network problem. Or if the web page was retrieved from memory, but you suspect that the page may have changed. The button is on the tool bar.

Opening A New Internet Explorer Window:

The reasons may be:

1.To keep working while downloading. a lengthy document.

2. To keep reference information in one window while you are reading another document.

3. To keep a search engine visible in one window while you are exploring in another window.

Ways to open a new window:

1.To open a specific Web Page:

In a new window, right-click a Hyper-Link and then click Open In New

Window command.

2.To open a blank new window:

Click the new window command on the file menu. In the blank new window, type the address.

Copying, Saving And Printing Web Pages:

1. Selecting text in a Web Page:

Only text is selected. Graphics are not included.

Copying graphics:

1. Launch Internet Explorer.

2. Go to the web page that contains the graphic

3. Right-click a graphic and then click save picture as.

4. Give any relevant name for saving picture and save it.

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5.2 World Wide Web(WWW)

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The World Wide Web is a system of hypertext documents that are linked to each other. Internet is the means to access this set of interlinked documents. These hypertext documents can contain text, images or even audio and video data. The

World Wide Web, serving as an enormous information base, has also facilitated the spread of this information across the globe. It has led to the emergence of the

Internet age. It will not be an exaggeration to say that the Internet owes its popularity to the World Wide Web.

Working of the World Wide Web

Asking how the Internet works is not the same as asking how the world wide web works. Well, Internet and the World Wide Web are not one and the same, although they are often used as synonyms. While the Internet is an infrastructure providing interconnectivity between network computers, the web is one of the services of the

Internet. It is a collection of documents that can be shared across Internet-enabled computers.

The network of web servers serves as the backbone of the World Wide Web. The

Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP) is used to gain access to the web. A web browser makes a request for a particular web page to the web server, which in turn responds with the requested web page and its contents. It then displays the web page as rendered by HTML or other web languages used by the page. Each resource on the web is identified by a globally unique identifier (URI). Each web page has a unique address, with the help of which a browser accesses it. With the help of the domain name system, a hierarchical naming system for computers and resources participating in the Internet, the URL is resolved into an IP address.

Presence of hyperlinks, the worldwide availability of content and universal readership is some of the striking features of the World Wide Web. The interlinked hypertext documents form a web of information. Hyperlinks present on web pages allow the web users to choose their paths of traversal across information on the web. They provide an efficient cross-referencing system and create a non-linear form of text. Moreover, they create a different reading experience. The information on the web is available 24/7 across the globe. It is updated in real time and made accessible to web users around the world. Except for certain websites requiring user login, all the other websites are open to everyone. This all-time availability of

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UOM-S007 information has made the Internet, a platform for knowledge-sharing. Thanks to the use of a common HTML format for rendering web content and a common access method using the HTTP protocol, the web has achieved universal readership.

The World Wide Web, a compilation of millions of hypertext documents, has brought together information from all over the world, 'just a click away'. But, before leaving this web page, take a moment to thank the World Wide Web; for if it was not for the web, you would not have landed here!

Browsing

When you first open the web browser it will automatically load a "homepage" - usually that of the browser's manufacturer. E.g. Internet Explorer will load the MSN homepage. Most people find this irritating and change the default homepage setting to something they are more interested in like weather reports, stock exchange info or their favourite search engine. To change your homepage to your preferred page, browse to the page you want as your homepage. Then go

"View", "Internet Options", select the "Use Current" button.

As a page "loads" into your browser you will see the text come in, the pictures arrive - all the basic elements of a web page. You will notice that some text is underlined and in different colours - this is hypertext, if you click on it, you will jump to another web page. When you move your mouse arrow over a link the mouse's pointer will change to a hand. This indicates there is a hypertext link associated with that text. The same applies to pictures, that is, if you move your mouse over a picture and your mouse arrow turns from an arrow to a hand, you know there is a link there. The process of clicking hypertext links, loading one page after another, is called "browsing" or "surfing the web".

Searching

Searching the World Wide Web can be both beneficial and frustrating. You may find vast amounts of information, or you may not find the kinds of information you're looking for. Searching online will provide you with a wealth of information, but not all of it will be useful or of the highest quality.

The World Wide Web is a superb resource, but it doesn't contain all the information that you can find at a library or through library online resources. Don't expect to

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UOM-S007 limit your search to what is on the Internet, and don't expect search engines to find everything that is on the Web.

Studies of search engine usage show that search engines are increasing exponentially in their indexing of new websites and information. Indexing is the web term for finding and including new web pages and other media in search results. For example, in 1994, Google indexed approximately 20 million pages. As of 2004, that number is up to 8 billion! However, search engines still only index a fraction of what is available on the Internet and not all of it is up to date. Search engines may only "crawl" sites (or revisit them for purposes of indexing) every month or so; information that has been updated since that time will be invisible to the search engines. After you try several search engines, you will see that you get different results from different sites. Also, remember that some information appears and then disappears from Web sites. Finally, search engines don't always search the entire page; if a page is larger than 100 to 500 k, many search engines will only index the first 100 to 500k of the page. So there could be valuable information that is being overlooked by a search engine even in pages that are indexed.

