Acquisitions Editor COPYRIGHT © 1997 BY RED HAT SOFTWARE, INC. Grace M. Buechlein FIRST EDITION All rights reserved. No part of this book shall be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the publisher. No patent liability is assumed with respect to the use of the information contained herein. Although every precaution has been taken in the preparation of this book, the publisher and author assume no responsibility for errors or omissions. Neither is any liability assumed for damages resulting from the use of the information contained herein. For information, address Sams Publishing, 201 W. 103rd St., Indianapolis, IN 46290. International Standard Book Number: 0-672-31104-6 Brian Proffitt Software Development Specialist Jack Belbot Production Editor Kitty Wilson Jarrett Kate Shoup Welsh Copy Editors Kimberly K. Hannel Carolyn Linn Kristine Simmons Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 97-66202 2000 99 98 97 Development Editor 4 3 2 1 Interpretation of the printing code: the rightmost double-digit number is the year of the book’s printing; the rightmost single-digit, the number of the book’s printing. For example, a printing code of 97-1 shows that the first printing of the book occurred in 1997. Indexer k u . o le.c Christine L. Nelsen Technical Reviewer a s e t o N 7 2 m 5 o r 1 f f o w e 2 i v e e Pr Pag Composed in AGaramond and MCPdigital by Macmillan Computer Publishing Editorial Coordinators Mandie Rowell Katie Wise Printed in the United States of America TRADEMARKS All terms mentioned in this book that are known to be trademarks or service marks have been appropriately capitalized. Sams Publishing cannot attest to the accuracy of this information. Use of a term in this book should not be regarded as affecting the validity of any trademark or service mark. President Publisher and Director of Acquisitions Director of Product Development Managing Editor Indexing Manager Director of Marketing Associate Product Marketing Manager Marketing Coordinator Bill Ball Richard K. Swadley Jordan Gold Dean Miller Kitty Wilson Jarrett Johnna L. VanHoose Kelli S. Spencer Jennifer Pock Linda Beckwith Technical Edit Coordinator Lynette Quinn Editorial Assistants Carol Ackerman Andi Richter Rhonda Tinch-Mize Karen Williams Cover Designer Karen Ruggles Book Designer Ann Jones Copy Writer David Reichwein Production Team Supervisor Beth Lewis Production Team Erin Danielson, Bryan Flores, DiMonique Ford, Julie Geeting, Kay Hoskin, Christy M. Lemasters, Tony McDonald, Darlena Murray, Julie Searls, Sossity Smith Introduction ix pbmtogem ........................................................................................................ 360 pbmtogo ........................................................................................................... 360 pbmtoicon ........................................................................................................ 361 pbmtolj ............................................................................................................. 361 pbmtoln03 ........................................................................................................ 362 pbmtolps ........................................................................................................... 362 pbmtomacp ....................................................................................................... 363 pbmtomgr ......................................................................................................... 363 pbmtopgm ........................................................................................................ 364 pbmtopi3 .......................................................................................................... 364 pbmtopk ........................................................................................................... 364 pbmtoplot ......................................................................................................... 365 pbmtoptx .......................................................................................................... 366 pbmtox10bm .................................................................................................... 366 pbmtoxbm ........................................................................................................ 367 pgmtoybm ........................................................................................................ 367 pbmtozinc ......................................................................................................... 367 pbmupc ............................................................................................................ 368 pcxtoppm .......................................................................................................... 368 pfbtops .............................................................................................................. 369 pgmbentley ....................................................................................................... 369 pgmcrater .......................................................................................................... 370 pgmedge ........................................................................................................... 371 pgmenhance ...................................................................................................... 371 pgmhist ............................................................................................................. 372 pgmkernel ......................................................................................................... 372 pgmnoise .......................................................................................................... 373 pgmnorm .......................................................................................................... 373 pgmoil .............................................................................................................. 374 pgmramp .......................................................................................................... 374 pgmtexture ........................................................................................................ 375 pgmtofs ............................................................................................................. 376 pgmtolispm ....................................................................................................... 376 pgmtopbm ........................................................................................................ 377 pgmtoppm ........................................................................................................ 378 pi1toppm .......................................................................................................... 378 pi3topbm .......................................................................................................... 379 picttoppm ......................................................................................................... 379 pjtoppm ............................................................................................................ 381 pktopbm ........................................................................................................... 381 pnmalias ............................................................................................................ 381 pnmarith ........................................................................................................... 382 pnmcat .............................................................................................................. 383 pnmcomp ......................................................................................................... 383 pnmconvol ........................................................................................................ 384 k u . o le.c a s e t o N 7 2 m 5 o r 1 f f o w e 9 i v e e Pr Pag gr11 Linux Complete Command Reference 31104-6 christy 11.6.97 FM lp3 Linux Complete Command Reference xii reconfig ............................................................................................................. 454 ref ..................................................................................................................... 455 reset .................................................................................................................. 456 resize ................................................................................................................. 456 rev ..................................................................................................................... 457 rgb3toppm ........................................................................................................ 457 rlog ................................................................................................................... 458 rlogin ................................................................................................................ 460 rm ..................................................................................................................... 461 rmdir ................................................................................................................ 462 rmmod .............................................................................................................. 462 rnews ................................................................................................................ 463 rpcgen ............................................................................................................... 464 rsh ..................................................................................................................... 466 rstart ................................................................................................................. 467 rstartd ............................................................................................................... 468 rup .................................................................................................................... 472 rusers ................................................................................................................ 472 rwall .................................................................................................................. 473 rwho ................................................................................................................. 474 script ................................................................................................................. 474 sed .................................................................................................................... 475 sessreg ............................................................................................................... 480 setterm .............................................................................................................. 482 sgitopnm ........................................................................................................... 483 shar ................................................................................................................... 484 shlock................................................................................................................ 487 showrgb ............................................................................................................ 488 shrinkfile ........................................................................................................... 488 sirtopnm ........................................................................................................... 488 size .................................................................................................................... 489 sldtoppm ........................................................................................................... 490 smproxy ............................................................................................................ 491 sort .................................................................................................................... 492 spctoppm .......................................................................................................... 494 split ................................................................................................................... 494 spottopgm ......................................................................................................... 495 sputoppm .......................................................................................................... 495 sq ...................................................................................................................... 496 startx ................................................................................................................. 496 strings ............................................................................................................... 498 strip .................................................................................................................. 499 subst ................................................................................................................. 500 sum ................................................................................................................... 501 SuperProbe ....................................................................................................... 501 k u . o le.c a s e t o N 7 2 m 5 o 1 r f f o w 2 e i 1 v e e r g P Pa gr11 Linux Complete Command Reference 31104-6 christy 11.6.97 FM lp3 Linux Complete Command Reference xiv xdm .................................................................................................................. 599 xdpyinfo ............................................................................................................ 614 Xf86_Accel ....................................................................................................... 614 XF86_Mono ..................................................................................................... 624 XF86_SVGA .................................................................................................... 627 XF86_VGA16 .................................................................................................. 631 xf86config ......................................................................................................... 633 xfd .................................................................................................................... 633 XFree86 ............................................................................................................ 636 xfs ..................................................................................................................... 641 xhost ................................................................................................................. 643 xieperf ............................................................................................................... 645 ximtoppm ......................................................................................................... 654 xinetd ................................................................................................................ 655 xinit .................................................................................................................. 664 xkill ................................................................................................................... 666 xlogo ................................................................................................................. 667 xlsatoms ............................................................................................................ 668 xlsclients ............................................................................................................ 669 xlsfonts .............................................................................................................. 670 xmag ................................................................................................................. 671 xmkmf .............................................................................................................. 672 xmodmap .......................................................................................................... 672 xon .................................................................................................................... 676 xpmtoppm ........................................................................................................ 677 xprop ................................................................................................................ 677 xrdb .................................................................................................................. 681 xrefresh ............................................................................................................. 684 Xserver .............................................................................................................. 685 xset .................................................................................................................... 690 xsetroot ............................................................................................................. 693 xsm ................................................................................................................... 694 xsmclient ........................................................................................................... 698 xstdcmap ........................................................................................................... 699 xterm ................................................................................................................ 700 Xvfb .................................................................................................................. 717 xvidtune ............................................................................................................ 719 xvminitoppm .................................................................................................... 720 xwd ................................................................................................................... 721 xwdtopnm ........................................................................................................ 722 xwininfo ............................................................................................................ 722 xwud ................................................................................................................. 725 ybmtopbm ........................................................................................................ 726 ytalk .................................................................................................................. 727 yuvplittoppm .................................................................................................... 730 k u . o le.c a s e t o N 7 2 m 5 o 1 r f f o w 4 e i 1 v e e r g P Pa gr11 Linux Complete Command Reference 31104-6 christy 11.6.97 FM lp3 Introduction xxi libppm .............................................................................................................. 973 localeconv ......................................................................................................... 974 longjmp ............................................................................................................ 975 lfind, lsearch ...................................................................................................... 975 calloc, malloc, free, realloc ................................................................................. 976 mblen ................................................................................................................ 977 mbstowcs .......................................................................................................... 977 mbtowc ............................................................................................................. 978 memccpy .......................................................................................................... 978 memchr ............................................................................................................ 979 memcmp ........................................................................................................... 979 memcpy ............................................................................................................ 980 memfrob ........................................................................................................... 980 memmem .......................................................................................................... 981 memmove ......................................................................................................... 981 memset ............................................................................................................. 982 mkfifo ............................................................................................................... 982 mkstemp ........................................................................................................... 983 mktemp ............................................................................................................ 983 modf ................................................................................................................. 984 asctime, ctime, difftime, gmtime, localtime, mktime ......................................... 984 tzset .................................................................................................................. 986 on_exit .............................................................................................................. 988 opendir ............................................................................................................. 989 parsedate ........................................................................................................... 989 perror ................................................................................................................ 990 popen, pclose .................................................................................................... 991 printf, fprintf, sprintf, snprintf, vprintf, vfprintf, vsprintf, vsnprintf .................. 992 psignal .............................................................................................................. 996 putenv ............................................................................................................... 996 putpwent .......................................................................................................... 997 fputc, fputs, putc, putchar, puts ........................................................................ 997 qio .................................................................................................................... 998 qsort ................................................................................................................ 1000 raise ................................................................................................................ 1000 rand, srand ...................................................................................................... 1001 random, srandom, initstate, setstate ................................................................ 1001 readdir ............................................................................................................ 1002 readv, writev .................................................................................................... 1003 realpath ........................................................................................................... 1004 Re_comp, re_exec ........................................................................................... 1005 regcomp, regexec, regerror, regfree .................................................................. 1005 remove ............................................................................................................ 1007 res_query, res_search, res_mkquery, res_send, res_init, dn_comp, dn_expand .................................................................................................... 1008 k u . o le.c a s e t o N 7 2 m 5 o 1 r f f o w 1 e i 2 v e e r g P Pa gr11 Linux Complete Command Reference 31104-6 christy 11.6.97 FM lp3 Linux Complete Command Reference xxii rewinddir ........................................................................................................ 1011 rint .................................................................................................................. 1011 rquota ............................................................................................................. 1012 scandir, alphasort ............................................................................................ 1012 scanf, fscanf, sscanf, vscanf, vsscanf, vfscanf ..................................................... 1013 seekdir ............................................................................................................. 1015 setbuf, setbuffer, setlinebuf, setvbuf ................................................................. 1016 setenv .............................................................................................................. 1017 setjmp ............................................................................................................. 1018 setlocale ........................................................................................................... 1018 siginterrupt ..................................................................................................... 1019 sigemptyset, sigfillset, sigaddset, sigdelset, sigismember ................................... 1019 sin ................................................................................................................... 1020 sinh ................................................................................................................. 1021 sleep ................................................................................................................ 1021 snprintf, vsnprintf ........................................................................................... 1022 sqrt .................................................................................................................. 1023 stdarg .............................................................................................................. 1023 stdio ................................................................................................................ 1025 stpcpy ............................................................................................................. 1027 strcasecmp, strncasecmp .................................................................................. 1028 strcat, strncat ................................................................................................... 1028 strchr, strrchr .................................................................................................. 1029 strcmp, strncmp .............................................................................................. 1029 strcoll .............................................................................................................. 1030 strcpy, strncpy ................................................................................................. 1030 strdup ............................................................................................................. 1031 strerror ............................................................................................................ 1032 strfry ............................................................................................................... 1032 strftime ........................................................................................................... 1032 strcasecmp, strcat, strchr, strcmp, strcoll, strcpy, strcspn, strdup, strfry, strlen, strncat, strncmp, strncpy, strncasecmp, strpbrk, strrchr, strsep, strspn, strstr, strtok, strxfrm, index, rindex ................................................... 1034 strlen ............................................................................................................... 1035 strpbrk ............................................................................................................ 1035 strptime .......................................................................................................... 1036 strsep ............................................................................................................... 1037 strsignal ........................................................................................................... 1038 strspn, strcspn ................................................................................................. 1038 strstr ................................................................................................................ 1039 strtod .............................................................................................................. 1039 strtok .............................................................................................................. 1040 strtol ............................................................................................................... 1041 strtoul ............................................................................................................. 1041 strxfrm ............................................................................................................ 1042 k u . o le.c a s e t o N 7 2 m 5 o 1 r f f o w 2 e i 2 v e e r g P Pa gr11 Linux Complete Command Reference 31104-6 christy 11.6.97 FM lp3 Introduction xxvii named ............................................................................................................. 1334 named.reload .................................................................................................. 1338 named.restart .................................................................................................. 1338 ndc .................................................................................................................. 1338 netstat ............................................................................................................. 1339 makeactive, makehistory, newsrequeue ............................................................ 1342 news.daily ....................................................................................................... 1344 newslog ........................................................................................................... 1346 nfsd ................................................................................................................. 1347 nnrpd .............................................................................................................. 1347 nntpsend ......................................................................................................... 1349 nslookup ......................................................................................................... 1350 overchan ......................................................................................................... 1353 pac .................................................................................................................. 1354 pcnfsd ............................................................................................................. 1355 plipconfig ........................................................................................................ 1357 ping ................................................................................................................ 1358 portmap .......................................................................................................... 1358 powerd ............................................................................................................ 1359 pppd ............................................................................................................... 1360 pppstats ........................................................................................................... 1369 prunehistory .................................................................................................... 1370 quotacheck ...................................................................................................... 1371 quotaon, quotaoff ........................................................................................... 1372 rarp ................................................................................................................. 1373 rdev ................................................................................................................. 1373 renice .............................................................................................................. 1375 repquota .......................................................................................................... 1376 rexecd ............................................................................................................. 1376 rlogind ............................................................................................................ 1377 route ............................................................................................................... 1379 routed ............................................................................................................. 1380 rpc.rusersd ...................................................................................................... 1382 rpc.rwalld ........................................................................................................ 1383 rpcinfo ............................................................................................................ 1383 rquotad, rpc.rquotad ....................................................................................... 1384 rshd ................................................................................................................. 1385 rwhod ............................................................................................................. 1386 sendmail .......................................................................................................... 1387 setfdprm .......................................................................................................... 1391 setserial ........................................................................................................... 1391 setsid ............................................................................................................... 1395 showmount ..................................................................................................... 1396 shutdown ........................................................................................................ 1396 simpleinit ........................................................................................................ 1397 k u . o le.c a s e t o N 7 2 m 5 o 1 r f f o w 7 e i 2 v e e r g P Pa gr11 Linux Complete Command Reference 31104-6 christy 11.6.97 FM lp3 Linux Complete Command Reference xxxii setterm(1) copyright 1990 Gordon Irlam ([email protected]). Copyright 1992 Rickard E. Faith ([email protected]). tunelp(8), ps(1), psupdate(8) xinetd(1) bash(1) copyright © 1992 by Panagiotis Tsirigotis. copyright 1995 Chet Ramey ([email protected]). adduser(8) e2fsck(8) copyright 1995 by Ted Hajek, 1994 by Ian Murdock. copyright 1993, 1994 by Theodore Ts’o. free(1), tload(1) top(1) copyright © 1992 Michael K. Johnson ([email protected]). copyright © 1993 Matt Welsh ([email protected]). copyright 1992 Robert J. Nation. vmstat(8) copyright © 1994 Henry Ware ([email protected]). bdftopcf(1x), beforelight(1x), bitmap(1x), editres(1x), fsinfo(1x), flsfonts(1x),fstobdf(1x), iceauth(1x), imake(1x), lbxproxy(1x), lndir(1x), makedepend(1x), makestrs(1x), mkdirhier(1x), mkfontdir(1x), oclock(1x), resize(1x), sessreg(1x), showrgb(1x), smproxy(1x), startx(1x), x11perf(1x), x11perfcomp(1x), xauth(1x), k u . o le.c xclipboard(1x), xclock(1x), xcmsdb(1x), xcon-sole(1x), xcutsel(1x), xdm(1x), xdpyinfo(1x), xf86config(1x), xfd(1x), xfs(1x), xhost(1x), xinit(1x), xkill(1x), xlogo(1x), xlsatoms(1x), xlsclients(1x), xlsfonts(1x), xmag(1x), xmkmf(1x), xmodmap(1x), xon(1x), xprop(1x), xrdb(1x), xrefresh(1x), xset(1x), xsetroot(1x), xsm(1x), a s e t o N 7 2 m 5 o 1 r f f o w 2 e i 3 v e e r g P Pa xsmclient(1x), xstdcmap(1x), xterm(1x), xwd(1x), xwininfo(1x), xwud(1x) copyright © 1993, 1994 X Consor- tium. portmap(8) copyright © 1987 Sun Microsystems, copyright © 1990, 1991 The Regents of the University of California. rpcgen.new(1) copyright © 1988, 1990 Sun Microsystems, Inc. rstart(1x), rstartd(1x) showmount(8) copyright © 1993 Quarterdeck Office Systems. copyright 1993 Rick Sladkey ([email protected]). twm(1x) copyright © 1993, 1994 X Consortium. Portions copyright 1988 Evans & Sutherland Computer Corporation. Portions copyright 1989 Hewlett-Packard Company. xieperf.1x copyright 1993, 1994 by AGE Logic, Inc. Many thanks to all these contributors for providing excellent-quality man pages and also to the Free Software Foundation for providing the rest. gr11 Linux Complete Command Reference 31104-6 christy 11.6.97 FM lp3 Part I: User Commands 12 DEFINITIONS blank word name meta character control operator A space or tab. A sequence of characters considered as a single unit by the shell. Also known as a token. A word consisting only of alphanumeric characters and underscores and beginning with an alphabetic character or an underscore. Also referred to as an identifier. A character that, when unquoted, separates words. One of the following: |, &, ;, (, ), <, >, space, tab A token that performs a control function. It is one of the following symbols: ||, &, &&, ;, ;;, (, ), |, <newline> k u . o .c e l a s e t o N 7 2 m 5 o 1 r f f o w 4 e i 4 v e e Pr Pag RESERVED WORDS Reserved words are words that have a special meaning to the shell. The following words are recognized as reserved when unquoted and either the first word of a simple command (see “Shell Grammar,” next) or the third word of a case or for command: ! case do done elif else esac fi for function if in select then until while { } SHELL GRAMMAR SIMPLE COMMANDS A simple command is a sequence of optional variable assignments followed by words and redirections separated by blank and terminated by a control operator. The first word specifies the command to be executed. The remaining words are passed as arguments to the invoked command. The return value of a simple command is its exit status, or 128+n if the command is terminated by signal n. PIPELINES A pipeline is a sequence of one or more commands separated by the character |. The format for a pipeline is [!]command [ | command2 ... ] The standard output of command is connected to the standard input of command2 . This connection is performed before any redirections specified by the command. (See the “Redirection” section, later in this manual page.) If the reserved word ! precedes a pipeline, the exit status of that pipeline is the logical NOT of the exit status of the last command. Otherwise, the status of the pipeline is the exit status of the last command. The shell waits for all commands in the pipeline to terminate before returning a value. Each command in a pipeline is executed as a separate process (that is, in a subshell). LISTS A list is a sequence of one or more pipelines separated by one of these operators: ;, &, &&, or || , and terminated by one of these: ;, &, or <newline>. Of these list operators, && and || have equal precedence, followed by ; and &, which have equal precedence. If a command is terminated by the control operator &, the shell executes the command in the background in a subshell. The shell does not wait for the command to finish, and the return status is 0. Commands separated by a ; are executed sequentially; the shell waits for each command to terminate in turn. The return status is the exit status of the last command executed. The control operators && and || denote AND lists and OR lists, respectively. An AND list has the form: command && command2 command2 is executed if, and only if, command returns an exit status of Zero. bash 19 BRACE EXPANSION Brace expansion is a mechanism by which arbitrary strings may be generated. This mechanism is similar to pathname expansion, but the filenames generated need not exist. Patterns to be brace expanded take the form of an optional preamble, followed by a series of comma-separated strings between a pair of braces, followed by an optional postamble. The preamble is prepended to each string contained within the braces, and the postamble is then appended to each resulting string, expanding left to right. Brace expansions may be nested. The results of each expanded string are not sorted; left to right order is preserved. For example, a{d,c,b}e expands into ade ace abe. Brace expansion is performed before any other expansions, and any characters special to other expansions are preserved in the result. It is strictly textual. bash does not apply any syntactic interpretation to the context of the expansion or the text between the braces. k u . o .c e l a s e t o N 7 2 m 5 o 1 r f f o w 1 e i 5 v e e Pr Pag A correctly formed brace expansion must contain unquoted opening and closing braces, and at least one unquoted comma. Any incorrectly formed brace expansion is left unchanged. This construct is typically used as shorthand when the common prefix of the strings to be generated is longer than in the preceding example, such as mkdir /usr/local/src/bash/{old,new,dist,bugs} or chown root /usr/{ucb/{ex,edit},lib/{ex?.?*,how_ex}} Brace expansion introduces a slight incompatibility with traditional versions of sh, the Bourne shell. sh does not treat opening or closing braces specially when they appear as part of a word, and preserves them in the output. bash removes braces from words as a consequence of brace expansion. For example, a word entered to sh as file{1,2} appears identically in the output. The same word is output as file1 file2 after expansion by bash. If strict compatibility with sh is desired, start bash with the –nobraceexpansion flag (see “Options,” earlier in this manual page) or disable brace expansion with the +o braceexpand option to the set command. (See “Shell Built-in Commands.”) TILDE EXPANSION If a word begins with a tilde character (˜), all of the characters preceding the first slash (or all characters, if there is no slash) are treated as a possible login name. If this login name is the null string, the tilde is replaced with the value of the parameter HOME. If HOME is unset, the home directory of the user executing the shell is substituted instead. If a + follows the tilde, the value of PWD replaces the tilde and + If a – follows, the value of OLDPWD is substituted. If the value following the tilde is a valid login name, the tilde and login name are replaced with the home directory associated with that name. If the name is invalid, or the tilde expansion fails, the word is unchanged. Each variable assignment is checked for unquoted instances of tildes following a : or = . In these cases, tilde substitution is also performed. Consequently, one may use pathnames with tildes in assignments to PATH, MAILPATH , and CDPATH , and the shell assigns the expanded value. PARAMETER EXPANSION The $ character introduces parameter expansion, command substitution, or arithmetic expansion. The parameter name or symbol to be expanded may be enclosed in braces, which are optional but serve to protect the variable to be expanded from characters immediately following it which could be interpreted as part of the name. ${parameter} The value of parameter is substituted. The braces are required when parameter is a positional parameter with more than one digit, or when parameter is followed by a character that is not to be interpreted as part of its name. In each of the following cases, word is subject to tilde expansion, parameter expansion, command substitution, and arithmetic expansion. bash tests for a parameter that is unset or null; omitting the colon results in a test only for a parameter that is unset. Part I: User Commands 20 ${parameter:–word} ${parameter:=word} ${parameter:?word} ${parameter:+word} Use default values. If parameter is unset or null, the expansion of word is substituted. Otherwise, the value of parameter is substituted. Assign default values. If parameter is unset or null, the expansion of word is assigned to parameter. The value of parameter is then substituted. Positional parameters and special parameters may not be assigned to in this way. Display Error if null or unset. If parameter is null or unset, the expansion of word (or a message to that effect if word is not present) is written to the standard error and the shell, if it is not interactive, exits. Otherwise, the value of parameter is substituted. Use Alternate Value. If parameter is null or unset, nothing is substituted; otherwise, the expansion of word is substituted. The length in characters of the value of parameter is substituted. If parameter is * or @, the length substituted is the length of * expanded within double quotes. The word is expanded to produce a pattern just as in pathname expansion. If the pattern matches the beginning of the value of parameter , then the expansion is the value of parameter with the shortest matching pattern deleted (the # case) or the longest matching pattern deleted (the ## case). The word is expanded to produce a pattern just as in pathname expansion. If the pattern matches a trailing portion of the value of parameter, then the expansion is the value of parameter with the shortest matching pattern deleted (the % case) or the longest matching pattern deleted (the %% case). k u . o .c e l a s e t o N 7 2 m 5 o 1 r f f o w 2 e i 5 v e e Pr Pag ${#parameter} ${parameter#word} ${parameter##word} ${parameter%word} ${parameter%%word} COMMAND SUBSTITUTION Command substitution allows the output of a command to replace the command name. There are two forms: $(command ) or ‘command’ performs the expansion by executing command and replacing the command substitution with the standard output of the command, with any trailing newlines deleted. When the old–style backquote form of substitution is used, backslash retains its literal meaning except when followed by $, ‘, or \. When using the $(command) form, all characters between the parentheses make up the command; none are treated specially. Command substitutions may be nested. To nest when using the old form, escape the inner backquotes with backslashes. If the substitution appears within double quotes, word splitting and pathname expansion are not performed on the results. ARITHMETIC EXPANSION Arithmetic expansion allows the evaluation of an arithmetic expression and the substitution of the result. There are two formats for arithmetic expansion: $[expression] $((expression)) The expression is treated as if it were within double quotes, but a double quote inside the braces or parentheses is not treated specially. All tokens in the expression undergo parameter expansion, command substitution, and quote removal. Arithmetic substitutions may be nested. The evaluation is performed according to the rules listed under “Arithmetic Evaluation,” later in this section. If expression is invalid , bash prints a message indicating failure and no substitution occurs. PROCESS SUBSTITUTION Process substitution is supported on systems that support named pipes (FIFOs) or the /dev/fd method of naming open files. It takes the form of <(list) or >(list). The process list is run with its input or output connected to a FIFO or some file in / bash 21 dev/fd. The name of this file is passed as an argument to the current command as the result of the expansion. If the >(list) form is used, writing to the file will provide input for list. If the <(list) form is used, the file passed as an argument should be read to obtain the output of list. On systems that support it, process substitution is performed simultaneously with parameter and variable expansion, command substitution, and arithmetic expansion. WORD SPLITTING The shell scans the results of parameter expansion, command substitution, and arithmetic expansion that did not occur within double quotes for word splitting. The shell treats each character of IFS as a delimiter, and splits the results of the other expansions into words on these characters. If the value of IFS is exactly <space><tab><newline>, the default, then any sequence of IFS characters serves to delimit words. If IFS has a value other than the default, then sequences of the whitespace characters space and tab are ignored at the beginning and end of the word, as long as the whitespace character is in the value of IFS (an IFS whitespace character). Any character in IFS that is not IFS whitespace, along with any adjacent IFS whitespace characters, delimits a field. A sequence of IFS whitespace characters is also treated as a delimiter. If the value of IFS is null, no word splitting occurs. IFS cannot be unset. k u . o .c e l a s e t o N 7 2 m 5 o 1 r f f o w 3 e i 5 v e e Pr Pag Explicit null arguments (“” or ‘’) are retained. Implicit null arguments, resulting from the expansion of parameters that have no values, are removed. Note that if no expansion occurs, no splitting is performed. PATHNAME EXPANSION After word splitting, unless the –f option has been set, bash scans each word for the characters *, ?, and [. If one of these characters appears, then the word is regarded as a pattern and replaced with an alphabetically sorted list of pathnames matching the pattern. If no matching pathnames are found, and the shell variable allow_null_glob_expansion is unset, the word is left unchanged. If the variable is set, and no matches are found, the word is removed. When a pattern is used for pathname generation, the character (.) at the start of a name or immediately following a slash must be matched explicitly, unless the shell variable glob_dot_filenames is set. The slash character must always be matched explicitly. In other cases, the (.) character is not treated specially. The special pattern characters have the following meanings: * ? [...] Matches any string, including the null string. Matches any single character. Matches any one of the enclosed characters. A pair of characters separated by a minus sign denotes a range; any character lexically between those two characters, inclusive, is matched. If the first character following the [ is a ! or a ^, then any character not enclosed is matched. A – or ] may be matched by including it as the first or last character in the set. QUOTE REMOVAL After the preceding expansions, all unquoted occurrences of the characters \, ‘ , and “ are removed. REDIRECTION Before a command is executed, its input and output may be redirected using a special notation interpreted by the shell. Redirection may also be used to open and close files for the current shell execution environment. The following redirection operators may precede or appear anywhere within a simple command or may follow a command. Redirections are processed in the order they appear, from left to right. In the following descriptions, if the file descriptor number is omitted, and the first character of the redirection operator is <, the redirection refers to the standard input (file descriptor 0). If the first character of the redirection operator is >, the redirection refers to the standard output (file descriptor 1). Part I: User Commands 22 The word that follows the redirection operator in the following descriptions is subjected to brace expansion, tilde expansion, parameter expansion, command substitution, arithmetic expansion, quote removal, and pathname expansion. If it expands to more than one word, bash reports an error. Note that the order of redirections is significant. For example, the command: ls > dirlist 2>&1 directs both standard output and standard error to the file dirlist , while the command ls 2>&1 > dirlist directs only the standard output to file dirlist, because the standard error was duplicated as standard output before the standard output was redirected to dirlist. k u . o .c e l a s e t o N 7 2 m 5 o 1 r f f o w 4 e i 5 v e e Pr Pag REDIRECTING INPUT Redirection of input causes the file whose name results from the expansion of word to be opened for reading on file descriptor n, or the standard input (file descriptor 0) if n is not specified. The general format for redirecting input is [n]<word REDIRECTING OUTPUT Redirection of output causes the file whose name results from the expansion of word to be opened for writing on file descriptor n, or the standard output (file descriptor 1) if n is not specified. If the file does not exist, it is created; if it does exist it is truncated to zero size. The general format for redirecting output is [n]>word If the redirection operator is >|, then the value of the -C option to the set built-in command is not tested, and file creation is attempted. (See also the description of noclobber under “Shell Variables,” earlier in this manual page.) APPENDING REDIRECTED OUTPUT Redirection of output in this fashion causes the file whose name results from the expansion of word to be opened for appending on file descriptor n, or the standard output (file descriptor 1) if n is not specified. If the file does not exist, it is created. The general format for appending output is [n]>>word REDIRECTING STANDARD OUTPUT AND STANDARD ERROR bash allows both the standard output (file descriptor 1) and the standard error output (file descriptor 2) to be redirected to the file whose name is the expansion of word with this construct. There are two formats for redirecting standard output and standard error: &>word and >&word Of the two forms, the first is preferred. This is semantically equivalent to >word 2>&1 HERE-DOCUMENTS This type of redirection instructs the shell to read input from the current source until a line containing only word (with no trailing blanks) is seen. All of the lines read up to that point are then used as the standard input for a command. 