Not all of the information located on the Internet is able to be found via search engines. Researchers Chris Sherman and Gary Price call this information the

"invisible web" (another name that is frequently used is the "deep web"). Invisible web information includes certain file formats, information contained in databases, and other omitted pages from search engines.

So, using search engines is not the only way to find material on the web, but they are one tool you can use. Knowing a few search strategies and hints, as you use these engines, can make the search more profitable.

5.3 Bookmark/Favorites

Internet Explorer is the most popular browser out there today, and while it has its problems and critics, it still has a lot of useful features that make web search more enjoyable. One of these features is the ability to save websites for later reference, otherwise known as bookmarks, or favorites.

After you have collected enough favorites (aka "bookmarks") to merit some organizing, you choose one of two ways to start: either click theFavorites menu at the top of the screen, or Display and use the Favorites bar at the left of the screen.

Choose organize Favorites…

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There are now three sub-steps ahead for creating folder

Click create folder

Drag and drop your favorite icon into your new folder

Confirm that favorite has an indented (‗nested‘) appearance

Repeat the above 3 sub-steps until you have moved all your favorites into folders that

Work for you

Technical note: you are allowed to create folders within folders. These subfolders will result in sub-menus and even more organization for you. The procedure is identical to the procedure above, just drag-and-drop your folders as you would your Favorites.

5.4 Webpage

The structure of a web page:

Web pages are actually text files that are "tagged" with symbols to represent structure and function. You can prepare and edit Web pages in any text editor or word processor you like. The system of tags, called HTML (HyperText Markup

Language), is very logical and not difficult to learn. However, you don't really need to speak fluent HTML in order to create your own Web pages. There are several

Shortcuts that have been developed to simplify the process.

The icons, pictures, sound bites, and video clips that are common on Web pages are actually separate files that are referred to by special HTML codes. When the page is viewed by a Web browser, such as Firefox or Internet Explorer, these HTML codes are interpreted by the browser, which pulls in all the separate files and assembles the Web page in the form you finally see it. This is in contrast to a modern word processor, in which the editing and viewing functions are integrated into one program and in which all the text, graphics and other elements of the document are contained in one document file. For that reason, the process of creating Web pages is less direct that creating an equivalent word processor document.

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Writing HTML pages:

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Text remains the most important part of most Web sites and thus will be the first element considered here. All of the text of a Web page is contained in an ASCII text file that is "marked up" with HTML codes and is usually given a file name that ends in ".html". The "body text" of the page is simply written out in plain text in the html file. You can use any convenient plain text editor to write your HTML files, e.g. SimpleText on the Mac or Notepad on Windows.

There is no need to buy web editor program. All you really need is a Web browser and the text editor that came with your computer. There is no need to be tied down to a commercial Web editor that will eventually become obsolete or require upgrading to a new version. Web editors do, however, make it easy to create fancy

Web pages with lots of bells and whistles. But you don't actually need to spend any money; there are good free web editors that you can download, such as Kompozer (Screen shot). These work a lot like word processors, but they include extra features for creating links, site management, uploading pages to your server, cascading style sheets, etc. There are also Web-based page editors that do everything within a web browser, for example Google's easy-to-use but somewhat limited Page Creator.

Tips on creating web pages:

If you are developing a Web page using a text editor to write HTML, it's convenient to keep your Web browser and the html file open in a text editor (such as Notepad,

NoteTab, or SimpleText) at the same time. To view the page as it will appear in your

Web browser, click on the browser window, pull down the File menu and select Open File , select the html file and click on Open. If you want to make a change, click on the text editor window, edit the html text, Save it, then click on the browser window and click on the Reload button.

You may find it easier to type up your text in your favorite word processor, where you will have access to a spell checker, etc., then Copy and Paste the text into the template. Don't attempt to format the text in the word processor, as all formatting is lost when the text is copied and pasted, unless you "Save As..." in HTML format, then copy and past the HTML code into your template. Rather, formatting codes can be added to the text afterwards. Don't worry about line length and line breaks;

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Web browsers ignore carriage returns and other line break characters and automatically format text to the width of the window (which is controlled by the user, not by the author). To separate paragraphs, add a <p> tag between paragraphs.

Print webpage

As you begin your Internet Explorer explorations, if you discover a Web page with really interesting information that you want to have a hard copy of, all you have to do is print the page. Make sure that your printer's turned on and ready to go and then follow these steps:

1. Choose File --> Print.

The Print dialog box appears, as shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1: The Print dialog box.