24 Part I: User Commands is tested for aliases, but a word that is identical to an alias being expanded is not expanded a second time. This means that one may alias ls to ls –F , for instance, and bash does not try to recursively expand the replacement text. If the last character of the alias value is a blank, then the next command word following the alias is also checked for alias expansion. Aliases are created and listed with the alias command, and removed with the unalias command. There is no mechanism for using arguments in the replacement text, as in csh . If arguments are needed, a shell function should be used. Aliases are not expanded when the shell is not interactive. The rules concerning the definition and use of aliases are somewhat confusing. bash always reads at least one complete line of input before executing any of the commands on that line. Aliases are expanded when a command is read, not when it is executed. Therefore, an alias definition appearing on the same line as another command does not take effect until the next line of input is read. This means that the commands following the alias definition on that line are not affected by the new alias. This behavior is also an issue when functions are executed. Aliases are expanded when the function definition is read, not when the function is executed, because a function definition is itself a compound command. As a consequence, aliases defined in a function are not available until after that function is executed. To be safe, always put alias definitions on a separate line, and do not use alias in compound commands. k u . o .c e l a s e t o N 7 2 m 5 o 1 r f f o w 6 e i 5 v e e Pr Pag Note that for almost every purpose, aliases are superseded by shell functions. JOB CONTROL Job control refers to the ability to selectively stop (suspend) the execution of processes and continue (resume) their execution at a later point. A user typically employs this facility via an interactive interface supplied jointly by the system’s terminal driver and bash. The shell associates a job with each pipeline. It keeps a table of currently executing jobs, which may be listed with the jobs command. When bash starts a job asynchronously (in the background), it prints a line that looks like this: [1] 25647 indicating that this job is job number 1 and that the process ID of the last process in the pipeline associated with this job is 25647. All of the processes in a single pipeline are members of the same job. bash uses the job abstraction as the basis for job control. To facilitate the implementation of the user interface to job control, the system maintains the notion of a current terminal process group ID. Members of this process group (processes whose process group ID is equal to the current terminal process group ID) receive keyboard-generated signals such as SIGINT . These processes are said to be in the foreground. Background processes are those whose process group ID differs from the terminal’s; such processes are immune to keyboard-generated signals. Only foreground processes are allowed to read from or write to the terminal. Background processes that attempt to read from (write to) the terminal are sent a SIGTTIN ( SIGTTOU) signal by the terminal driver, which, unless caught, suspends the process. If the operating system on which bash is running supports job control, bash allows you to use it. Typing the suspend character (typically ˆZ, Control-Z ) while a process is running causes that process to be stopped and returns you to bash. Typing the delayed suspend character (typically ˆY, Control-Y ) causes the process to be stopped when it attempts to read input from the terminal, and control to be returned to bash. You may then manipulate the state of this job, using the bg command to continue it in the background, the fg command to continue it in the foreground, or the kill command to kill it. A Ctrl+Z takes effect immediately, and has the additional side effect of causing pending output and typeahead to be discarded. There are a number of ways to refer to a job in the shell. The character % introduces a job name. Job number n may be referred to as %n. A job may also be referred to using a prefix of the name used to start it, or using a substring that appears in its command line. For example, %ce refers to a stopped ce job. If a prefix matches more than one job, bash reports an error. Using %?ce, on the other hand, refers to any job containing the string ce in its command line. If the substring matches more than one job, bash reports an error. The symbols %% and %+ refer to the shell’s notion of the current job, which is the last job bash 33 parameter and variable expansion (see “Expansion,” earlier in this manual page) but after history expansion is performed, subject to the values of the shell variables command_oriented_history and HISTCONTROL. On startup, the history is initialized from the file named by the variable HISTFILE (default ˜/.bash_history). HISTFILE is truncated, if necessary, to contain no more than HISTFILESIZE lines. The built-in command fc (see Shell Built-in Commands, later in this manual page) may be used to list or edit and re-execute a portion of the history list. The history builtin can be used to display the history list and manipulate the history file. When using the command-line editing, search commands are available in each editing mode that provide access to the history list. When an interactive shell exits, the last HISTSIZE lines are copied from the history list to HISTFILE . If HISTFILE is unset, or if the history file is unwritable, the history is not saved. HISTORY EXPANSION The shell supports a history expansion feature that is similar to the history expansion in csh . This section describes what syntax features are available. This feature is enabled by default for interactive shells, and can be disabled using the H option to the set built-in command. (See “Shell Built-in Commands,” later in this manual page.) Noninteractive shells do not perform history expansion. k u . o .c e l a s e t o N 7 2 m 5 o 1 r f f o w 5 e i 6 v e e Pr Pag History expansion is performed immediately after a complete line is read, before the shell breaks it into words. It takes place in two parts. The first is to determine which line from the previous history to use during substitution. The second is to select portions of that line for inclusion into the current one. The line selected from the previous history is the event, and the portions of that line that are acted upon are words. The line is broken into words in the same fashion as when reading input, so that several meta character–separated words surrounded by quotes are considered as one word. Only the backslash (\) and single quotes can quote the history escape character, which is ! by default. The shell allows control of the various characters used by the history expansion mechanism. (See the description of histchars under “Shell Variables,” earlier in this manual page.) EVENT DESIGNATORS An event designator is a reference to a command line entry in the history list. ! !! !n !–n !string !?string[?] ˆstring1ˆstring2ˆ !# Start a history substitution, except when followed by a blank, newline, =, or (. Refer to the previous command. This is a synonym for !–1. Refer to command line n. Refer to the current command line minus n. Refer to the most recent command starting with string . Refer to the most recent command containing string. Quick substitution. Repeat the last command, replacing string1 with string2 . Equivalent to !!:s/ string1/string2/. (See “Modifiers,” later in this manual page.) The entire command line typed so far. WORD DESIGNATORS A colon (:) separates the event specification from the word designator. It can be omitted if the word designator begins with a ^, $, *, or %. Words are numbered from the beginning of the line, with the first word being denoted by a 0 (zero). 0 (zero) n ˆ $ % x–y * x* x– The zeroth word. For the shell, this is the command word. The nth word. The first argument. That is, word 1. The last argument. The word matched by the most recent ?string? search. A range of words; –y abbreviates 0–y. All of the words but the zeroth. This is a synonym for 1–$ . It is not an error to use * if there is just one word in the event; the empty string is returned in that case. Abbreviates x–$. Abbreviates x–$ like x*, but omits the last word. beforelight 47 bdftopcf bdftopcf —Convert X font from Bitmap Distribution Format to Portable Compiled Format SYNOPSIS bdftopcf [ –pn ][–un ][–m ][–l ][–M ][–L ][–t ][–i ][–o outputfile ] fontfile.bdf DESCRIPTION is a font compiler for the X server and font server. Fonts in Portable Compiled Format can be read by any architecture, although the file is structured to allow one particular architecture to read them directly without reformatting. This allows fast reading on the appropriate machine, but the files are still portable (but read more slowly) on other machines. bdftopcf OPTIONS –pn –un –m –l –M k u . o .c e l a s e t o N 7 2 m 5 o 1 r f f o w 9 e i 7 v e e Pr Pag Sets the font glyph padding. Each glyph in the font will have each scanline padded in to a multiple of n bytes, where n is 1, 2, 4, or 8. Sets the font scanline unit. When the font bit order is different from the font byte order, the scanline unit n describes what unit of data (in bytes) are to be swapped; the unit i can be 1, 2, or 4 bytes. Sets the font bit order to MSB (most significant bit) first. Bits for each glyph will be placed in this order; that is, the leftmost bit on the screen will be in the highest valued bit in each unit. Sets the font bit order to LSB (least significant bit) first. The leftmost bit on the screen will be in the lowest valued bit in each unit. Sets the font byte order to MSB first. All multibyte data in the file (metrics, bitmaps, and everything else) will be written most significant byte first. Sets the font byte order to LSB first. All multibyte data in the file (metrics, bitmaps, and everything else) will be written least significant byte first. When this option is specified, bdftopcf will convert fonts into terminal fonts when possible. A terminal font has each glyph image padded to the same size; the X server can usually render these types of fonts more quickly. This option inhibits the normal computation of ink metrics. When a font has glyph images that do not fill the bitmap image (that is, the “on” pixels don’t extend to the edges of the metrics), bdftopcf computes the actual ink metrics and places them in the PCF file; the –t option inhibits this behavior. By default bdftopcf writes the PCF file to standard output; this option gives the name of a file to be used instead. –L –t –i –o output-file-name SEE ALSO X(1) AUTHOR Keith Packard, MIT X Consortium X Version 11 Release 6 beforelight beforelight —Screen saver SYNOPSIS beforelight [ –toolkitoption ... ] Part I: User Commands 48 DESCRIPTION The beforelight program is a sample implementation of a screen saver for X servers supporting the MIT-SCREEN-SAVER extension. AUTHORS Keith Packard (MIT X Consortium) X Version 11 Release 6 biff biff—Be SYNOPSIS biff [ny] DESCRIPTION biff k u . o .c e l a s e t o N 7 2 m 5 o 1 r f f o w 0 e i 8 v e e Pr Pag notified if mail arrives and who it is from informs the system whether you want to be notified when mail arrives during the current terminal session. Options supported by biff : n y Disables notification Enables notification When mail notification is enabled, the header and first few lines of the message will be printed on your screen whenever mail arrives. A biff y command is often included in the file .login or .profile to be executed at each login. Biff operates asynchronously. For synchronous notification use the MAIL variable of sh(1) or the mail variable of csh(1). SEE ALSO csh(1), mail(1), sh(1), comsat(8) HISTORY The biff command appeared in BSD 4.0. BSD 4, 14 March 1991 bioradtopgm bioradtopgm —Convert a Biorad confocal file into a portable graymap SYNOPSIS bioradtopgm [-image#][imagedata] DESCRIPTION Reads a Biorad confocal file as input. Produces a portable graymap as output. If the resulting image is upside down, run it through pnmflip -tb. Part I: User Commands 56 Toggle point Toggle curve Toggle line Toggle rectangle Toggle filledRectangle Toggle circle Toggle filledCircle Toggle floodFill Toggle setHotSpot Command clearHotSpot Command undo COLORS k u . o .c e l a s e t o N 7 2 m 5 o 1 r f f o w 8 e i 8 v e e Pr Pag If you would like bitmap to be viewable in color, include the following in the #ifdef xrdb: COLOR section of the file you read with *customization: –color This will cause bitmap to pick up the colors in the app-defaults color customization file: <XRoot>/lib/X11/app-defaults/Bitmap-color where <XRoot> refers to the root of the X11 install tree. BITMAP WIDGET Bitmap widget is a standalone widget for editing raster images. It is not designed to edit large images, although it may be used in that purpose as well. It can be freely incorporated with other applications and used as a standard editing tool. The following are the resources provided by the bitmap widget: Header file Class Class Name Bitmap.h Superclass Bitmap bitmapWidgetClass Bitmap All the Simple Widget resources plus… Name Class Type Default Value foreground highlight framing gridTolerance size dashed grid stippled proportional axes squareWidth squareHeight margin xHot yHot button1Function Foreground Highlight Framing GridTolerance Size Dashed Grid Stippled Proportional Axes SquareWidth SquareHeight Margin XHot YHot Button1Function Pixel Pixel Pixel Dimension String Boolean Boolean Boolean Boolean Boolean Dimension Dimension Dimension Position Position DrawingFunction XtDefaultForeground XtDefaultForeground XtDefaultForeground 8 32x32 True True True True False 16 16 16 NotSet (–1) NotSet (–1) Set brushtopbm Name Class Type Default Value button2Function button3Function button4Function button5Function filename Button2Function Button3Function Button4Function Button5Function Filename DrawingFunction DrawingFunction DrawingFunction DrawingFunction String Invert Clear Invert Invert None (“”) basename Basename String None (“”) 57 AUTHOR k u . o .c e l a s e bmptoppm t o N 7 2 m 5 o 1 r f f o w 9 e i 8 v e e Pr Pag Davor Matic (MIT X Consortium) X Version 11 Release 6 bmptoppm —Convert a BMP file into a portable pixmap SYNOPSIS bmptoppm [bmpfile] DESCRIPTION bmptoppm reads a Microsoft Windows or OS/2 BMP file as input and produces a portable pixmap as output. SEE ALSO ppmtobmp (1), ppm (5) AUTHOR Copyright 1992 by David W. Sanderson 26 October 1992 brushtopbm brushtopbm —Convert a doodle brush file into a portable bitmap SYNOPSIS brushtopbm [brushfile] DESCRIPTION brushtopbm reads a Xerox doodle brush file as input and produces a portable bitmap as output. Note that there is currently no pbmtobrush tool. SEE ALSO pbm(5) AUTHOR Copyright 1988 by Jef Poskanzer 28 August 1988 colrm 77 colcrt colcrt—Filter nroff output for CRT previewing SYNOPSIS colcrt [–] [–2] [file ...] DESCRIPTION provides virtual half-line and reverse-line feed sequences for terminals without such capability, and on which overstriking is destructive. Half-line characters and underlining (changed to dashing –) are placed on new lines in between the normal output lines. colcrt k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 9 e 0 i 1 v Pre Page Available options: Suppress all underlining. This option is especially useful for previewing all boxed tables from tbl(1). Causes all half-lines to be printed, effectively double spacing the output. Normally, a minimal space output format is used which will suppress empty lines. The program never suppresses two consecutive empty lines, however. The -2 option is useful for sending output to the line printer when the output contains superscripts and subscripts that would otherwise be invisible. – –2 EXAMPLES A typical use of colcrt would be tbl exum2.n | nroff -ms | colcrt - | more SEE ALSO nroff(1), troff (1), col (1), more (1), ul(1) BUGS Should fold underlines onto blanks even with the - option so that a true underline character would show. Can’t back up more than 102 lines. General overstriking is lost; as a special case | overstruck with ‘’ or underline becomes +. Lines are trimmed to 132 characters. Some provision should be made for processing superscripts and subscripts in documents that are already double-spaced. HISTORY The colcrt command appeared in BSD 3.0. BSD 3, 30 June 1993 colrm colrm—Remove columns from a file SYNOPSIS colrm [startcol [endcol]] DESCRIPTION colrm removes selected columns from a file. Input is taken from standard input. Output is sent to standard output. If called with one parameter, the columns of each line will be removed starting with the specified column. If called with two parameters, the columns from the first column to the last column will be removed. Column numbering starts with column 1. cccp, cpp –V, —version-control {numbered,existing,simple} 81 The type of backups made can be set with the VERSION_CONTROL environment variable, which can be overridden by this option. If VERSION_CONTROL is not set and this option is not given, the default backup type is existing. The value of the VERSION_CONTROL environment variable and the argument to this option are like the GNU emacs version- control variable; they also recognize synonyms that are more descriptive. The valid values are (unique abbreviations are accepted) the following: t or numbered Always make numbered backups nil or existing Make numbered backups of files that already have them, simple backups of the others never or simple Always make simple backups k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 3 e 1 i 1 v Pre Page cccp, cpp cccp, cpp —The SYNOPSIS cccp GNU C-compatible compiler preprocessor [–$][–A predicate [( value )]] [ –C ][–D name [ = definition ]] [–dD][–dM][–I\ directory ][–H ][–I– ][–imacros file ][– include file ][–idirafter dir ][–iprefix prefix ][–iwithprefix dir ] [ –lang–c][–lang–c++][–lang–objc ][–lang–objc++ ][–lint ][– M[–MG ]] [ –MM[–MG ]] [ –MD file ][–MMD file ][–nostdinc ] [ –nostdinc++][–P][–pedantic ][–pedantic–errors ][–traditional ] [ –trigraphs ][–U name ][–undef ][–Wtrigraphs ][–Wcomment ] [ –Wall ][–Wtraditional ] [ infile |– ][ outfile |– ] DESCRIPTION The C preprocessor is a macro processor that is used automatically by the C compiler to transform your program before actual compilation. It is called a macro processor because it allows you to define macros, which are brief abbreviations for longer constructs. The C preprocessor provides four separate facilities that you can use as you see fit: ■ ■ Inclusion of header files. These are files of declarations that can be substituted into your program. Macro expansion. You can define macros, which are abbreviations for arbitrary fragments of C code, and then the C preprocessor will replace the macros with their definitions throughout the program. ■ Conditional compilation. Using special preprocessing directives, you can include or exclude parts of the program according to various conditions. ■ Line control. If you use a program to combine or rearrange source files into an intermediate file which is then compiled, you can use line control to inform the compiler of where each source line originally came from. C preprocessors vary in some details. For a full explanation of the GNU C preprocessor, see the info file cpp.info , or the manual The C Preprocessor . Both of these are built from the same documentation source file, cpp.texinfo. The GNU C preprocessor provides a superset of the features of ANSI Standard C. ANSI Standard C requires the rejection of many harmless constructs commonly used by today’s C programs. Such incompatibility would be inconvenient for users, so the GNU C preprocessor is configured to accept these constructs by default. Strictly speaking, to get ANSI Standard C, you must use the options –trigraphs , –undef , and –pedantic , but in practice the consequences of having strict ANSI Standard C make it undesirable to do this. When you use the C preprocessor, you will usually not have to invoke it explicitly: the C compiler will do so automatically. However, the preprocessor is sometimes useful individually. When you call the preprocessor individually, either name (cpp or cccp) will do; they are completely synonymous. Part I: User Commands 98 the –m option, thus suppressing the editor invocation, or use the –F option to specify that the argument file contains the log message. The -r option can be used to commit to a particular symbolic or numeric revision within the RCS file. For example, to bring all your files up to the RCS revision 3.0 (including those that haven’t changed), you might use example% cvs commit -r3.0 cvs will only allow you to commit to a revision that is on the main trunk (a revision with a single dot). However, you can also commit to a branch revision (one that has an even number of dots) with the -r option. To create a branch revision, one typically use the –b option of the rtag or tag commands. Then, either checkout or update can be used to base your sources on the newly created branch. From that point on, all commit changes made within these working sources will be automatically added to a branch revision, thereby not perturbing mainline development in any way. For example, if you had to create a patch to the 1.2 version of the product, even though the 2.0 version is already under development, you might use this: k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 0 e 3 i 1 v Pre Page example% cvs rtag -b -rFCS1_2 FCS1_2 Patch product_module example% cvs checkout -rFCS1_2_Patch product module example% cd product module [[ hack away ]] example% cvs commit Say you have been working on some extremely experimental software, based on whatever revision you happened to checkout last week. If others in your group would like to work on this software with you, but without disturbing mainline development, you could commit your change to a new branch. Others can then check out your experimental stuff and utilize the full benefit of cvs conflict resolution. The scenario might look like this: example% cvs example% cvs [[ hack away example% cvs tag -b EXPR1 update -rEXPR1 ]] commit Others would simply do cvs ■ checkout -rEXPR1 whatever_module to work with you on the experimental change. diff [–kl][rcsdiff_options][[-r rev1 | –D date1][-r rev2 | –D date2]] [files...] Requires: Changes: Working directory, repository Nothing You can compare your working files with revisions in the source repository, with the cvs diff command. If you don’t specify a particular revision, your files are compared with the revisions they were based on. You can also use the standard cvs command option -r to specify a particular revision to compare your files with. Finally, if you use -r twice, you can see differences between two revisions in the repository. You can also specify –D options to diff against a revision in the past. The -r and –D options can be mixed together with at most two options ever specified. See rcsdiff (1) for a list of other accepted options. If you don’t specify any files, diff will display differences for all those files in the current directory (and its subdirectories, unless you use the standard option –l) that differ from the corresponding revision in the source repository (that is, files that you have changed), or that differ from the revision specified. ■ export [–f lNnQq] -r rev | –D date [–d dir][–k kflag] module... Requires: Changes: Repository Current directory This command is a variant of cvs checkout; use it when you want a copy of the source for module without the cvs administrative directories. For example, you might use cvs export to prepare source for shipment off-site. This command requires that you specify a date or tag (with –D or -r), so that you can count on reproducing the source you ship to others. The only nonstandard options are –d dir (write the source into directory dir ) and –N (don’t shorten module paths). These have the same meanings as the same options in cvs checkout. cvs 99 The –kv option is useful when export is used. This causes any RCS keywords to be expanded such that an import done at some other site will not lose the keyword revision information. Other kflag options may be used with cvs export and are described in co(1). ■ history [-report][–flags][–options args][files...] Requires: Changes: cvs The file $CVSROOT/CVSROOT/history Nothing keeps a history file that tracks each use of the checkout , commit, rtag , update, and release commands. You can use cvs to display this information in various formats. history WARNING k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 1 e 3 i 1 v Pre Page uses –f , –l, –n, and –p in ways that conflict with the descriptions in “Common Command Options,” earlier in this manual page. cvs history Several options (shown as [–report] in the preceding bulleted code line) control what kind of report is generated: –c –m module –o –T –x type –e –z zone Report on each time commit was used (that is, each time the repository was modified). Report on a particular module. (You can meaningfully use –m more than once on the command line.) Report on checked-out modules. Report on all tags. Extract a particular set of record types X from the cvs history. The types are indicated by single letters, which you may specify in combination. Certain commands have a single record type: check-out (type O), release (type F ), and rtag (type T). One of four record types may result from an update: W, when the working copy of a file is deleted during update (because it was gone from the repository); U, when a working file was copied from the repository; G, when a merge was necessary and it succeeded; and C, when a merge was necessary but collisions were detected (requiring manual merging). Finally, one of three record types results from commit: M, when a file was modified; A, when a file is first added; and R, when a file is removed. Everything (all record types); equivalent to specifying –xMACFROGWUT. Use time zone zone when outputting history records. The zone name LT stands for local time; numeric offsets stand for hours and minutes ahead of UTC. For example, +0530 stands for 5 hours and 30 minutes ahead of (that is, east of) UTC. The options shown as –flags constrain the report without requiring option arguments: –a –l –w Show data for all users. (The default is to show data only for the user executing cvs history.) Show last modification only. Show only the records for modifications done from the same working directory where cvs history is executing. The options shown as –options –b str –D date –p repository -r rev –t tag –u name args constrain the report based on an argument: Show data back to a record containing the string str in either the module name, the filename, or the repository path. Show data since date . Show data for a particular source repository (you can specify several –p options on the same command line). Show records referring to revisions since the revision or tag named rev appears in individual RCS files. Each RCS file is searched for the revision or tag. Show records since tag tag was last added to the history file. This differs from the -r flag in that it reads only the history file, not the RCS files, and is much faster. Show records for username. Part I: User Commands 104 C file ? file A conflict was detected while trying to merge your changes to file with changes from the source repository. file (the copy in your working directory) is now the output of the rcsmerge (1) command on the two versions; an unmodified copy of your file is also in your working directory, with the name .#file.version, where version is the RCS revision that your modified file started from. (Note that some systems automatically purge files that begin with .# if they have not been accessed for a few days. If you intend to keep a copy of your original file, it is a very good idea to rename it.) file is in your working directory, but does not correspond to anything in the source repository, and is not in the list of files for cvs to ignore; see the description of the –I option. Use the –A option to reset any sticky tags, dates, or –k options. (If you get a working copy of a file by using one of the -r, –D, or –k options, cvs remembers the corresponding tag, date , or kflag and continues using it on future updates; use the –A option to make cvs forget these specifications, and retrieve the head version of the file). k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 6 e 3 i 1 v Pre Page The –jbranch option merges the changes made between the resulting revision and the revision that it is based on. (For example, if the tag refers to a branch, cvs will merge all changes made in that branch into your working file.) With two -j options, cvs will merge in the changes between the two respective revisions. This can be used to “remove” a certain delta from your working file. For example, if the file foo.c is based on revision 1.6 and I want to remove the changes made between 1.3 and 1.5, I might do this: example% cvs update -j1.5 -j1.3 foo.c # note the order... In addition, each -j option can contain on optional date specification which, when used with branches, can limit the chosen revision to one within a specific date. An optional date is specified by adding a colon (:) to the tag: -jSymbolic Tag:Date Specifier Use the –d option to create any directories that exist in the repository if they’re missing from the working directory. (Normally, update acts only on directories and files that were already enrolled in your working directory.) This is useful for updating directories that were created in the repository since the initial checkout; but it has an unfortunate side effect. If you deliberately avoided certain directories in the repository when you created your working directory (either through use of a module name or by listing explicitly the files and directories you wanted on the command line), then updating with –d will create those directories, which may not be what you want. Use –I name to ignore files whose names match name (in your working directory) during the update. You can specify –I more than once on the command line to specify several files to ignore. By default, update ignores files whose names match any of the following: RCSLOG RCS SCCS CVS* cvslog.* tags TAGS .make.state .nse_depinfo ˜ #* .#* , .old *.bak *.BAK *.orig *.rej .del–* .a *.o *.so *.Z *.elc *.ln core Use –I! to avoid ignoring any files at all. The standard cvs command options –f, –k, –l, –P, –p, and –r are also available with update. FILES For more detailed information on cvs supporting files, see cvs(5). Files in home directories: .cvsrc .cvswrappers The cvs initialization file. Lines in this file can be used to specify default options for each cvs command. For example, the line diff –c will ensure that cvs diff is always passed the –c option in addition to any other options passed on the command line. Specifies wrappers to be used in addition to those specified in the CVSROOT/cvswrappers file in the repository. date Argument Sample output Explanation %e 8 Day of month (leading zero blanked) %h Mar Abbreviated month name* %H 14 24-hour-clock hour (two digits) %I 02 12-hour-clock hour (two digits) %j 067 Julian day number (three digits) %k 2 12-hour-clock hour (leading zero blanked) %l 14 24-hour-clock hour (leading zero blanked) 03 Month number (two digits) 54 Minute (two digits) nn Newline character PM AM/PM designation 02:54:40 PM Hour:minute:second AM/PM designation 14:54 Hour:minute 40 Second (two digits) nt Tab character 14:54:40 Hour:minute:second 10 Sunday-based week number (two digits) 107 k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 9 e 3 i 1 v Pre Page %m %M %n %p %r %R %S %t %T %U 3 Day number (one digit, Sunday is 0) %W 10 Monday-based week number (two digits) %x 03/08/89 Date* %X 14:54:40 Time* %y 89 Last two digits of year %Y 1989 Year in full %Z EST Time zone abbreviation %+ Wed Mar 8 14:54:40 EST 1989 Default output format* %w * The exact output depends on the locale. If a character other than one of those shown in the preceding table appears after a percent sign in the format, that following character is output. All other characters in the format are copied unchanged to the output; a newline character is always added at the end of the output. In Sunday-based week numbering, the first Sunday of the year begins week 1; days preceding it are part of week 0. In Monday-based week numbering, the first Monday of the year begins week 1. To set the date, use a command-line argument with one of the following forms: 030814541989 24-hour-clock hours (first two digits) and minutes Month day (first two digits), hours, and minutes Month (two digits, January is 01), month day, hours, minutes Year, month, month day, hours, minutes Month, month day, hours, minutes, year (on System V-compatible systems) Month, month day, hours, minutes, four-digit year 198903081454 Four-digit year, month, month day, hours, minutes 1454 081454 03081454 8903081454 0308145489 Part I: User Commands 112 SEE ALSO lsmod(1), kerneld (8), ksyms (1), modules (2) REQUIRED UTILITIES insmod(1), nm(1) rmmod(1) NOTES The pattern supplied to modprobe will often be escaped to ensure that it is evaluated in the proper context. AUTHOR k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 4 e 4 i 1 v Pre Page Jacques Gelinas ([email protected]), Bjorn Ekwall ([email protected] ) BUGS Naah… Linux, 14 May 1995 df df—Summarize SYNOPSIS free disk space df [–aikPv] [–t fstype] [–x fstype] [—all] [—inodes] [—type=fstype] [—exclude–type=fstype] [—kilobytes] [—portability] [—print–type] [—help] [—version] [filename...] DESCRIPTION This manual page documents the GNU version of df. df displays the amount of disk space available on the filesystem containing each filename argument. If no filename is given, the space available on all currently mounted filesystems is shown. Disk space is shown in 1K blocks by default, unless the environment variable POSIXLY_CORRECT is set, in which case 512-byte blocks are used. If an argument is the absolute filename of a disk device node containing a mounted filesystem, df shows the space available on that filesystem rather than on the filesystem containing the device node (which is always the root filesystem). This version of df cannot show the space available on unmounted filesystems, because on most kinds of systems doing so requires very nonportable, intimate knowledge of filesystem structures. OPTIONS –a, —all -i, —inodes –k, —kilobytes –P, —portability Include in the listing filesystems that have 0 blocks, which are omitted by default. Such filesystems are typically special-purpose pseudo-filesystems, such as automounter entries. On some systems, filesystems of type ignore or auto are also omitted by default and included in the listing by this option. List inode usage information instead of block usage. An inode (short for “index node”) is a special kind of disk block that contains information about a file, such as its owner, permissions, timestamps, and location on the disk. Print sizes in 1K blocks instead of 512-byte blocks. This overrides the environment variable POSIXLY_CORRECT. Use the POSIX output format. This is like the default format except that the information about each filesystem is always printed on exactly one line; a mount device is never put on a line by itself. This means that if the mount device name is more than 20 characters long (as for some network mounts), the columns are misaligned. dnsquery 117 FILES Initial domain name and name server addresses /etc/resolv.conf ENVIRONMENT LOCALRES file to use in place of /etc/resolv.conf LOCALDEF default environment file AUTHOR Steve Hotz ([email protected]) k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 9 e 4 i 1 v Pre Page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS dig uses functions from nslookup(8) authored by Andrew Cherenson. BUGS has a serious case of “creeping featurism,” the result of considering several potential uses during its development. It would probably benefit from a rigorous diet. Similarly, the print flags and granularity of the items they specify make evident their rather ad hoc genesis. dig does not consistently exit nicely (with appropriate status) when a problem occurs somewhere in the resolver (Most of the common exit cases are handled.) This is particularly annoying when running in batch mode. If it exits abnormally (and is not caught), the entire batch aborts; when such an event is trapped, dig simply continues with the next query. dig SEE ALSO named(8), resolver (3), resolver(5), nslookup (8) 30 August 1990 dnsquery dnsquery— Query domain name servers using resolver SYNOPSIS dnsquery [-n nameserver] [-t type] [-c class] [-r retry] [-p retry period] [-d] [-s] [-v] host DESCRIPTION The dnsquery program is a general interface to nameservers via BIND resolver library calls. The program supports queries to the nameserver with an opcode of QUERY . This program is intended to be a replacement or supplement to programs like nstest, nsquery , and nslookup . All arguments except for host and ns are treated without case-sensitivity. OPTIONS –n –t The nameserver to be used in the query. Nameservers can appear as either Internet addresses of the form w.x.y.z or can appear as domain names. (default: as specified in /etc/resolv.conf ) The type of resource record of interest. Types include: A Address NS Nameserver CNAME Canonical name PTR Domain name pointer SOA Start of authority dsplit 119 BUGS Queries of a class other than IN can have interesting results since ordinarily a nameserver only has a list of root nameservers for class IN resource records. Query uses a call to inet_addr() to determine if the argument for the -n option is a valid Internet address. Unfortunately, inet_addr() seems to cause a segmentation fault with some (bad) addresses (for example, 1.2.3.4.5 ). AUTHOR Bryan Beecher 10 March 1990 k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 1 e 5 i 1 v Pre Page domainname domainname —Set SYNOPSIS or print domain of current host domainname [ name ] DESCRIPTION prints the domain name of the current host, from the getdomainname(3) library call. If an argument is present and the effective UID is 0, domainname changes the name of the host, with the setdomainname(2) system call. This is usually done at boot time in the /etc/rc.local script. domainname FILES /etc/rc.local SEE ALSO getdomainname (3), setdomainname (2), uname(1), uname(2) AUTHOR Lars Wirzenius by substituting in hostname.c Linux 0.98, 26 December 1992 dsplit dsplit—Split a large file into pieces SYNOPSIS dsplit [ –size nnn ][input_file [ output_base ]] DESCRIPTION dsplit splits binary files into smaller chunks so that they may be placed on floppy disks. OPTIONS –size nnn input_file Specifies the size of each output file, in bytes. The default is 1457000, which is enough to will a 1.44MB floppy disk. Specifies the name of the file to split up. A – indicates standard input. The default is standard input. Part I: User Commands 120 Specifies the name of the output files to be written. dsplit will append 000, 001, ..., to the output_base . The default is dsplit . output_base AUTHOR’S NOTES Submitted by: David Arnstein ([email protected]) Posting number: Volume 40, Issue 51 Archive name: dsplit/part01 Environment: MS-DOS, UNIX Here is a portable binary file splitting program. It reads a binary file and splits it into pieces. I use this program to put large binary files on floppy disks. For this reason, the default size of the output files is 1,457,000 bytes, which just about fills up a 1.44MB floppy disk. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 2 e 5 i 1 v Pre Page Unlike other binary split programs I have seen, dsplit does not malloc a huge block of memory. dsplit is suitable for use under MS-DOS and other primitive operating systems. (The program came from gatekeeper.dec.com:/pub/usenet/comp.sources.misc/volume40/dsplit). Linux 1.1, 5 July 1994 du du—Summarize disk usage SYNOPSIS du [–abcklsxDLS] [—all] [—total] [—count-links] [—summarize] [—bytes] [—kilobytes] [—one-file-system] [—separate-dirs] [—dereference] [—dereference-args] [—help] [—-version] [filename...] DESCRIPTION This manual page documents the GNU version of du. du displays the amount of disk space used by each argument and for each subdirectory of directory arguments. The space is measured in 1K blocks by default, unless the environment variable POSIXLY_CORRECT is set, in which case 512-byte blocks are used. OPTIONS –a, —all –b, —bytes –c, —total –k, —kilobytes –l, —count-links –s, —summarize –x, —one-file-system –D, —dereference-args –L, —dereference –S, —separate-dirs —help —version Display counts for all files, not just directories. Print sizes in bytes. Write a grand total of all of the arguments after all arguments have been processed. This can be used to find out the disk usage of a directory, with some files excluded. Print sizes in kilobytes. This overrides the environment variable POSIXLY_CORRECT. Count the size of all files, even if they have appeared already in another hard link. Display only a total for each argument. Skip directories that are on different filesystems from the one that the argument being processed is on. Dereference symbolic links that are command-line arguments. Does not affect other symbolic links. This is helpful for finding out the disk usage of directories like /usr/tmp where they are symbolic links. Dereference symbolic links (show the disk space used by the file or directory that the link points to instead of the space used by the link). Count the size of each directory separately, not including the sizes of subdirectories. Print a usage message on standard output and exit successfully. Print version information on standard output, then exit successfully. Part I: User Commands 128 SHELL HOME TAGPATH TMP, TEMP Optional. The SHELL variable sets the default value for the shell option, which determines which shell program is used to perform wildcard expansion in filenames, and also which is used to execute filters or external programs. The default value on UNIX systems is /bin/sh. Note: Under MS-DOS, this variable is called COMSPEC instead of SHELL. This variable should be set to the name of your home directory. elvis looks for its initialization file there; if HOME is unset, then the initialization file will not be executed. Optional. This variable is used by the ref program, which is invoked by the shift-K, control-] , and :tag commands. See ref for more information. These optional environment variables are only used in non-UNIX versions of elvis. They allow you to supply a directory name to be used for storing temporary files. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 0 e 6 i 1 v Pre Page SEE ALSO ctags(1), ref(1), elvprsv (1), elvrec (1) Elvis—A Clone of Vi/Ex, the complete elvis documentation. BUGS There is no Lisp support. Certain other features are missing, too. Auto-indent mode is not quite compatible with the real vi. Among other things, 0ˆD and ˆˆD don’t do what you might expect. Long lines are displayed differently. The real vi wraps long lines onto multiple rows of the screen, but elvis scrolls sideways. AUTHOR Steve Kirkendall ([email protected]) Many other people have worked to port elvis to various operating systems. To see who deserves credit, run the :version command from within elvis , or look in the system-specific section of the complete documentation. elvprsv elvprsv —Preserve the modified version of a file after a crash SYNOPSIS elvprsv [“–why elvis died”] /tmp/filename... elvprsv -R /tmp/filename... DESCRIPTION elvprsv preserves your edited text after elvis dies. The text can be recovered later, via the elvprsv program. For UNIX-like systems, you should never need to run this program from the command line. It is run automatically when elvis is about to die, and it should be run (via /etc/rc ) when the computer is booted. THAT’S ALL! For non-UNIX systems such as MS-DOS or VMS, you can either use elvprsv the same way as under UNIX systems (by running it from your AUTOEXEC.BAT file), or you can run it separately with the -R flag to recover the files in one step. If you’re editing a file when elvis dies (due to a bug, system crash, power failure, and so on), then elvprsv will preserve the most recent version of your text. The preserved text is stored in a special directory; it does not overwrite your text file automatically. (If the preservation directory hasn’t been set up correctly, then elvprsv will simply send you a mail message describing how to manually run elvprsv.) elvprsv will send mail to any user whose work it preserves, if your operating system normally supports mail. elvrec 129 FILES /tmp/elv* /usr/preserve/p* /usr/preserve/Index The temporary file that elvis was using when it died. The text that is preserved by elvprsv . A text file which lists the names of all preserved files, and the names of the /usr/preserve/p* files that contain their preserved text. BUGS Due to the permissions on the /usr/preserve directory, on UNIX systems elvprsv must be run as superuser. This is accomplished by making the elvprsv executable be owned by root and turning on its “set user id” bit. k u . o .c e l a s e t elvrec o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 1 e 6 i 1 v Pre Page If you’re editing a nameless buffer when elvis dies, then elvprsv will pretend that the file was named foo . AUTHOR Steve Kirkendall ([email protected]) elvrec— Recover the modified version of a file after a crash SYNOPSIS elvrec [preservedfile [newfile]] DESCRIPTION If you’re editing a file when elvis dies, the system crashes, or power fails, the most recent version of your text will be preserved. The preserved text is stored in a special directory; it does not overwrite your text file automatically. The elvrec program locates the preserved version of a given file, and writes it over the top of your text file—or to a new file, if you prefer. The recovered file will have nearly all of your changes. To see a list of all recoverable files, run elvrec with no arguments. NOTE If you haven’t set up a directory for file preservation, you’ll have to manually run the elvprsv program instead of elvrec. FILES /usr/preserve/p* /usr/preserve/Index The text that was preserved when elvis died. A text file that lists the names of all preserved files, and the names of the /usr/preserve/p* files that contain their preserved text. BUGS is very picky about filenames. You must tell it to recover the file using exactly the same pathname as when you were editing it. The simplest way to do this is to go into the same directory that you were editing, and invoke elvrec with the same filename as elvis . If that doesn’t work, then try running elvrec with no arguments, to see exactly which pathname it is using for the desired file. elvrec Due to the permissions on the /usr/preserve directory, on UNIX systems elvrec must be run as superuser . This is accomplished by making the elvrec executable be owned by root and setting its “set user id” bit. If you’re editing a nameless buffer when elvis dies, then elvrec will pretend that the file was named foo . Part I: User Commands 130 AUTHOR Steve Kirkendall ([email protected]) emacs emacs—GNU project emacs SYNOPSIS emacs [ command-line switches ] [ files ... ] DESCRIPTION k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 2 e 6 i 1 v Pre Page GNU emacs is a version of emacs , written by the author of the original (PDP-10) emacs , Richard Stallman. The primary documentation of GNU emacs is in the GNU Emacs Manual, which you can read online using info, a subsystem of emacs . Please look there for complete and up-to-date documentation. This man page is updated only when someone volunteers to do so; the emacs maintainers’ priority goal is to minimize the amount of time this man page takes away from other more useful projects. The user functionality of GNU emacs encompasses everything other emacs editors do, and it is easily extensible since its editing commands are written in Lisp. emacs has an extensive interactive help facility, but the facility assumes that you know how to manipulate emacs windows and buffers. Ctrl+h (backspace or Ctrl+h) enters the Help facility. Help Tutorial (Ctrl+h t) requests an interactive tutorial that can teach beginners the fundamentals of emacs in a few minutes. Help Apropos (Ctrl+h a) helps you find a command given its functionality, Help Character (Ctrl+h c) describes a given character’s effect, and Help Function (Ctrl+h f) describes a given Lisp function specified by name. emacs’s Undo can undo several steps of modification to your buffers, so it is easy to recover from editing mistakes. GNU emacs’s many special packages handle mail reading (RMail) and sending (Mail), outline editing (Outline ), compiling (Compile), running subshells within emacs windows (Shell ), running a Lisp read-eval-print loop (Lisp-Interaction-Mode), and automated psychotherapy (Doctor). There is an extensive reference manual, but users of other emacses should have little trouble adapting even without a copy. Users new to emacs will be able to use basic features fairly rapidly by studying the tutorial and using the self-documentation features. OPTIONS The following options are of general interest: file +number –q –u user –t file Edit file. Go to the line specified by number (do not insert a space between the + sign and the number). Do not load an init file. Load user’s init file. Use specified file as the terminal instead of using stdin/stdout. This must be the first argument specified in the command line. The following options are Lisp-oriented (these options are processed in the order encountered): –f function –l file Execute the Lisp function function . Load the Lisp code in the file file . The following options are useful when running emacs as a batch editor: –batch –kill Edit in batch mode. The editor will send messages to stdout. This option must be the first in the argument list. You must use -l and -f options to specify files to execute and functions to call. Exit emacs while in batch mode. Part I: User Commands 148 Verbose option forces ftp to show all responses from the remote server, as well as report on data transfer statistics. Restrains ftp from attempting auto-login upon initial connection. If auto-login is enabled, ftp will check the (see below) file in the user’s home directory for an entry describing an account on the remote machine. If no entry exists, ftp will prompt for the remote machine login name (default is the user identity on the local machine), and, if necessary, prompt for a password and an account with which to login. Turns off interactive prompting during multiple file transfers. Enables debugging. Disables filename globbing. -v -n -i -d -g k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 0 e 8 i 1 v Pre Page The client host with which ftp is to communicate may be specified on the command line. If this is done, ftp will immediately attempt to establish a connection to an FTP server on that host; otherwise, ftp will enter its command interpreter and await instructions from the user. When ftp is awaiting commands from the user, the prompt ftp> is provided to the user. The following commands are recognized by ftp : ! [command] [args] $ macro-name [args] account [passwd] append local-file [remote-file] ascii bell binary bye case cd remote-directory cdup chmod mode file-name close cr delete remote-file Invoke an interactive shell on the local machine. If there are arguments, the first is taken to be a command to execute directly, with the rest of the arguments as its arguments. Execute the macro macro-name that was defined with the macdef command. Arguments are passed to the macro unglobbed. Supply a supplemental password required by a remote system for access to resources once a login has been successfully completed. If no argument is included, the user will be prompted for an account password in a nonechoing input mode. Append a local file to a file on the remote machine. If remote-file is left unspecified, the local filename is used in naming the remote file after being altered by any ntrans or nmap setting. File transfer uses the current settings for type, format , mode, and structure . Set the file transfer type to network ASCII. This is the default type. Arrange that a bell be sounded after each file transfer command is completed. Set the file transfer type to support binary image transfer. Terminate the FTP session with the remote server and exit ftp . An end of file will also terminate the session and exit. Toggle remote computer filename case mapping during mget commands. When case is on (default is off ), remote computer filenames with all letters in upper case are written in the local directory with the letters mapped to lowercase. Change the working directory on the remote machine to remote-directory. Change the remote machine working directory to the parent of the current remote machine working directory. Change the permission modes of the file file-name on the remote