2. Stare at the Print dialog box for a moment.

If you have more than one printer at your disposal, make sure that the correct printer is selected. If you want to print more than one copy of the page, change the Number of Copies setting.

3. Click OK.

4. Wait a moment while your printer grinds and whirls.

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A faster way to print a Web page — assuming that you want only one copy and you know that the correct printer has already been selected as your default printer — is to simply click the Print button (the button that looks like a printer with a piece of paper coming out of the top) on the toolbar.

Opting for print options

The Options tab in the Print dialog box lets you control several aspects of how a

Web page is printed. The first set of options are for pages that are laid out in two or more frames, which display content independently of one another. Internet

Explorer gives you three options for dealing with frames:

As laid out onscreen: Prints all the frames together, as they appear on the screen.

Only the selected frame: Prints only the frame you've selected. This option is available only if you select a frame before calling up the Print dialog box.

All frames individually: Prints separately all the frames that make up the page.

The Options tab also has two options related to links that appear on the page you're printing:

Print all linked documents: Prints not only the current Web page, but also any pages that appear as links on the page you're printing.

Print table of links: Prints a list of all the links that appear on the page.

Laying out your page

The File --> Page Layout command lets you tweak the appearance of your printed pages by summoning the dialog box shown in Figure 2.

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Figure 2: The Page Setup dialog box.

The following paragraphs describe the page-layout options you can set from this dialog box:

Paper size: The most common choices are Letter and Legal, but other page sizes are available. The important thing about this setting is to make sure that it corresponds to the type of paper you put in your printer. If you put letter-size paper in your printer but set this option to Legal, your pages don't print properly.

Paper source: If you have more than one way to feed paper to your printer, this option lets you choose the one you want to use.

Header and Footer: These fields let you set up information to be printed at the top and bottom of each page. The default settings for these options are to print the page title and page number in the header and the URL and the date in the footer.

You can customize the information you want to appear in the header and footer, if you dare. Unfortunately, the road to customized headers and footers is paved with nerdy ampersand codes, such as &w, &p, and &b. Take a deep breath and look over the list of codes shown in Table 1. Then, twiddle with the header and footer fields if you can still see straight.

Portrait or Landscape: This setting specifies the orientation of the printed pages, either Portrait (the long edge of the paper is vertical) or Landscape (the long edge of the paper is horizontal).

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Margins: Lets you set the top, bottom, left, and right margins.

Table 1: Nerdy Codes You Can Use in a Page Header or Footer

Code Explanation

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&w The window title, which is usually the title of the Web page.

&u The URL (address) of the Web page.

&d Short-format date.

&D Long-format date.

&t Time in regional format.

&T Time in 24-hour format.

&p Current page number.

&P Number of pages in document.

&& Prints an ampersand (&).

&b The first time this code appears, the text that follows is centered. The second time the code appears, the text that follows is aligned with the right margin.

Using Print Preview

If you want to see how a page will appear on paper before you send it to your printer, choose the File --> Print Preview command. A Print Preview screen appears, as shown in Figure 3.

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Figure 3: Print Preview lets you see how a page will appear before you print it.

5.5 E - Mail

With the growing popularity of the Internet, e-mail has become the most popular communication method for the internet users. Email is the fast and effective method of communication and it is probably the most preferred method for online communication. At present, thousands of users are using e-mails every day.

Extensive use of e-mail makes it so interesting and so versatile. If you want to send greetings to your grandfather or send some files to friends, you can easily use the e-mail to do so.

Advantages of E-Mail

E-mail has come a long way since its introduction, but still, for the most part of the world it used as a secured, fast and easy way to communicate. Electronic communications policy is essentially a reference tool that is much more developed now, and you can do much more with it than other medium. With an ordinary file, you can send text messages via e-mail address and send greeting cards, manage email, duties or preventing unwanted emails by using a spam folder, and organize and manage tasks in their daily number of mail servers. You can send a heavy file within a minute by email.

However, this wonderful tool is not without fault. Some people use these

advantages of email to send viruses and worms through e-mail and in the process they send a lot of emails on your address. If you open and use any file that is

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UOM-S007 infected, it can make a major damage to your computer. An e-mail virus may often be very difficult to understand, especially for someone who have a little or limited knowledge about computer viruses and how they work. If you get an email with no name mentioned on it and if you open that mail, there are high chances for your computer to get infected by the virus and specious worm.

The privacy problems mentioned above is a big problem. Almost every e-mail goes through a series of computers before it reaches the recipients inbox, and it is possible that individuals can access e-mail and read it. Therefore, it is important that you have a bullet-proof password. Thus you will be able to make your personal emails secured. Keep your security question and answer in a safe place. Do the best use of email and take the full advantages of email. Do not use it to harass people, because it is the worst use of a good thing.

Creating E-Mail Account

Creating an email account is simple.

First, choose an email service that you prefer (major ones include Yahoo,

Hotmail, Gmail, etc).

Next, decide what screen name you wish to have. This will act as both your login name and your email address name (ex. [email protected]). If the name is taken, try a variation of the name, or add numbers, spaces or hyphens in it.

After you have chosen a name, you will have to create a password and a security question/answer. Make sure to choose a password that you'll be able to remember, but will be difficult for others to guess (as a warning for those making an account for the first time, NEVER give out your password, as there are many scam and phishing sites that will undoubtebly try to steal your information) .

The final step is to fill out your personal information and activate your account.

Once this is completed, you will be able to use your email to send and receive messages, add addresses and phone numbers into your contact book, use your calendar, and much more.

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Sending and Receiving E-Mails

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The drafting and consultation of messages in Gmail differ little from those options offered by a conventional email client. To send an email, click "Compose Mail" located above the folder list. An entry form appears in the Gmail interface.

However, it is possible to open a separate window by clicking the icon consisting of a blue square containing an arrow, superimposed on a blue square. This option has the advantage of allowing access to all functions of the Gmail mailbox without interrupting e-mail attachment.

In the "To:" box, type the address of the person you want to write. For multiple recipients, separate addresses with commas. When entering, Gmail will suggest possible addresses you use frequently, then those in your list of contacts (including groups). In case of multiple proposals, press [Enter] to select the first suggestion or move through the list to select another address. If Gmail does not suggest the address you want, continue typing without taking into account the proposals.

Tip: You can select the contacts you want to write directly into the folder

"Contacts". Simply check the box before the name of the people want, then click on

"Write".

To view the "Cc:" tab click "Add Cc". Cc means "carbon copy", type here the addresses of people who are not the main recipients of the message, but you still want to send a copy.

To view the "Bcc:" tab click "Add Bcc". Bcc stands for "carbon copy invisible, type here the addresses of people you want to send a copy of the mail, but the other correspondents will not know.

In "Subject:", enter the subject of the email. Enter the text itself. By default, Gmail to send a message in HTML format. You have options enrichment and text formatting: bold, italic, underlined, choice of font and size, insertion of hyperlinks, bulleted lists, numbered lists, etc.If you are unsure that your recipients can read

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UOM-S007 rich text, click "Text only". Note that the spell checking works in both modes of entry.

Adding attachments to Email

It is also possible to add attachments (pictures, videos, etc..) To the message.

To this end, click "Attach a file" then click "Browse" to select a file on the hard disk.

When you finish typing your post, click the "Send" to send it immediately or on the button "Save" to save as draft. Things to know: Gmail backup at regular intervals the mail that you are writing. Therefore, do not panic if for any reason it were to be lost. You will find a copy in the folder "Drafts".Unfortunately, Gmail does not have the "receipt" for the messages you send.You'll see that sending emails is a really easy.

Receiving E-Mail

All emails received are stored in the inbox. The number of unread messages is indicated in parentheses to the right of the folder "Inbox". Gmail automatically checks every two minutes when new messages arrive. At any time, you can force the check by clicking on the "Update".

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UOM-S007

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Computing Skills-Basic

UOM-S007 for the Students of University of Madras

Contents

UNIT I - INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

1.1 Classifications of Computer

1.2. Role of Computers in Society

1.3 Inside Computers

Computer Software

1.3.3 Internal Hardware

1.4 Operating Systems

1.5.Storage devices

1.6 Programming

1.7.Networking Basics:

Topology

1.8 Virus:

1.9 Hacking:

hacker

9.Phishing

10. Fake Messengers

UNIT II - WORD PROCESSING

Elements of Word Window

2.2 Entering Text

2.3 Spell Check

2.4 Navigating In Word

– Keyboard and Mouse

2.5 Document Formatting

2.6 Page Formatting & Printing

UNIT III - FILE MANAGEMENT

3.1 Understanding the Importance of File Management

3.2 Backing up files and folders

3.3 Navigating Through My Computer and Windows Explorer

3.4 Files and Folders

3.5 Sizing, Moving, and Arranging Windows

3.6. Power Point

Presentation of Slides

UNIT IV - SPREADSHEETS

4.1 Starting Excel

4.2.Entering Text and Data

4.3 Formatting

4.4 Navigating within worksheet

4.5 Formulas

– Entering ,Handling, copying

4.6 Charts

4.7 Header and Footer

4.8 Centering data

4.9 Printing

UNIT V - NETWORKS

5.1 INTERNET EXPLORER

5.2 World Wide Web(WWW)

5.3 Bookmark/Favorites

5.4 Webpage

Print webpage

5.5 E - Mail

Creating E-Mail Account

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( A Govt of India Enterprise)

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