system to mode. Terminate the FTP session with the remote server, and return to the command interpreter. Any defined macros are erased. Toggle carriage return stripping during ASCII type file retrieval. Records are denoted by a carriage return/linefeed sequence during ASCII type file transfer. When cr is on (the default), carriage returns are stripped from this sequence to conform with the UNIX single linefeed record delimiter. Records on non-UNIX remote systems may contain single linefeeds; when an ASCII type transfer is made, these linefeeds may be distinguished from a record delimiter only when cr is off. Delete the file remote-file on the remote machine. Part I: User Commands 152 rmdir directory-name runique send local-file [remote-file] sendport k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 4 e 8 i 1 v Pre Page site arg1 arg2... size file-name status struct [struct-name] sunique Delete a directory on the remote machine. Toggle storing of files on the local system with unique filenames. If a file already exists with a name equal to the target local filename for a get or mget command, a .1 is appended to the name. If the resulting name matches another existing file, a .2 is appended to the original name. If this process continues up to .99, an error message is printed, and the transfer does not take place. The generated unique filename will be reported. Note that runique will not affect local files generated from a shell command. The default value is off. A synonym for put. Toggle the use of PORT commands. By default, ftp will attempt to use a PORT command when establishing a connection for each data transfer. The use of PORT commands can prevent delays when performing multiple file transfers. If the PORT command fails, ftp will use the default data port. When the use of PORT commands is disabled, no attempt will be made to use PORT commands for each data transfer. This is useful for certain FTP implementations which do ignore PORT commands but, incorrectly, indicate they’ve been accepted. The arguments specified are sent, verbatim, to the remote FTP server as a SITE command. Return size of file-name on remote machine. Show the current status of ftp. Set the file transfer structure to struct-name. By default stream structure is used. Toggle storing of files on remote machine under unique filenames. Remote FTP server must support ftp protocol STOU command for successful completion. The remote server will report unique name. Default value is off. Show the type of operating system running on the remote machine. Set the file transfer type to that needed to talk to TENEX machines. Toggle packet tracing. Set the file transfer type to type-name . If no type is specified, the current type is printed. The default type is network ASCII. Set the default umask on the remote server to newmask . If newmask is omitted, the current umask is printed. Identify yourself to the remote FTP server. If the password is not specified and the server requires it, ftp will prompt the user for it (after disabling local echo). If an account field is not specified, and the FTP server requires it, the user will be prompted for it. If an account field is specified, an account command will be relayed to the remote server after the login sequence is completed if the remote server did not require it for logging in. Unless ftp is invoked with auto-login disabled, this process is done automatically on initial connection to the FTP server. Toggle verbose mode. In verbose mode, all responses from the FTP server are displayed to the user. In addition, if verbose is on, when a file transfer completes, statistics regarding the efficiency of the transfer are reported. By default, verbose is on. A synonym for help. system tenex trace type [type-name] umask [newmask] user user-name [password] [account] verbose ? [command] Command arguments which have embedded spaces may be quoted with quotation marks (“). ABORTING A FILE TRANSFER To abort a file transfer, use the terminal interrupt key (usually Ctrl-C). Sending transfers will be immediately halted. Receiving transfers will be halted by sending an FTP protocol ABOR command to the remote server, and discarding any further data received. The speed at which this is accomplished depends upon the remote server’s support for ABOR processing. ftp 153 If the remote server does not support the ABOR command, an ftp> prompt will not appear until the remote server has completed sending the requested file. The terminal interrupt key sequence will be ignored when ftp has completed any local processing and is awaiting a reply from the remote server. A long delay in this mode may result from the ABOR processing described earlier in this section, or from unexpected behavior by the remote server, including violations of the FTP protocol. If the delay results from unexpected remote server behavior, the local ftp program must be killed by hand. FILE NAMING CONVENTIONS Files specified as arguments to ftp commands are processed according to the following rules: If the filename - is specified, the stdin (for reading) or stdout (for writing) is used. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 5 e 8 i 1 v Pre Page If the first character of the filename is j, the remainder of the argument is interpreted as a shell command. ftp then forks a shell, using popen 3 with the argument supplied, and reads (writes) from the stdout (stdin ). If the shell command includes spaces, the argument must be quoted; for example, ls -lt . A particularly useful example of this mechanism is: dir more . Failing the preceding checks, if “globbing” is enabled, local filenames are expanded according to the rules used in the csh 1; c.f. the glob command. If the ftp command expects a single local file (for example, put), only the first filename generated by the “globbing” operation is used. For mget commands and get commands with unspecified local filenames, the local filename is the remote filename, which may be altered by a case, ntrans , or nmap setting. The resulting filename may then be altered if runique is on. For mput commands and put commands with unspecified remote filenames, the remote filename is the local filename, which may be altered by an ntrans or nmap setting. The resulting filename may then be altered by the remote server if sunique is on. FILE TRANSFER PARAMETERS The FTP specification specifies many parameters that may affect a file transfer. The type may be one of ASCII, image (binary), ebcdic, and local byte size (for PDP Ns -10s and PDP Ns -20s mostly). ftp supports the ASCII and image types of file transfer, plus local byte size 8 for tenex mode transfers. ftp supports only the default values for the remaining file transfer parameters: mode , form, and struct . THE .netrc FILE The file contains login and initialization information used by the auto-login process. It resides in the user’s home directory. The following tokens are recognized; they may be separated by spaces, tabs, or newlines: machine name default login name password string account string Identify a remote machine name. The auto-login process searches the file for a machine token that matches the remote machine specified on the ftp command line or as an open command argument. When a match is made, the subsequent tokens are processed, stopping when the end of file is reached or another machine or a default token is encountered. This is the same as machine name except that default matches any name. There can be only one default token, and it must be after all machine tokens. This is normally used as default login anonymous password [email protected], thereby giving the user automatic anonymous ftp login to machines not specified. This can be overridden by using the -n flag to disable auto-login. Identify a user on the remote machine. If this token is present, the auto-login process will initiate a login using the specified name. Supply a password. If this token is present, the auto-login process will supply the specified string if the remote server requires a password as part of the login process. Note that if this token is present in the file for any user other than anonymous, ftp will abort the auto-login process if the is readable by anyone besides the user. Supply an additional account password. If this token is present, the auto-login process will supply the specified string if the remote server requires an additional account password, or the auto-login process will initiate an ACCT command if it does not. g++ –Wtemplate–debugging –w +eN 159 When using templates in a C++ program, warn if debugging is not yet fully available. Inhibit all warning messages. Control how virtual function definitions are used, in a fashion compatible with cfront 1.x . PRAGMAS Two #pragma directives are supported for GNU C++, to permit using the same header file for two purposes: as a definition of interfaces to a given object class, and as the full definition of the contents of that object class. #pragma interface Use this directive in header files that define object classes, to save space in most of the object files that use those classes. Normally, local copies of certain information (backup copies of inline member functions, debugging information, and the internal tables that implement virtual functions) must be kept in each object file that includes class definitions. You can use this pragma to avoid such duplication. When a header file containing #pragma interface is included in a compilation, this auxiliary information will not be generated (unless the main input source file itself uses #pragma implementation ). Instead, the object files will contain references to be resolved at link time. Use this pragma in a main input file, when you want full output from included header files to be generated (and made globally visible). The included header file, in turn, should use #pragma interface. Backup copies of inline member functions, debugging information, and the internal tables used to implement virtual functions are all generated in implementation files. If you use #pragma implementation with no argument, it applies to an include file with the same basename as your source file; for example, in allclass.cc, #pragma implementation by itself is equivalent to #pragma implementation “allclass.h”. Use the string argument if you want a single implementation file to include code from multiple header files. There is no way to split up the contents of a single header file into multiple implementation files. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 1 e 9 i 1 v Pre Page #pragma implementation #pragma implementation !objects.h! FILES file.h file.i file file.C file.cc file.cxx file.s file.o a.out TMPDIR/cc LIBDIR/cpp LIBDIR/cc1plus LIBDIR/collect LIBDIR/libgcc.a /lib/crt[01n].o LIBDIR/ccrt0 /lib/libc.a C header (preprocessor) file Preprocessed C source C++ source file C++ source file C++ source file Assembly language file Object file Link edited output Temporary files Preprocessor Compiler Linker front end needed on some machines GCC subroutine library Start-up routine Additional start-up routine for C++ Standard C library; see intro(3) gawk 165 When a string must be converted to a number, the conversion is accomplished using atof(3). A number is converted to a string by using the value of CONVFMT as a format string for sprintf (3), with the numeric value of the variable as the argument. However, even though all numbers in awk are floating-point, integral values are always converted as integers. Thus, given this: CONVFMT = “%2.2f” a =12 b =a”” the variable b has a string value of 12 and not 12.00 . performs comparisons as follows: If two variables are numeric, they are compared numerically. If one value is numeric and the other has a string value that is a “numeric string,” then comparisons are also done numerically. Otherwise, the numeric value is converted to a string and a string comparison is performed. Two strings are compared, of course, as strings. According to the standard, even if two strings are numeric strings, a numeric comparison is performed. However, this is clearly incorrect, and gawk does not do this. gawk k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 7 e 9 i 1 v Pre Page Uninitialized variables have the numeric value 0 and the string value “” (the null, or empty, string). PATTERNS AND ACTIONS is a line-oriented language. The pattern comes first, and then the action. Action statements are enclosed in and .BR . Either the pattern may be missing, or the action may be missing, but, of course, not both. If the pattern is missing, the action will be executed for every single line of input. A missing action is equivalent to awk { print } which prints the entire line. Comments begin with the # character, and continue until the end of the line. Blank lines may be used to separate statements. Normally, a statement ends with a newline, however, this is not the case for lines ending in a ,, {, ?, :, &&, or ||. Lines ending in do or else also have their statements automatically continued on the following line. In other cases, a line can be continued by ending it with a \, in which case the newline will be ignored. Multiple statements may be put on one line by separating them with a semicolon. This applies to both the statements within the action part of a pattern-action pair (the usual case), and to the pattern-action statements themselves. PATTERNS awk patterns may be one of the following: BEGIN END /regular expression/ relational expression pattern && pattern pattern jj pattern pattern ? pattern : pattern (pattern) ! pattern pattern1, pattern2 BEGIN and END are two special kinds of patterns that are not tested against the input. The action parts of all BEGIN patterns are merged as if all the statements had been written in a single BEGIN block. They are executed before any of the input is read. Similarly, all the END blocks are merged, and executed when all the input is exhausted (or when an exit statement is executed). BEGIN and END patterns cannot be combined with other patterns in pattern expressions. BEGIN and END patterns cannot have missing action parts. For /regular expression/ patterns, the associated statement is executed for each input line that matches the regular expression. Regular expressions are the same as those in egrep(1), and are summarized as follows: Part I: User Commands 168 A decimal number (the integer part). Just like %d. A floating-point number of the form [–]d.ddddddE[+–]dd. A floating-point number of the form [–]ddd.dddddd. Use e or f conversion, whichever is shorter, with nonsignificant zeros suppressed. An unsigned octal number (again, an integer). A character string. An unsigned hexadecimal number (an integer). Like %x, but using ABCDEF instead of abcdef. A single % character; no argument is converted. %d %i %e %f %g %o %s %x %X %% k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 0 e 0 i 2 v Pre Page There are optional, additional parameters that may lie between the % and the control letter: – width .prec The expression should be left-justified within its field. The field should be padded to this width. If the number has a leading zero, then the field will be padded with zeros. Otherwise, it is padded with blanks. This applies even to the nonnumeric output formats. A number indicating the maximum width of strings or digits to the right of the decimal point. The dynamic width and prec capabilities of the C printf() routines are supported. A * in place of either the width or prec specifications will cause their values to be taken from the argument list to printf or sprintf(). SPECIAL FILENAMES When doing I/O redirection from either print or printf into a file, or via getline from a file, gawk recognizes certain special filenames internally. These filenames allow access to open file descriptors inherited from gawk’s parent process (usually the shell). Other special filenames provide access information about the running gawk process. The filenames are /dev/pid /dev/ppid /dev/pgrpid /dev/user /dev/stdin /dev/stdout /dev/stderr /dev/fd/n Reading this file returns the process ID of the current process, in decimal, terminated with a newline. Reading this file returns the parent process ID of the current process, in decimal, terminated with a newline. Reading this file returns the process group ID of the current process, in decimal, terminated with a newline. Reading this file returns a single record terminated with a newline. The fields are separated with blanks. $1 is the value of the getuid(2) system call, $2 is the value of the geteuid (2) system call, $3 is the value of the getgid(2) system call, and $4 is the value of the getegid( 2) system call. If there are any additional fields, they are the group IDs returned by getgroups(2). Multiple groups may not be supported on all systems. The standard input. The standard output. The standard error output. The file associated with the open file descriptor n. These are particularly useful for error messages. For example, you could use print “You blew it!” > “/dev/stderr” whereas you would otherwise have to use print “You blew it!” j “cat 1>&2” These filenames may also be used on the command line to name data files. NUMERIC FUNCTIONS awk has the following predefined arithmetic functions: atan2(y, x) cos(expr) Returns the arctangent of y/x in radians. Returns the cosine in radians. Part I: User Commands 178 OVERALL OPTIONS –x language –x none Specify explicitly the language for the following input files (rather than choosing a default based on the filename suffix). This option applies to all following input files until the next –x option. Possible values of language are c, objective–c , c–header , c++, cpp–output , assembler , and assembler–with–cpp. Turn off any specification of a language, so that subsequent files are handled according to their filename suffixes (as they are if –x has not been used at all). If you want only some of the four stages (preprocess, compile, assemble, link), you can use –x (or filename suffixes) to tell gcc where to start, and one of the options –c, –S , or –E to say where gcc is to stop. Note that some combinations (for example, –x cpp–output –E ) instruct gcc to do nothing at all. –c –S –E –o file –v –pipe k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 0 e 1 i 2 v Pre Page Compile or assemble the source files, but do not link. The compiler output is an object file corresponding to each source file. By default, gcc makes the object filename for a source file by replacing the suffix .c, .i, .s , and so on, with .o. Use –o to select another name. gcc ignores any unrecognized input files (those that do not require compilation or assembly) with the –c option. Stop after the stage of compilation proper; do not assemble. The output is an assembler code file for each nonassembler input file specified. By default, gcc makes the assembler filename for a source file by replacing the suffix .c, .i, and so on, with .s. Use –o to select another name. gcc ignores any input files that don’t require compilation. Stop after the preprocessing stage; do not run the compiler proper. The output is preprocessed source code, which is sent to the standard output. gcc ignores input files that don’t require preprocessing. Place output in file file . This applies regardless to whatever sort of output gcc is producing, whether it be an executable file, an object file, an assembler file, or preprocessed C code. Since only one output file can be specified, it does not make sense to use –o when compiling more than one input file, unless you are producing an executable file as output. If you do not specify –o, the default is to put an executable file in a.out, the object file for source.suffix in source.o , its assembler file in source.s , and all preprocessed C source on standard output. Print (on standard error output) the commands executed to run the stages of compilation. Also print the version number of the compiler driver program and of the preprocessor and the compiler proper. Use pipes rather than temporary files for communication between the various stages of compilation. This fails to work on some systems where the assembler cannot read from a pipe; but the GNU assembler has no trouble. LANGUAGE OPTIONS The following options control the dialect of C that the compiler accepts: –ansi Support all ANSI standard C programs. This turns off certain features of GNU C that are incompatible with ANSI C, such as the asm , inline, and typeof keywords, and predefined macros such as unix and vax that identify the type of system you are using. It also enables the undesirable and rarely used ANSI trigraph feature, and disallows $ as part of identifiers. The alternate keywords __asm__ , __extension__, __inline__ , and __typeof__ continue to work despite –ansi . You would not want to use them in an ANSI C program, of course, but it is useful to put them in header files that might be included in compilations done with –ansi. Alternate predefined macros such as __unix__ and __vax__ are also available, with or without –ansi. The –ansi option does not cause non-ANSI programs to be rejected gratuitously. For that, – pedantic is required in addition to –ansi . gcc, g++ –fno–asm –fno–builtin 179 The preprocessor predefines a macro __STRICT_ANSI__ when you use the –ansi option. Some header files may notice this macro and refrain from declaring certain functions or defining certain macros that the ANSI standard doesn’t call for; this is to avoid interfering with any programs that might use these names for other things. Do not recognize asm , inline, or typeof as a keyword. These words may then be used as identifiers. You can use __asm__, __inline__ , and __typeof__ instead. –ansi implies –fno–asm. Don’t recognize built-in functions that do not begin with two leading underscores. Currently, the functions affected include _exit , abort, abs , alloca, cos, exit, fabs, labs , memcmp, memcpy , sin, sqrt , strcmp, strcpy ,and strlen. The –ansi option prevents alloca and _exit from being built-in functions. Treat a function declaration with no arguments, such as int foo(); , as C would treat it—as saying nothing about the number of arguments or their types (C++ only). Normally, such a declaration in C++ means that the function foo takes no arguments. Support ANSI C trigraphs. The –ansi option implies –trigraphs . Attempt to support some aspects of traditional C compilers. For details, see the GNU C Manual; the duplicate list here has been deleted so that we won’t get complaints when it is out of date. But one note about C++ programs only (not C). –traditional has one additional effect for C++: assignment to this is permitted. This is the same as the effect of –fthis–is–variable. Attempt to support some aspects of traditional C preprocessors. This includes the items that specifically mention the preprocessor previously, but none of the other effects of –traditional. Permit the use of $ in identifiers (C++ only). You can also use –fno–dollars–in–identifiers to explicitly prohibit use of $. (GNU C++ allows $ by default on some target systems but not others.) Permit implicit conversion of int to enumeration types (C++ only). Normally GNU C++ allows conversion of enum to int, but not the other way around. Produce smaller code for template declarations, by generating only a single copy of each template function where it is defined (C++ only). To use this option successfully, you must also mark all files that use templates with either #pragma implementation (the definition) or #pragma interface (declarations). When your code is compiled with –fexternal–templates, all template instantiations are external. You must arrange for all necessary instantiations to appear in the implementation file; you can do this with a typedef that references each instantiation needed. Conversely, when you compile using the default option –fno–external–templates, all template instantiations are explicitly internal. Treat all possible member functions as virtual, implicitly. All member functions (except for constructor functions and new or delete member operators) are treated as virtual functions of the class where they appear. This does not mean that all calls to these member functions will be made through the internal table of virtual functions. Under some circumstances, the compiler can determine that a call to a given virtual function can be made directly; in these cases, the calls are direct in any case. Allow conditional expressions with mismatched types in the second and third arguments. The value of such an expression is void. Permit assignment to this (C++ only). The incorporation of user-defined free store management into C++ has made assignment to this an anachronism. Therefore, by default it is invalid to assign to this within a class member function. However, for backwards compatibility, you can make it valid with –fthis-is-variable. Let the type char be unsigned, like unsigned char. Each kind of machine has a default for what char should be. It is either like unsigned char by default or like signed char by default. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 1 e 1 i 2 v Pre Page –fno–strict–prototype –trigraphs –traditional –traditional–cpp –fdollars–in–identifiers –fenum–int–equiv –fexternal–templates –fall–virtual –fcond–mismatch –fthis–is–variable –funsigned–char Part I: User Commands 182 –lobjc –nostartfiles –nostdlib –static –shared –symbolic The directories searched include several standard system directories plus any that you specify with –L. Normally, the files found this way are library files—archive files whose members are object files. The linker handles an archive file by scanning through it for members that define symbols that have so far been referenced but not defined. However, if the linker finds an ordinary object file rather than a library, the object file is linked in the usual fashion. The only difference between using an –l option and specifying a filename is that –l surrounds library with lib and .a and searches several directories. You need this special case of the –l option in order to link an Objective C program. Do not use the standard system startup files when linking. The standard libraries are used normally. Don’t use the standard system libraries and startup files when linking. Only the files you specify will be passed to the linker. On systems that support dynamic linking, this prevents linking with the shared libraries. On other systems, this option has no effect. Produce a shared object which can then be linked with other objects to form an executable. Only a few systems support this option. Bind references to global symbols when building a shared object. Warn about any unresolved references (unless overridden by the link editor option –Xlinker –z –Xlinker defs). Only a few systems support this option. Pass option as an option to the linker. You can use this to supply system-specific linker options which GNU CC does not know how to recognize. If you want to pass an option that takes an argument, you must use –Xlinker twice: once for the option and once for the argument. For example, to pass –assert definitions, you must write – Xlinker –assert –Xlinker definitions. It does not work to write –Xlinker “–assert definitions” , because this passes the entire string as a single argument, which is not what the linker expects. Pass option as an option to the linker. If option contains commas, it is split into multiple options at the commas. Pretend the symbol symbol is undefined, to force linking of library modules to define it. You can use –u multiple times with different symbols to force loading of additional library modules. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 4 e 1 i 2 v Pre Page –Xlinker option –Wl,option –u symbol DIRECTORY OPTIONS These options specify directories to search for header files, for libraries, and for parts of the compiler: –Idir –I– –Ldir –Bprefix Append directory dir to the list of directories searched for include files. Any directories you specify with –I options before the –I– option are searched only for the case of #include “file”; they are not searched for #include <file>. If additional directories are specified with –I options after the –I– , these directories are searched for all #include directives. (Ordinarily all –I directories are used this way.) In addition, the –I– option inhibits the use of the current directory (where the current input file came from) as the first search directory for #include “ file “. There is no way to override this effect of –I–. With –I. you can specify searching the directory that was current when the compiler was invoked. That is not exactly the same as what the preprocessor does by default, but it is often satisfactory. –I– does not inhibit the use of the standard system directories for header files. Thus, –I– and –nostdinc are independent. Add directory dir to the list of directories to be searched for –l. This option specifies where to find the executables, libraries, and data files of the compiler itself. The compiler driver program runs one or more of the subprograms cpp, cc1 (or, for C++, cc1plus ), as , and ld. It tries prefix as a prefix for each program it tries to run, both with and without machine / version /. gcc, g++ 183 For each subprogram to be run, the compiler driver first tries the –B prefix, if any. If that name is not found, or if –B was not specified, the driver tries two standard prefixes, which are /usr/ lib/gcc/ and /usr/local/lib/gcc-lib/. If neither of those results in a filename that is found, the compiler driver searches for the unmodified program name, using the directories specified in your PATH environment variable. The runtime support file libgcc.a is also searched for using the –B prefix, if needed. If it is not found there, the two standard prefixes (preceding paragraph) are tried, and that is all. The file is left out of the link if it is not found by those means. Most of the time, on most machines, libgcc.a is not actually necessary. You can get a similar result from the environment variable GCC_EXEC_PREFIX; if it is defined, its value is used as a prefix in the same way. If both the –B option and the GCC_EXEC_PREFIX variable are present, the –B option is used first and the environment variable value second. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 5 e 1 i 2 v Pre Page WARNING OPTIONS Warnings are diagnostic messages that report constructions that are not inherently erroneous but are risky or suggest there may have been an error. These options control the amount and kinds of warnings produced by GNU CC: –fsyntax–only –w –Wno–import –pedantic –pedantic–errors –W Check the code for syntax errors, but don’t emit any output. Inhibit all warning messages. Inhibit warning messages about the use of #import. Issue all the warnings demanded by strict ANSI standard C; reject all programs that use forbidden extensions. Valid ANSI standard C programs should compile properly with or without this option (though a rare few will require –ansi ). However, without this option, certain GNU extensions and traditional C features are supported as well. With this option, they are rejected. There is no reason to use this option; it exists only to satisfy pedants. –pedantic does not cause warning messages for use of the alternate keywords whose names begin and end with ‘__’. Pedantic warnings are also disabled in the expression that follows extension . However, only system header files should use these escape routes; application programs should avoid them. Like –pedantic , except that errors are produced rather than warnings. Print extra warning messages for these events: A nonvolatile automatic variable might be changed by a call to longjmp. These warnings are possible only in optimizing compilation. The compiler sees only the calls to setjmp. It cannot know where longjmp will be called; in fact, a signal handler could call it at any point in the code. As a result, you may get a warning even when there is in fact no problem because longjmp cannot in fact be called at the place which would cause a problem. A function can return either with or without a value. (Falling off the end of the function body is considered returning without a value.) For example, this function would evoke such a warning: foo (a) { if (a > 0) return a; } Spurious warnings can occur because GNU CC does not realize that certain functions (including abort and longjmp) will never return. An expression-statement or the left side of a comma expression contains no side effects. To suppress the warning, cast the unused expression to void. For example, an expression such as x[i,j] will cause a warning, but x[(void)i,j] will not. An unsigned value is compared against zero with > or <=. gcc, g++ –mkernel –mshared-libs –mno-shared-libs –mlong-calls 197 Generate code which is suitable for use in kernels. Specifically, avoid add instructions in which one of the arguments is the DP register; generate addil instructions instead. This avoids a rather serious bug in the HP-UX linker. Generate code that can be linked against HP-UX shared libraries. This option is not fully functioning yet, and is not on by default for any PA target. Using this option can cause incorrect code to be generated by the compiler. Don’t generate code that will be linked against shared libraries. This is the default for all PA targets. Generate code which allows calls to functions greater than 256K away from the caller when the caller and callee are in the same source file. Do not turn this option on unless code refuses to link with branch out of range errors from the linker. Prevent floating-point registers from being used in any manner. This is necessary for compiling kernels that perform lazy context switching of floating-point registers. If you use this option and attempt to perform floating-point operations, the compiler will abort. Prevent the compiler from using indexing address modes. This avoids some rather obscure problems when compiling MIG-generated code under MACH. Add a colon to the end of label definitions (for ELF assemblers). k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 9 e 2 i 2 v Pre Page –mdisable-fpregs –mdisable-indexing –mtrailing-colon These –m options are defined for the Intel 80960 family of computers: –mcpu-type –mnumerics –msoft–float –mleaf–procedures –mno–leaf–procedures –mtail–call –mno–tail–call –mcomplex–addr –mno–complex–addr –mcode–align –mno–code–align –mic–compat Assume the defaults for the machine type cpu-type for instruction and addressing-mode availability and alignment. The default cpu-type is kb; other choices are ka , mc, ca, cf, sa, and sb. The –mnumerics option indicates that the processor does support floating-point instructions. The –msoft–float option indicates that floating-point support should not be assumed. Do (or do not) attempt to alter leaf procedures to be callable with the bal instruction as well as call. This will result in more efficient code for explicit calls when the bal instruction can be substituted by the assembler or linker, but less efficient code in other cases, such as calls via function pointers, or using a linker that doesn’t support this optimization. Do (or do not) make additional attempts (beyond those of the machine-independent portions of the compiler) to optimize tail-recursive calls into branches. You may not want to do this because the detection of cases where this is not valid is not totally complete. The default is –mno–tail–call. Assume (or do not assume) that the use of a complex addressing mode is a win on this implementation of the i960. Complex addressing modes may not be worthwhile on the K-series, but they definitely are on the C-series. The default is currently –mcomplex–addr for all processors except the CB and CC. Align code to 8-byte boundaries for faster fetching (or don’t bother). Currently turned on by default for C-series implementations only. Enable compatibility with iC960 v2.0 or v3.0. –mic2.0–compat –mic3.0–compat –masm–compat Enable compatibility with the iC960 assembler. –mintel–asm –mstrict–align Do not permit (do permit) unaligned accesses. –mno–strict–align –mold–align Enable structure-alignment compatibility with Intel’s gcc release version 1.3 (based on gcc 1.37). Currently this is buggy in that #pragma align 1 is always assumed as well, and cannot be turned off. Part I: User Commands 214 e1 && e2 e1 || e2 e1 == e2 e1 != e2 e1 >= e2 e1 > e2 e1 <= e2 e1 < e2 “str1”==”str2" “str1”!=”str2" String comparison expressions must be parenthesized in some contexts to avoid ambiguity. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 6 e 4 i 2 v Pre Page OTHER CHANGES A bare expression, expr, is acceptable as an attribute; it is equivalent to direxpr, where dir is the current direction. For example line 2i means draw a line 2 inches long in the current direction. The maximum width and height of the picture are taken from the variables maxpswid and maxpsht . Initially, these have values 8.5 and 11. Scientific notation is allowed for numbers. For example x = 5e–2 Text attributes can be compounded. For example “foo” above ljust is legal. There is no limit to the depth to which blocks can be examined. For example [A: [B: [C: box ]]] with .A.B.C.sw at 1,2 circle at last [].A.B.C is acceptable. Arcs now have compass points determined by the circle of which the arc is a part. Circles and arcs can be dotted or dashed. In mode, splines can be dotted or dashed. Boxes can have rounded corners. The rad attribute specifies the radius of the quarter-circles at each corner. If no rad or diam attribute is given, a radius of boxrad is used. Initially, boxrad has a value of 0 . A box with rounded corners can be dotted or dashed. The .PS line can have a second argument specifying a maximum height for the picture. If the width of zero is specified, the width will be ignored in computing the scaling factor for the picture. Note that GNU pic will always scale a picture by the same amount vertically as horizontally. This is different from the DWB 2.0 pic, which may scale a picture by a different amount vertically than horizontally if a height is specified. Each text object has an invisible box associated with it. The compass points of a text object are determined by this box. The implicit motion associated with the object is also determined by this box. The dimensions of this box are taken from the width and height attributes; if the width attribute is not supplied, then the width will be taken to be textwid; if the height attribute is not supplied, then the height will be taken to be the number of text strings associated with the object times textht. Initially textwid and textht have a value of 0. In places where a quoted text string can be used, an expression of the form: sprintf(format,arg,...) Part I: User Commands 224 space); the resulting label will also be a two-part label with the same first part as before merging, and so additional labels can be merged into it. Note that it is permissible for the first part to be empty; this may be desirable for expressions used in the short-label command. The same as expr. Used for grouping. (expr) The preceding expressions are listed in order of precedence (highest first); & and | have the same precedence. MACRO INTERFACE Each reference starts with a call to the macro ]-. The string [F will be defined to be the label for this reference, unless the nocommand has been given. There then follows a series of string definitions, one for each field: string [X corresponds to field X. The number register [P is set to 1 if the P field contains a range of pages. The [T, [A , and [O number registers are set to 1 according as the T, A, and O fields end with one of the characters .?! . The [E number register will be set to 1 if the [E string contains more than one name. The reference is followed by a call to the ][ macro. The first argument to this macro gives a number representing the type of the reference. If a reference contains a J field, it will be classified as type 1; otherwise, if it contains a B field, it will be type 3; otherwise, if it contains a G or R field it will be type 4, otherwise if it contains an I field, it will be type 2; otherwise, it will be type 0. The second argument is a symbolic name for the type: other, journal-article, book , article-in-book, or tech-report . Groups of references that have been accumulated or are produced by the bibliography command are preceded by a call to the ]< macro and followed by a call to the ]> macro. label-in-reference k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 6 e 5 i 2 v Pre Page FILES /usr/dict/papers/Ind file.i Default database Index files SEE ALSO gindxbib (1), glookbib (1), lkbib(1) BUGS In label expressions, <> expressions are ignored inside .char expressions. Groff Version 1.09 grep, egrep, fgrep grep, egrep , fgrep—Print lines matching a pattern SYNOPSIS grep [ –[[AB]]num ][–[CEFGVBchilnsvwx]][–e ] pattern j –ffile ][files... ] DESCRIPTION grep searches the named input files (or standard input if no files are named, or the filename – is given) for lines containing a match to the given pattern . By default, grep prints the matching lines. There are three major variants of grep , controlled by the following options: –G –E –F Interpret pattern as a basic regular expression (see the list following this one). This is the default. Interpret pattern as an extended regular expression. Interpret pattern as a list of fixed strings, separated by newlines, any of which is to be matched. In addition, two variant programs, egrep and fgrep , are available. egrep is similar (but not identical) to grepn–E, and is compatible with the historical UNIX egrep . Fgrep is the same as grepn–F. All variants of grep understand the following options: Part I: User Commands 226 The caret and the dollar sign are meta characters that respectively match the empty string at the beginning and end of a line. The symbols \< and \>, respectively, match the empty string at the beginning and end of a word. The symbol \b matches the empty string at the edge of a word, and \B matches the empty string provided it’s not at the edge of a word. A regular expression matching a single character may be followed by one of several repetition operators: ? * + n n, ,m n,m The preceding item is optional and matched at most once. The preceding item will be matched zero or more times. The preceding item will be matched one or more times. The preceding item is matched exactly n times. The preceding item is matched n or more times. The preceding item is optional and is matched at most m times. The preceding item is matched at least n times, but not more than m times. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 8 e 5 i 2 v Pre Page Two regular expressions may be concatenated; the resulting regular expression matches any string formed by concatenating two substrings that respectively match the concatenated subexpressions. Two regular expressions may be joined by the infix operator |; the resulting regular expression matches any string matching either subexpression. Repetition takes precedence over concatenation, which in turn takes precedence over alternation. A whole subexpression may be enclosed in parentheses to override these precedence rules. The back reference \n, where n is a single digit, matches the substring previously matched by the n th parenthesized subexpression of the regular expression. In basic regular expressions, the meta characters |, (, and ) lose their special meaning; instead use the backslashed versions \?, \+, \f , \j, \(, and \). In egrep, the meta character { loses its special meaning; instead use \{. DIAGNOSTICS Normally, exit status is 0 if matches were found, and 1 if no matches were found. (The .B –v option inverts the sense of the exit status.) Exit status is 2 if there were syntax errors in the pattern, inaccessible input files, or other system errors. BUGS E-mail bug reports to [email protected] Be sure to include the word grep somewhere in the “Subject:” field. Large repetition counts in the m ,n construct may cause grep to use lots of memory. In addition, certain other obscure regular expressions require exponential time and space, and may cause grep to run out of memory. Back references are very slow, and may require exponential time. GNU Project, 10 September 1992 grephistory grephistory —Display filenames from Usenet history file SYNOPSIS grephistory [ –f filename ][–e ][–n ][–q ][–l ][–i ][–s ][messageid ] DESCRIPTION grephistory queries the dbz(3) index into the history (5) file for an article having a specified Message ID. If messageid cannot be found in the database, the program prints “Not found” and exits with a nonzero status. If messageid is in the database, the program prints the pathname and exits successfully. If no pathname exists, the program will print /dev/ Part I: User Commands 228 In troff, the \N escape sequence can be used to access characters by their position in the corresponding tfm file; all characters in the tfm file can be accessed this way. OPTIONS –d –v –wn –Fdir Do not use tpic specials to implement drawing commands. Horizontal and vertical lines will be implemented by rules. Other drawing commands will be ignored. Print the version number. Set the default line thickness to n thousandths of an em. Search directory dir/devdvi for font and device description files. FILES k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 0 e 6 i 2 v Pre Page /usr/lib/groff/font/devdvi/DESC /usr/lib/groff/font/devdvi/ F /usr/lib/groff/tmac/tmac.dvi BUGS Device description file Font description file for font F Macros for use with grodvi dvi files produced by grodvi use a different resolution (57,816 units per inch) than those produced by TeX. Incorrectly written drivers that assume the resolution used by TeX, rather than using the resolution specified in the dvi file, will not work with grodvi. When using the –d option with boxed tables, vertical and horizontal lines can sometimes protrude by one pixel. This is a consequence of the way TeX requires that the heights and widths of rules be rounded. SEE ALSO tfmtodit (1), groff (1), gtroff(1), geqn(1), groff_out (5), groff_font (5), groff_char (7) Groff Version 1.09 14 groff groff—Front end for the groff document formatting system SYNOPSIS groff [ –tpeszaivhblCENRVXZ][–wname ][–Wname ][–mname ][–Fdir ][–Tdev ] [ –ffam ][–Mdir ][–dcs ][–rcn ][–nnum ] [–olist ][–Parg ][files ... ] DESCRIPTION groff is a front-end to the groff document formatting system. Normally, it runs the gtroff program and a postprocessor appropriate for the selected device. Available devices are ps dvi X75 X100 ascii latin1 For PostScript printers and previewers For TeX dvi format For a 75 dpi X11 previewer For a 100dpi X11 previewer For typewriter-like devices For typewriter-like devices using the ISO Latin-1 character set. The postprocessor to be used for a device is specified by the postpro command in the device description file. This can be overridden with the –X option. The default device is ps. It can optionally preprocess with any of gpic , geqn, gtbl , grefer, or gsoelim . Part I: User Commands 230 BUGS Report bugs to [email protected] Include a complete, self-contained example that will allow the bug to be reproduced, and say which version of groff you are using. COPYRIGHT Copyright 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992 Free Software Foundation, Inc. groff is free software; you can redistribute it or modify it under the terms of the GNU General Public License as published by the Free Software Foundation; either version 2, or (at your option) any later version. groff is distributed in the hope that it will be useful, but without any warranty; without even the implied warranty of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. See the GNU General Public License for more details. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 2 e 6 i 2 v Pre Page You should have received a copy of the GNU General Public License along with groff; see the file COPYING. If not, write to the Free Software Foundation, 675 Mass Ave, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA. AVAILABILITY The most recent released version of groff is always available for anonymous ftp from prep.ai.mit.edu (18.71.0.38) in the directory pub/gnu. SEE ALSO grog(1), gtroff (1), gtbl (1), gpic (1), geqn (1), gsoelim (1), grefer(1), grops(1), grodvi(1), grotty (1), gxditview (1), groff_font (5), grof_out(5), groff_ms (7), groff_me (7), groff_char (7) Groff Version 1.09, 29 October 1992 grog grog—Guess options for groff command SYNOPSIS grog [ –option ...][files ... ] DESCRIPTION reads files and guesses which of the groff(1) options –e, –man , –me, –mm, –ms , –p, –s,and –t are required for printing and prints the groff command including those options on the standard output. A filename of – is taken to refer to the standard input. If no files are specified, the standard input will be read. Any specified options will be included in the printed command. No space is allowed between options and their arguments. For example, grog files, ‘grog –Tdvi paper.ms’ will guess the appropriate command to print paper.ms and then run it after adding the –Tdvi option. SEE ALSO doctype (1), groff (1), gtroff (1), gtbl(1), gpic(1), geqn(1), gsoelim(1) Groff Version 1.09 14 grops grops—PostScript driver for groff SYNOPSIS grops [ –glv ][–bn ][–cn ][–wn ][–Fdir ][files ... ] Part I: User Commands 232 HNB HNBI NR NI NB NBI PR PI PB PBI TR TI TB TBI Helvetica-Narrow-Bold Helvetica-Narrow-BoldOblique NewCenturySchlbk-Roman NewCenturySchlbk-Italic NewCenturySchlbk-Bold NewCenturySchlbk-BoldItalic Palatino-Roman Palatino-Italic Palatino-Bold Palatino-BoldItalic Times-Roman Times-Italic Times-Bold Times-BoldItalic k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 4 e 6 i 2 v Pre Page There is also the following font which is not a member of a family: ZCMI ZapfChancery-MediumItalic There are also some special fonts called SS and S. Zapf Dingbats is available as ZD and a reversed version of ZapfDingbats (with symbols pointing in the opposite direction) is available as ZDR; most characters in these fonts are unnamed and must be accessed using \N. grops understands various X commands produced using the \X escape sequence; grops will only interpret commands that begin with a ps: tag. \X’ps:execcode’ This executes the arbitrary PostScript commands in code. The PostScript currentpoint will be set to the position of the \nX command before executing code . The origin will be at the top left corner of the page, and y coordinates will increase down the page. A procedure u will be defined that converts groff units to the coordinate system in effect. For example, \X’ps: exec \nx u 0 rlineto stroke’ will draw a horizontal line one inch long. code may make changes to the graphics state, but any changes will persist only to the end of the page. A dictionary containing the definitions specified by def and mdef will be on top of the dictionary stack. If your code adds definitions to this dictionary, you should allocate space for them using \X’psmdefn’ . Any definitions will persist only until the end of the page. If you use the \Y escape sequence with an argument that names a macro, code can extend over multiple lines. For example, .nr x 1i .de y ps: exec \nx u 0 rlineto stroke .. \Yy \X’ps:filename’ \X’ps:defcode’ is another way to draw a horizontal line one inch long. This is the same as the exec command except that the PostScript code is read from file name. Place a PostScript definition contained in code in the prologue. There should be at most one definition per \X command. Long definitions can be split over several \X commands; all the code arguments are simply joined together separated by newlines. The definitions are placed in a dictionary which is automatically pushed on the dictionary stack when an exec command is executed. If you use the \Y escape sequence with an argument that names a macro, code can extend over multiple lines. Part I: User Commands 244 .di .x .troff .vptn .warnn will print b ; if trnt is used instead of tr, it will print a. Make the n built-in condition false, and the t built-in condition true. This undoes the effect of the nroff request. Enable vertical position traps if n is nonzero, disable them otherwise. Vertical position traps are traps set by the wh or dt requests. Traps set by the it request are not vertical position traps. The parameter that controls whether vertical position traps are enabled is global. Initially, vertical position traps are enabled. Control warnings. n is the sum of the numbers associated with each warning that is to be enabled; all other warnings will be disabled. The number associated with each warning is listed in the “Warnings” subsection. For example, .warn 0 will disable all warnings, and .warn 1 will disable all warnings except that about missing characters. If n is not given, all warnings will be enabled. While condition c is true, accept anything as input; c can be any condition acceptable to an if request; anything can comprise multiple lines if the first line starts with \{ and the last line ends with \}. See also the break and continue requests. Write anything to the stream named stream . stream must previously have been the subject of an open request. anything is read in copy mode; a leading will be stripped. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 6 e 7 i 2 v Pre Page .whilecanything .writestreamanything EXTENDED REQUESTS .cffilename .evxx .fpnf1f2 .ssmn .tan1n2...nnTr1r2...rn When used in a diversion, this will embed in the diversion an object which, when reread, will cause the contents of filename to be transparently copied through to the output. In UNIX troff , the contents of filename are immediately copied through to the output regardless of whether there is a current diversion; this behavior is so anomalous that it must be considered a bug. If xx is not a number, this will switch to a named environment called xx. The environment should be popped with a matching ev request without any arguments, just as for numbered environments. There is no limit on the number of named environments; they will be created the first time that they are referenced. The fp request has an optional third argument. This argument gives the external name of the font, which is used for finding the font description file. The second argument gives the internal name of the font, which is used to refer to the font in troff after it has been mounted. If there is no third argument, then the internal name will be used as the external name. This feature allows you to use fonts with long names in compatibility mode. When two arguments are given to the ss request, the second argument gives the sentence space size. If the second argument is not given, the sentence space size will be the same as the word space size. Like the word space size, the sentence space is in units of one twelfth of the spacewidth parameter for the current font. Initially, both the word space size and the sentence space size are 12. The sentence space size is used in two circumstances: If the end of a sentence occurs at the end of a line in fill mode, then both an interword space and a sentence space will be added; if two spaces follow the end of a sentence in the middle of a line, then the second space will be a sentence space. Note that the behavior of UNIX troff will be exactly that exhibited by GNU troff if a second argument is never given to the ss request. In GNU troff, as in UNIX troff, you should always follow a sentence with either a newline or two spaces. Set tabs at positions n1, n2,...,nn and then set tabs at nn+r1, nn+r2,...., nn+rn and then at nn+rn+r1, nn+rn+r2,..., nn+rn+rn , and so on. For example, .ta T .5i will set tabs every half an inch. head 253 DESCRIPTION The gzexe utility enables you to compress executables in place and have them automatically uncompress and execute when you run them (at a penalty in performance). For example if you execute gzexe /bin/cat, it will create the following two files: -r-xr-xr-x 1 root bin 9644 Feb 11 11:16 /bin/cat -r-xr-xr-x 1 bin bin 24576 Nov 23 13:21 /bin/cat˜ is the original file and /bin/cat is the self-uncompressing executable file. You can remove /bin/cat˜ when you are sure that /bin/cat works properly. /bin/cat˜ This utility is most useful on systems with very small disks. OPTIONS –d SEE ALSO k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 5 e 8 i 2 v Pre Page Decompress the given executables instead of compressing them gzip(1), znew(1), zmore (1), zcmp (1), zforce (1) CAVEATS The compressed executable is a shell script. This may create some security holes. In particular, the compressed executable relies on the PATH environment variable to find gzip and some other utilities (tail , chmod, ln, sleep ). BUGS attempts to retain the original file attributes on the compressed executable, but you may have to fix them manually in some cases, using chmod or chown. gzexe head head—Output the first part of files SYNOPSIS head [–c N[bkm]] [–n N] [–qv] [--bytes=N[bkm]] [--lines=N] [--quiet] [--silent] [--verbose] [--help] [--version] [file...] head [–Nbcklmqv] [file...] DESCRIPTION This manual page documents the GNU version of head. head prints the first part (10 lines by default) of each given file; it reads from standard input if no files are given or when a filename of – is encountered. If more than one file is given, it prints a header consisting of the file’s name enclosed in ==> and <== before the output for each file. OPTIONS accepts two option formats: the new one, in which numbers are arguments to the option letters; and the old one, in which the number precedes any option letters. head –c N, --bytes N –l, –n N , --lines N –q, --quiet , --silent Print first N bytes. N is a nonzero integer, optionally followed by one of the following characters to specify a different unit. b 512-byte blocks. k 1-kilobyte blocks. m 1-megabyte blocks. Print first N lines. Never print filename headers. Part I: User Commands 258 The option -t allows you to specify a particular type of information to be looked up. The arguments are defined in the man page for named . Currently supported types are a, ns , md, mf, cname , soa, mb, mg, mr , null, wks, ptr , hinfo, minfo , mx, uinfo, uid , gid, unspec , and the wildcard, which may be written as either any or *. Types must be given in lowercase. Note that the default is to look first for a, and then mx, except that if the verbose option is turned on, the default is only a. The option -a (for “all”) is equivalent to -v -t any . The option -l causes a listing of a complete domain. For example, host -l rutgers.edu will give a listing of all hosts in the rutgers.edu domain. The -t option is used to filter what information is presented, as you would expect. The default is address information, which also include PTR and NS records. The command host: k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 0 e 9 i 2 v Pre Page -l -v -t any rutgers.edu will give a complete download of the zone data for rutgers.edu, in the official master file format. (However the SOA record is listed twice, for arcane reasons.) NOTE -l is implemented by doing a complete zone transfer and then filtering out the information you have asked for. This command should be used only if it is absolutely necessary. CUSTOMIZING HOSTNAME LOOKUP In general, if the name supplied by the user does not have any dots in it, a default domain is appended to the end. This domain can be defined in /etc/resolv.conf, but is normally derived by taking the local hostname after its first dot. The user can override this, and specify a different default domain, using the environment variable LOCALDOMAIN. In addition, the user can supply his own abbreviations for hostnames. They should be in a file consisting of one line per abbreviation. Each line contains an abbreviation, a space, and then the full hostname. This file must be pointed to by an environment variable HOSTALIASES , which is the name of the file. SEE ALSO named(8) BUGS Unexpected effects can happen when you type a name that is not part of the local domain. Please always keep in mind that the local domain name is tacked onto the end of every name, unless it ends in a dot. Only if this fails is the name used unchanged. The -l option only tries the first name server listed for the domain that you have requested. If this server is dead, you may need to specify a server manually. For example, to get a listing of foo.edu , you could try host -t ns foo.edu to get a list of all the name servers for foo.edu , and then try host -l foo.edu xxx for all xxx on the list of name servers, until you find one that works. hostid hostid—Set or print system’s host ID. SYNTAX hostid [–v] [ decimal-id ] imake 265 OPTIONS The following command-line options may be passed to imake: –Ddefine –Idirectory –Ttemplate –f filename k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 7 e 9 i 2 v Pre Page –C filename –s filename –e –v This option is passed directly to cpp . It is typically used to set directory-specific variables. For example, the X Window System uses this flag to set TOPDIR to the name of the directory containing the top of the core distribution and CURDIR to the name of the current directory, relative to the top. This option is passed directly to cpp . It is typically used to indicate the directory in which the imake template and configuration files may be found. This option specifies the name of the master template file (which is usually located in the directory specified with –I) used by cpp . The default is Imake.tmpl . This option specifies the name of the per-directory input file. The default is Imakefile . This option specifies the name of the .c file that is constructed in the current directory. The default is Imakefile.c . This option specifies the name of the make description file to be generated but make should not be invoked. If the filename is a hyphen (–), the output is written to stdout. The default is to generate, but not execute, a Makefile . This option indicates the imake should execute the generated Makefile . The default is to leave this to the user. This option indicates that imake should print the cpp command line that it is using to generate the Makefile . HOW IT WORKS invokes cpp with any –I or –D flags passed on the command line and passes the name of a file containing the following three lines: Imake #define IMAKE_TEMPLATE “Imake.tmpl” #define INCLUDE_IMAKEFILE <Imakefile> #include IMAKE_TEMPLATE where Imake.tmpl and Imakefile may be overridden by the –T and –f command options, respectively. The IMAKE_TEMPLATE typically reads in a file containing machine-dependent parameters (specified as cpp symbols), a sitespecific parameters file, a file defining variables, a file containing cpp macro functions for generating make rules, and finally the Imakefile (specified by INCLUDE_IMAKEFILE) in the current directory. The Imakefile uses the macro functions to indicate what targets should be built; imake takes care of generating the appropriate rules. configuration files contain two types of variables, imake variables and make variables. The imake variables are interpreted by cpp when imake is run. By convention they are mixed case. The make variables are written into the Makefile for later interpretation by make . By convention make variables are uppercase. Imake The rules file (usually named Imake.rules in the configuration directory) contains a variety of cpp macro functions that are configured according to the current platform. Imake replaces any occurrences of the string @@ with a newline to allow macros that generate more than one line of make rules. For example, when called with program_target(foo, foo1.o foo2.o), the macro: #define program_target(program, objlist) @@\ program: objlist @@\ $(CC) –o [email protected] objlist $(LDFLAGS) will expand to foo: foo1.o foo2.o $(CC) –o [email protected] foo1.o foo2.o $(LDFLAGS) also replaces any occurrences of the word XCOMM with the character # to permit placing comments in the Makefile without causing invalid directive errors from the preprocessor. imake Part I: User Commands 268 DESCRIPTION Inews reads a Usenet news article (perhaps with headers) from the named file or standard input if no file is given. It adds some headers and performs some consistency checks. If the article does not meet these checks (for example, too much quoting of old articles, or posting to nonexistent newsgroups), then the article is rejected. If it passes the checks, inews sends the article to the local news server as specified in the inn.conf (5) file for distribution. In the standard mode of operation, the input consists of the article headers, a blank line, and the message body. For compatibility with older software, the –h flag must be used. If there are no headers in the message, then this flag may be omitted. Several headers may be specified on the command line, shown in the synopsis above as header flags. Each of these flags takes a single parameter; if the value is more than one word (for example, almost all Subject lines) then quotes must be used to prevent the shell from splitting it into multiple words. The options, and their equivalent headers, are as follows: a c d e f w n r t F o x k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 0 e 0 i 3 v Pre Page Approved Control Distribution Expires From Followup-To Newsgroups Reply-To Subject References Organization Path prefix The Path header is built according to the following rules. If the –x flag is used, then its value will be the start of the header. Any other host will see the site in the header, and therefore not offer the article to that site. If the pathhost configuration parameter is specified in the inn.conf (5) file, then it will be added to the Path. Otherwise, if the server configuration parameter is specified, then the full domain name of the local host will be added to the Path. The Path will always end not-for-mail. The default Organization header will be provided if none is present in the article or if the –o flag is not used. To prevent adding the default, use the –O flag. As a debugging aide, if the –D flag is used, the consistency checks will be performed, and the article will be sent to the standard output, rather then sent to the server. For compatibility with C News, inews accepts, but ignores, the –A, –V, and –W flags. The C News –N flag is treated as the –D flag. If a file named .signature exists in the user’s home directory, inews will try to append it to the end of the article. If the file cannot be read, or if it is too long (for example, more than four lines or one standard I/O buffer), or if some other problem occurs, then the article will not be posted. To suppress this action, use the –S flag. If the –R flag is used then inews will reject any attempts to post control messages. If an unapproved posting is made to a moderated newsgroup, inews will try to mail the article to the moderator for posting. It uses the moderators (5) file to determine the mailing address. If no address is found, it will use the inn.conf file to determine a “last-chance” host to try. If the NNTP server needs to authenticate the client, inews will use the NNTPsendpass-word(3) routine to authenticate itself. In order to do this, the program will need read access to the passwd.nntp(5) file. This is typically done by having the file groupreadable and making inews run setgid to that group. Inews exits with a zero status if the article was successfully posted or mailed, or with a nonzero status if the article could not be delivered. Part I: User Commands 278 When in the –a mode, ispell will also accept lines of single words prefixed with any of the following: *, &, @, +, -, ˜, #, !, %, or ˆ. A line starting with * tells ispell to insert the word into the user’s dictionary (similar to the I command). A line starting with & tells ispell to insert an all-lowercase version of the word into the user’s dictionary (similar to the U command). A line starting with @ causes ispell to accept this word in the future (similar to the A command). A line starting with +, followed immediately by tex or nroff, will cause ispell to parse future input according the syntax of that formatter. A line consisting solely of a + will place ispell in TeX/LaTeX mode (similar to the –t option) and - returns ispell to nroff/troff mode (but these commands are obsolete). However, string character type is not changed; the ˜ command must be used to do this. A line starting with ˜ causes ispell to set internal parameters (in particular, the default string character type) based on the filename given in the rest of the line. (A file suffix is sufficient, but the period must be included. Instead of a filename or suffix, a unique name, as listed in the language affix file, may be specified.) However, the formatter parsing is not changed; the + command must be used to change the formatter. A line prefixed with # will cause the personal dictionary to be saved. A line prefixed with ! will turn on terse mode (explained later in this subsection), and a line prefixed with % will return ispell to normal (non-terse) mode. Any input following the prefix characters +, - , #, !, or % is ignored, as is any input following the filename on a ˜ line. To allow spell checking of lines beginning with these characters, a line starting with ˆ has that character removed before it is passed to the spell checking code. It is recommended that programmatic interfaces prefix every data line with an up arrow to protect themselves against future changes in ispell. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 0 e 1 i 3 v Pre Page To summarize these: * @ # ˜ + ! % ˆ Add to personal dictionary Accept word, but leave out of dictionary Save current personal dictionary Set parameters based on filename Enter TeX mode Exit TeX mode Enter terse mode Exit terse mode Spell check rest of line In terse mode, ispell will not print lines beginning with *, +, or –, all of which indicate correct words. This significantly improves running speed when the driving program is going to ignore correct words anyway. The –s option is only valid in conjunction with the –a or –A options, and only on BSD-derived systems. If specified, ispell will stop itself with a SIGTSTP signal after each line of input. It will not read more input until it receives a SIGCONT signal. This may be useful for handshaking with certain text editors. The –f option is only valid in conjunction with the –a or –A options. If –f is specified, ispell will write its results to the given file, rather than to standard output. The –v option causes ispell to print its current version identification on the standard output and exit. If the switch is doubled, ispell will also print the options that it was compiled with. The –c, –e[1-4 ], and –D options of ispell are primarily intended for use by the munchlist shell script. The –c switch causes a list of words to be read from the standard input. For each word, a list of possible root words and affixes will be written to the standard output. Some of the root words will be illegal and must be filtered from the output by other means; the munchlist script does this. As an example, the command echo BOTHER | ispell -c produces BOTHER BOTHE/R BOTH/R The –e switch is the reverse of –c; it expands affix flags to produce a list of words. For example, the command echo BOTH/R | ispell -e produces BOTH BOTHER Part I: User Commands 288 This version of ld uses the general-purpose BFD libraries to operate on object files. This allows ld to read, combine, and write object files in many different formats, for example, COFF or a.out. Different formats may be linked together to produce any available kind of object file. You can use objdump –i to get a list of formats supported on various architectures; see objdump (1). Aside from its flexibility, the GNU linker is more helpful than other linkers in providing diagnostic information. Many linkers abandon execution immediately upon encountering an error; whenever possible, ld continues executing, allowing you to identify other errors (or, in some cases, to get an output file in spite of the error). The GNU linker ld is meant to cover a broad range of situations, and to be as compatible as possible with other linkers. As a result, you have many choices to control its behavior through the command line, and through environment variables. OPTIONS k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 0 e 2 i 3 v Pre Page The plethora of command-line options may seem intimidating, but in actual practice few of them are used in any particular context. For instance, a frequent use of ld is to link standard UNIX object files on a standard, supported UNIX system. On such a system, this line links a file hello.o : $ ld –o output /lib/crt0.o hello.o –lc This tells ld to produce a file called output as the result of linking the file /lib/crt0.o with hello.o and the library libc.a, which will come from the standard search directories. The command-line options to ld may be specified in any order, and may be repeated at will. For the most part, repeating an option with a different argument will either have no further effect or override prior occurrences (those further to the left on the command line) of an option. The exceptions—which may meaningfully be used more than once—are –A, –b (or its synonym –format ), –defsym , –L, –l, –R, and –u. The list of object files to be linked together, shown as objfile , may follow, precede, or be mixed in with command-line options, except that an objfile argument may not be placed between an option flag and its argument. Usually the linker is invoked with at least one object file, but other forms of binary input files can also be specified with –l, –R, and the script command language. If no binary input files at all are specified, the linker does not produce any output, and issues the message No input files. Option arguments must either follow the option letter without intervening whitespace or be given as separate arguments immediately following the option that requires them. -Aarchitecture In the current release of ld, this option is useful only for the Intel 960 family of architectures. In that ld configuration, the architecture argument is one of the two-letter names identifying members of the 960 family; the option specifies the desired output target and warns of any incompatible instructions in the input files. It also modifies the linker’s search strategy for archive libraries to support the use of libraries specific to each particular architecture, by including in the search loop names suffixed with the string identifying the architecture. For example, if your ld command line included –ACA as well as –ltry, the linker would look (in its built-in search paths, and in any paths you specify with –L ) for a library with the names try libtry.a tryca libtryca.a The first two possibilities would be considered in any event; the last two are due to the use of –ACA. Future releases of ld may support similar functionality for other architecture families. Part I: User Commands 292 lispmtopgm lispmtopgm —Convert a Lisp Machine bitmap file into PGM format SYNOPSIS lispmtopgm [lispmfile] DESCRIPTION lispmtopgm reads a Lisp machine bitmap as input and produces a portable graymap as output. This is the file format written by the tv:write-bit-array-file function on TI Explorer and Symbolics Lisp machines. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 4 e 2 i 3 v Pre Page Multiplane bitmaps on Lisp machines are color; but the lispm image file format does not include a colormap, so it must be treated as a graymap instead. This is unfortunate. SEE ALSO pgmtolispm (1), pgm(5) BUGS The lispm bitmap file format is a bit quirky; Usually the image in the file has its width rounded up to the next higher multiple of 32, but not always. If the width is not a multiple of 32, we don’t deal with it properly, but because of the lispm microcode, such arrays are probably not image data anyway. Also, the lispm code for saving bitmaps has a bug, in that if you are writing a bitmap that is not mod32 across, the file may be up to seven bits too short. They round down instead of up, and we don’t handle this bug gracefully. No color. AUTHOR Copyright 1991 by Jamie Zawinski and Jef Poskanzer. 6 March 1990 lkbib lkbib—Search bibliographic databases SYNOPSIS lkbib [ –v ][–ifields ][–pfilename ][–tn ] key ... DESCRIPTION lkbib searches bibliographic databases for references that contain the keys key... and prints any references found on the standard output. lkbib will search any databases given by –p options, and then a default database. The default database is taken from the REFER environment variable if it is set, otherwise it is /usr/dict/papers/Ind. For each database filename to be searched, if an index filename.i created by gindxbib (1) exists, then it will be searched instead; each index can cover multiple databases. OPTIONS –v –pfilename –istring –tn Print the version number. Search filename. Multiple –p options can be used. When searching files for which no index exists, ignore the contents of fields whose names are in string. Only require the first n characters of keys to be given. Initially n is 6. ln 293 ENVIRONMENT Default database REFER FILES /usr/dict/papers/Ind filename.i Default database to be used if the REFER environment variable is not set. Index files. SEE ALSO grefer(1), glookbib (1), gindxbib(1) k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 5 e 2 i 3 v Pre Page Groff Version 1.09, 6 August 1992 ln ln—Make SYNOPSIS links between files ln [options] source [dest] ln [options] source... directory Options: [–bdfinsvF] [–S backup-suffix] [–V {numbered,existing,simple}] [--version-control={numbered,existing,simple}] [--backup] [--directory] [--force] [--interactive] [--no–dereference] [--symbolic] [--verbose] [--suffix=backup-suffix] [--help] [--version] DESCRIPTION This manual page documents the GNU version of ln. If the last argument names an existing directory, ln links each other given file into a file with the same name in that directory. If only one file is given, it links that file into the current directory. Otherwise, if only two files are given, it links the first onto the second. It is an error if the last argument is not a directory and more than two files are given. It makes hard links by default. By default, it does not remove existing files. OPTIONS –b, --backup –d, –F, --directory –f, --force –i, --interactive –n, --no-dereference –s, --symbolic –v, --verbose --help --version –S, --suffix backup-suffix Make backups of files that are about to be removed. Allow the superuser to make hard links to directories. Remove existing destination files. Prompt whether to remove existing destination files. When the specified destination is a symbolic link to a directory, attempt to replace the symbolic link rather than dereferencing it to create a link in the directory to which it points. This option is most useful in conjunction with --force. Make symbolic links instead of hard links. This option produces an error message on systems that do not support symbolic links. Print the name of each file before linking it. Print a usage message on standard output and exit successfully. Print version information on standard output then exit successfully. The suffix used for making simple backup files can be set with the SIMPLE_BACKUP_SUFFIX environment variable, which can be overridden by this option. If neither of those is given, the default is ˜, as it is in Emacs. logger 295 locate locate—List files in databases that match a pattern SYNOPSIS locate [–d path] [--database=path] [--version] [--help] pattern... DESCRIPTION This manual page documents the GNU version of locate . For each given pattern, locate searches one or more databases of filenames and displays the filenames that contain the pattern. Patterns can contain shell-style meta characters: *, ?, and []. The meta characters do not treat / or . specially. Therefore, a pattern foo*bar can match a filename that contains foo3/bar , and a pattern *duck* can match a filename that contains lake/.ducky. Patterns that contain meta characters should be quoted to protect them from expansion by the shell. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 7 e 2 i 3 v Pre Page If a pattern is a plain string—it contains no meta characters—locate displays all filenames in the database that contain that string anywhere. If a pattern does contain meta characters, locate only displays filenames that match the pattern exactly. As a result, patterns that contain meta characters should usually begin with a * and will most often end with one as well. The exceptions are patterns that are intended to explicitly match the beginning or end of a filename. The filename databases contain lists of files that were on the system when the databases were last updated. The system administrator can choose the filename of the default database, the frequency with which the databases are updated, and the directories for which they contain entries; see updatedb (1L). OPTIONS –d path, --database=path --help --version Instead of searching the default filename database, search the filename databases in path, which is a colon-separated list of database filenames. You can also use the environment variable LOCATE_PATH to set the list of database files to search. The option overrides the environment variable if both are used. The filename database format changed starting with GNU find and locate version 4.0 to allow machines with different byte orderings to share the databases. This version of locate can automatically recognize and read databases produced for older versions of GNU locate or UNIX versions of locate or find. Print a summary of the options to locate and exit. Print the version number of locate and exit. ENVIRONMENT LOCATE_PATH Colon-separated list of databases to search SEE ALSO find(1L), locatedb (5L), updatedb (1L), xargs (1L), Finding Files (online in info , or printed) logger logger—Make entries in the system log SYNOPSIS logger [-is] [-f file] [-p pri] [-t tag] [message ...] DESCRIPTION logger provides a shell command interface to the syslog (3) system log module. Part I: User Commands 310 SEE ALSO picttoppm (1), pbmtomacp(1), pbm(5) AUTHOR Copyright 1988 by Jef Poskanzer. The MacPaint-reading code is copyright 1987 by Patrick J. Naughton ([email protected]). 29 March 1989 make k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 2 e 4 i 3 v Pre Page make—GNU make SYNOPSIS utility to maintain groups of programs make [ –f makefile ] [ option ] ... target ... WARNING This man page is an extract of the documentation of GNU make. It is updated only occasionally because the GNU project does not use nroff . For complete, current documentation, refer to the info file make or the DVI file make.dvi , which are made from the texinfo source file make.texinfo. DESCRIPTION The purpose of the make utility is to determine automatically which pieces of a large program need to be recompiled, and issue the commands to recompile them. This manual page describes the GNU implementation of make, which was written by Richard Stallman and Roland McGrath. Our examples show C programs because they are most common, but you can use make with any programming language whose compiler can be run with a shell command. In fact, make is not limited to programs. You can use it to describe any task where some files must be updated automatically from others whenever the others change. To prepare to use make , you must write a file called the makefile that describes the relationships among files in your program and states the commands for updating each file. In a program, typically, the executable file is updated from object files, which are in turn made by compiling source files. Once a suitable makefile exists, each time you change some source files, this simple shell command: make suffices to perform all necessary recompilations. The make program uses the makefile database and the last-modification times of the files to decide which of the files need to be updated. For each of those files, it issues the commands recorded in the database. executes commands in the makefile to update one or more target names, where name is typically a program. If no –f option is present, make will look for the makefiles GNU-makefile, makefile, and Makefile, in that order. make Normally you should call your makefile either makefile or Makefile . (We recommend Makefile because it appears prominently near the beginning of a directory listing, right near other important files such as README .) The first name checked, GNUmakefile , is not recommended for most makefiles. You should use this name if you have a makefile that is specific to GNU make, and will not be understood by other versions of make. If makefile is – , the standard input is read. make updates a target if it depends on prerequisite files that have been modified since the target was last modified, or if the target does not exist. namei –S, --suffix backup-suffix –V, --version-control {numbered,existing,simple} 335 The suffix used for making simple backup files can be set with the SIMPLE_BACKUP_SUFFIX environment variable, which can be overridden by this option. If neither of those is given, the default is ˜, as it is in Emacs. The type of backups made can be set with the VERSION_CONTROL environment variable, which can be overridden by this option. If VERSION_CONTROL is not set and this option is not given, the default backup type is existing. The value of the VERSION_CONTROL environment variable and the argument to this option are like the GNU Emacs version-control variable; they also recognize synonyms that are more descriptive. The valid values are the following (unique abbreviations are accepted): t or numbered- -Always make numbered backups. nil or existing- -Make numbered backups of files that already have them, simple backups of the others. never or simple —Always make simple backups. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N mwrite 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 7 e 6 i 3 v Pre Page GNU File Utilities mwrite—Low-level write (copy) a UNIX file to MS-DOS SYNOPSIS mwrite [ -tnvmoOsSrRA ] unixfile msdosfile mwrite [ -tnvmoOsSrRA ] unixfile [ unixfiles... ] msdosdirectory DESCRIPTION This command is obsolete and only supplied for backward compatibility reasons with old scripts. Use mcopy instead. SEE ALSO mcopy(1), mtools (1) Local namei namei—Follow a pathname until a terminal point is found SYNOPSIS namei [-mx] pathname [ pathname ... ] DESCRIPTION uses its arguments as pathnames to any type of UNIX file (symlinks, files, directories, and so forth). namei then follows each pathname until a terminal point is found (a file, directory, char device, and so on). If it finds a symbolic link, the user shows the link, and starts following it, indenting the output to show the context. namei This program is useful for finding too many levels of symbolic links problems. For each line output, namei outputs the following characters to identify the file types found: f: d l s The pathname the user is currently trying to resolve Directory Symbolic link (both the link and its contents are output) Socket Part I: User Commands 362 AUTHORS Copyright 1988 by Jef Poskanzer and Michael Haberler. -float and -noreset options added by Wim Lewis 29 August 1988 pbmtoln03 pbmtoln03 —Convert portable bitmap to DEC LN03+ Sixel output SYNOPSIS k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 4 e 9 i 3 v Pre Page pbmtoln03 [-rltbf] pbmfile DESCRIPTION pbmtoln03 reads a portable bitmap as input and produces a DEC LN03+ Sixel output file. OPTIONS -l nn -r nn -t nn -b nn -f nn Use nn as value for left margin (default 0). Use nn as value for right margin (default 2400). Use nn as value for top margin (default 0). Use nn as value for bottom margin (default 3400 ). Use nn as value for form length (default 3400). SEE ALSO pbm(5) AUTHOR Tim Cook, 26 February 1992 7 May 1993 pbmtolps pbmtolps —Convert a portable bitmap to PostScript SYNOPSIS pbmtolps [ -dpi n ] [ pbmfile ] DESCRIPTION pbmtolps reads a portable bitmap as input, and outputs PostScript. The output PostScript uses lines instead of the image operator to generate a (device-dependent) picture that will be imaged much faster. The PostScript path length is constrained to be less that 1000 points so that no limits are overrun on the Apple Laserwriter and (presumably) no other printers. SEE ALSO pgmtops (1), ppmtops (1), pbm(5) AUTHOR George Phillips (<[email protected]>) Part I: User Commands 364 pbmtopgm pbmtopgm —Convert portable bitmap to portable graymap by averaging areas SYNOPSIS pbmtopgm <width><height> [pbmfile] DESCRIPTION pbmtopgm reads a portable bitmap as input and outputs a portable graymap created by averaging the number of pixels within a sample area of width by height around each point. pbmtopgm is similar to a special case of ppmconvol . A ppmsmooth step may be needed after pbmtopgm. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 6 e 9 i 3 v re Page P pbmtopi3 pbmtopgm has the effect of antialiasing bitmaps that contain distinct line features. SEE ALSO pbm(5) AUTHOR Copyright 1990 by Angus Duggan. Copyright 1989 by Jef Poskanzer. NOTES pbmtopgm works best with odd sample widths and heights. pbmtopi3 —Convert a portable bitmap into an Atari Degas PI3 file SYNOPSIS pbmtopi3 [pbmfile] DESCRIPTION pbmtopi3 reads a portable bitmap as input and produces an Atari Degas PI3 file as output. SEE ALSO pi3topbm (1), pbm (5), ppmtopi1 (1), pi1toppm(1) AUTHOR Copyright 1988 by David Beckemeyer (bdt!david) and Jef Poskanzer. 11 March 1990 pbmtopk pbmtopk —Convert a portable bitmap into a packed (PK) format font SYNOPSIS pbmtopk pkfile[.pk] tfmfile[.tfm] resolution [-s designsize] [-p num param...] [-C cod-ingscheme] [-F family] [-f optfile] [-c num] [-W width] [-H height] [-D depth] [-I ital] [-h horiz] [-v vert] [-x xoff] [-y yoff] [pbmfile]... pgmenhance 371 AUTHOR John Walker Autodesk SA Avenue des Champs-Montants 14b CH-2074 MARIN Suisse/Schweiz/Svizzera/Svizra/Switzerland Usenet: Fax: Voice: [email protected] 038/33 88 15 038/33 76 33 Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, without any conditions or restrictions. This software is provided “as is” without express or implied warranty. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 3 e 0 i 4 v e e g pgmedgePr a P PLUGWARE! If you like this kind of stuff, you may also enjoy James Gleick’s “Chaos—The Software” for MS-DOS, available for $59.95 from your local software store or directly from Autodesk, Inc., Attn: Science Series, 2320 Marinship Way, Sausalito, CA 94965, USA. Telephone: 800-688-2344 toll-free or, outside the U.S. (415) 332-2344 Ext 4886. Fax: 415-289-4718. “Chaos—The Software” includes a more comprehensive fractal forgery generator that creates threedimensional landscapes as well as clouds and planets, plus five more modules that explore other aspects of Chaos. The user guide of more than 200 pages includes an introduction by James Gleick and detailed explanations by Rudy Rucker of the mathematics and algorithms used by each program. 15 October 1991 pgmedge —Edge detect a portable graymap SYNOPSIS pgmedge [pgmfile] DESCRIPTION reads a portable graymap as input, outlines the edges, and writes a portable graymap as output. Piping the result through pgmtopbm -threshold and playing with the threshold value will give a bitmap of the edges. pgmedge The edge detection technique used is to take the Pythagorean sum of two Sobel gradient operators at 90 degrees to each other. For more details see Digital Image Processing by Gonzalez and Wintz, Chapter 7. SEE ALSO pgmenhance (1), pgmtopbm(1), pgm(5), pbm(5) AUTHOR Copyright 1991 by Jef Poskanzer. 4 February 1990 pgmenhance pgmenhance —Edge enhance a portable graymap SYNOPSIS pgmenhance [-N][pgmfile] Part I: User Commands 378 pgmtoppm pgmtoppm —Colorize a portable graymap into a portable pixmap SYNOPSIS pgmtoppm colorspec [pgmfile] pgmtoppm colorspec1-colorspec2 [pgmfile] pgmtoppm -map mapfile [pgmfile] DESCRIPTION pgmtoppm reads a portable graymap as input, colorizes it by multiplying the gray values by specified color or colors, and produces a portable pixmap as output. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 0 e 1 i 4 v Pre Page If only one color is specified, black in the PGM file stays black and white in the PGM file turns into the specified color in the PPM file. If two colors (separated by a hyphen) are specified, then black gets mapped to the first color and white gets mapped to the second. The color can be specified in five ways: ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ A name, assuming that a pointer to an X11-style color names file was compiled in. An X11-style hexadecimal specifier: rgb:r/g/b , where r, g, and b are each 1- to 4-digit hexadecimal numbers. An X11-style decimal specifier: rgbi:r/g/b , where r, g, and b are floating-point numbers between 0 and 1. For backwards compatibility, an old-X11-style hexadecimal number: #rgb, #rrggbb , #rrrgggbbb , or #rrrrggggbbbb. For backwards compatibility, a triplet of numbers separated by commas: r,g,b, where r, g, and b are floating-point numbers between 0 and 1. (This style was added before MIT came up with the similar rgbi style.) Also, the -map flag lets you specify an entire colormap to be used. The mapfile is just a PPM file; it can be any shape, all that matters is the colors in it and their order. In this case, black gets mapped to the first color in the mapfile, and white gets mapped to the last. SEE ALSO rgb3toppm (1), ppmtopgm (1), ppmtorgb3 (1), ppm (5), pgm (5) AUTHOR Copyright 1991 by Jef Poskanzer. 11 January 1991 pi1toppm pi1toppm —Convert an Atari Degas PI1 into a portable pixmap SYNOPSIS pi1toppm [pi1file] DESCRIPTION pi1toppm reads an Atari Degas PI1 file as input and produces a portable pixmap as output. SEE ALSO ppmtopi1 (1), ppm (5), pi3topbm (1), pbmtopi3(1) AUTHORS Copyright 1991 by Steve Belczyk ([email protected]) and Jef Poskanzer. 19 July 1990 Part I: User Commands 380 fontdir FILE FORMAT has a built-in default font and your local installer probably provided adequate extra fonts. You can point picttoppm at more fonts that you specify in a font directory file. Each line in the file is either a comment line, which must begin with #, or font information. The font information consists of four whitespace separated fields. The first is the font number, the second is the font size in pixels, the third is the font style, and the fourth is the name of a BDF file containing the font. The BDF format is defined by the X Window System and is not described here. picttoppm The font number indicates the type face. Here is a list of known font numbers and their faces. 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 11 12 20 21 22 23 24 Chicago Application font New York Geneva Monaco Venice London Athens San Francisco Toronto Cairo Los Angeles Times Roman Helvetica Courier Symbol Taliesin k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 2 e 1 i 4 v Pre Page The font style indicates a variation on the font. Multiple variations may apply to a font and the font style is the sum of the variation numbers, which are 1 2 4 8 16 32 64 Boldface Italic Underlined Outlined Shadow Condensed Extended Obviously, the font definitions are strongly related to the Macintosh. More font numbers and information about fonts can be found in Macintosh documentation. SEE ALSO Inside Macintosh volumes 1 and 5, ppmtopict(1), ppm(5) AUTHOR Copyright 1993 George Phillips. 29 November 1991 Part I: User Commands 386 DESCRIPTION pnmdepth reads a portable anymap as input, scales all the pixel values, and writes out the image with the new maxval. Scaling the colors down to a smaller maxval will result in some loss of information. Be careful of off-by-one errors when choosing the new maxval . For instance, if you want the color values to be five bits wide, use a maxval of 31, not 32. SEE ALSO pnm(5), ppmquant (1), ppmdither (1) AUTHOR k u . o .c e l a s pnmenlarge e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 8 e 1 i 4 v Pre Page Copyright 1989, 1991 by Jef Poskanzer. 12 January 1991 pnmenlarge —Read a portable anymap and enlarge it N times SYNOPSIS pnmenlarge N [pnmfile] DESCRIPTION pnmenlarge reads a portable anymap as input, replicates its pixels N times, and produces a portable anymap as output. pnmenlarge can only enlarge by integer factors. The slower but more general pnmscale can enlarge or reduce by arbitrary factors, and pbmreduce can reduce by integer factors, but only for bitmaps. If you enlarge by a factor of 3 or more, you should probably add a pnmsmooth step; otherwise, you can see the original pixels in the resulting image. SEE ALSO pbmreduce (1), pnmscale (1), pnmsmooth (1), pnm (5) AUTHOR Copyright 1989 by Jef Poskanzer. 26 February 1989 pnmfile pnmfile —Describe a portable anymap SYNOPSIS pnmfile [pnmfile] ... DESCRIPTION pnmfile reads one or more portable anymaps as input and writes out short descriptions of the image type, size, and so on. This is mostly for use in shell scripts, so the format is not particularly pretty. SEE ALSO pnm(5), file(1) Part I: User Commands 396 pnmtoddif pnmtoddif —Convert a portable anymap to DDIF format SYNTAX pnmtoddif pnmtoddif [-resolution x y] [pnmfile [ddiffile]] OPTIONS resolution x y pnmfile ddiffile DESCRIPTION The horizontal and vertical resolution of the output image in dots per inch. Defaults to 78dpi . The filename for the image file in PNM format. If this argument is omitted, input is read from stdin . The filename for the image file to be created in DDIF format. If this argument is omitted, the ddiffile is written to standard output. It can only specified if a pnmfile is also specified. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 8 e 2 i 4 v Pre Page pnmtoddif takes a portable anymap from standard input and converts it into a DDIF image file on standard output or the specified DDIF file. PBM format (bitmap) data is written as 1-bit DDIF, PGM format data (grayscale) as 8-bit grayscale DDIF, and PPM format data is written as 8,8,8-bit color DDIF. All DDIF image files are written as uncompressed. The data plane organization is interleaved by pixel. In addition to the number of pixels in the width and height dimension, DDIF images also carry information about the size that the image should have, that is, the physical space that a pixel occupies. PBMPLUS images do not carry this information, hence it has to be externally supplied. The default of 78dpi has the beneficial property of not causing a resize on most Digital Equipment Corporation color monitors. AUTHOR Burkhard Neidecker-Lutz Digital Equipment Corporation, CEC Karlsruhe [email protected] pnmtofits pnmtofits —Convert a portable anymap into FITS format SYNOPSIS pnmtofits [–max f][–min f][pnmfile] DESCRIPTION pnmtofits reads a portable anymap as input and produces a FITS (Flexible Image Transport System) file as output. The resolution of the output file is either 8 bits/pixel, or 16 bits/pixel, depending on the value of maxval in the input file. If the input file is a portable bitmap or a portable graymap, the output file consists of a single plane image (NAXIS = 2 ). If instead the input file is a portable pixmap, the output file will consist of a three-plane image (NAXIS = 3 , NAXIS3 = 3). A full description of the FITS format can be found in Astronomy & Astrophysics Supplement Series 44 (1981), page 363. OPTIONS Flags –min and –max can be used to set DATAMAX , DATAMIN , BSCALE, and BZERO in the FITS header, but do not cause the data to be rescaled. SEE ALSO fitstopnm (1), pgm(5) ppmchange 401 SEE ALSO ppm(5) AUTHOR Copyright 1993 by David K. Drum. 2 November 1993 ppmbrighten k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 3 e 3 i 4 v Pre Page ppmbrighten —Change SYNOPSIS an image’s saturation and value from an HSV map ppmbrighten [-n] [-s <+- saturation>] [-v <+- value>] <ppmfile> DESCRIPTION reads a portable pixmap as input, converts the image from RGB space to HSV space, and changes the value by as a percentage; the same with the saturation. Use ppmbrighten <+- value> ppmbrighten -v 100 to add 100 percent to the value. The n option normalizes the value to exist between 0 and 1 (normalized). SEE ALSO pgmnorm (1), ppm (5) AUTHOR Copyright 1990 by Brian Moffet. Copyright 1989 by Jef Poskanzer. Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above copyright notice appear in all copies and that both that copyright notice and this permission notice appear in supporting documentation. This software is provided “as is” without express or implied warranty. NOTES This program does not change the number of colors. 20 November 1990 ppmchange ppmchange —Change all pixels of one color to another in a portable pixmap SYNOPSIS ppmchange oldcolor newcolor [...] [ppmfile] DESCRIPTION reads a portable pixmap as input and changes all pixels of oldcolor to newcolor, leaving all others unchanged. Up to 256 colors may be replaced by specifying couples of colors on the command line. ppmchange Part I: User Commands 406 -ice level -inclination |-tilt angle -mesh size -night Sets the extent of the polar ice caps to the given floating-point level . The default level of 0.4 produces ice caps similar to those of the Earth. Smaller values reduce the amount of ice, while larger -ice settings create more prominent ice caps. Sufficiently large values, such as 100 or more, in conjunction with small settings for -glaciers (try 0.1) create “ice balls” like Europa. The inclination angle of the planet with regard to its primary star is set to angle , which can be any floating-point value from -90 to 90. The inclination angle can be thought of as specifying, in degrees, the “season” the planet is presently experiencing or, more precisely, the latitude at which the star transits the zenith at local noon. If 0, the planet is at equinox; the star is directly overhead at the equator. Positive values represent summer in the northern hemisphere, negative values summer in the southern hemisphere. The Earth’s inclination angle, for example, is about 23.5 at the June solstice, 0 at the equinoxes in March and September, and -23.5 at the December solstice. If no inclination angle is specified, a random value between -21.6 and 21.6 degrees is chosen. A mesh of size by size will be used for the fast Fourier transform (FFT). Note that memory requirements and computation speed increase as the square of size ; if you double the mesh size, the program will use four times the memory and run four times as long. The default mesh is 256x256 , which produces reasonably good looking pictures while using half a megabyte for the 256x256 array of single precision complex numbers required by the FFT. On machines with limited memory capacity, you may have to reduce the mesh size to avoid running out of RAM. Increasing the mesh size produces better looking pictures; the difference becomes particularly noticeable when generating high-resolution images with relatively high fractal dimensions (between 2.2 and 3). A starry sky is generated. The stars are created by the same algorithm used for the stars that surround planet pictures, but the output consists exclusively of stars. Sets the power factor used to scale elevations synthesized from the FFT to factor , which can be any floating-point number greater than zero. If no factor is specified, a default of 1.2 is used if a planet is being generated, or 0.75 if clouds are selected by the -clouds option. The result of the FFT image synthesis is an array of elevation values between 0 and 1. A nonunity power factor exponentiates each of these elevations to the specified power. For example, a power factor of 2 squares each value, while a power factor of 0.5 replaces each with its square root. (Note that exponentiating values between 0 and 1 yields values that remain within that range.) Power factors less than 1 emphasize large-scale elevation changes at the expense of small variations. Power factors greater than 1 increase the roughness of the terrain and, like high fractal dimensions, may require a larger FFT mesh size or higher screen resolution to look good. Controls the degree of color saturation of the stars that surround planet pictures and fill starry skies created with the -night option. The default value of 125 creates stars that resemble the sky as seen by the human eye from Earth’s surface. Stars are dim; only the brightest activate the cones in the human retina, causing color to be perceived. Higher values of sat approximate the appearance of stars from Earth orbit, where better dark adaptation, absence of sky glow, and the concentration of light from a given star onto a smaller area of the retina thanks to the lack of atmospheric turbulence enhances the perception of color. Values greater than 250 create “science fiction” skies that, while pretty, don’t occur in this universe. Thanks to the inverse square law combined with nature’s love of mediocrity, there are many, many dim stars for every bright one. This population relationship is accurately reflected in the skies created by ppmforge . Dim, low mass stars live much longer than bright, massive stars; consequently there are many reddish stars for every blue giant. This relationship is preserved by ppmforge . You can reverse the proportion, simulating the sky as seen in a starburst galaxy, by specifying a negative sat value. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 8 e 3 i 4 v Pre Page -power factor -saturation sat Part I: User Commands 416 Usenet: Fax: Voice: [email protected] 038/33 88 15 038/33 76 33 Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software and its documentation for any purpose and without fee is hereby granted, without any conditions or restrictions. This software is provided “as is” without express or implied warranty. AutoCAD and Autodesk are registered trademarks of Autodesk, Inc. 10 October 1991 k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 8 e 4 i 4 v Pre Page ppmtobmp ppmtobmp —Convert SYNOPSIS a portable pixmap into a BMP file ppmtobmp [–windows][–os2][ppmfile] DESCRIPTION ppmtobmp reads a portable pixmap as input and produces a Microsoft Windows or OS/2 BMP file as output. OPTIONS Tells the program to produce a Microsoft Windows BMP file. Tells the program to produce an OS/2 BMP file. (This is the default.) –windows –os2 All flags can be abbreviated to their shortest unique prefix. SEE ALSO bmptoppm (1), ppm (5) AUTHOR Copyright 1992 by David W. Sanderson. 26 October 1992 ppmtogif ppmtogif —Convert a portable pixmap into a GIF file SYNOPSIS ppmtogif [-interlace][-sort][-map mapfile][-transparent color][ppmfile] DESCRIPTION ppmtogif reads a portable pixmap as input and produces a GIF file as output. OPTIONS -interlace -sort -map mapfile Tells the program to produce an interlaced GIF file. Produces a GIF file with a sorted colormap. Uses the colors found in the mapfile to create the colormap in the GIF file, instead of the colors from ppmfile. The mapfile can be any ppm file; all that matters is the colors in it. If the colors in ppmtopj 423 SEE ALSO picttoppm (1), ppm(5), mcvert(1) AUTHOR Copyright 1990 by Ken Yap ([email protected]). 15 April 1990 ppmtopj k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 5 e 5 i 4 v Pre Page ppmtopj —Convert SYNOPSIS a portable pixmap to an HP PaintJet file ppmtopj [-gamma val][-xpos val][-ypos val][-back dark|lite][-rle][-center] [-render none|snap|bw|dither|diffuse|monodither|monodiffuse|clusterdither| monoclusterdither][ppmfile] DESCRIPTION ppmtopj reads a portable pixmap as input and converts it into a format suitable to be printed by an HP PaintJet printer. For best results, the input file should be in 8-color RGB form; that is, it should have only the eight binary combinations of full-on and full-off primaries. You could get this by sending the input file through ppmquant -map with a mapfile such as P3 8 1 255 0 0 0 2550 0 02550 0 0 255 255 255 0 255 0 255 0 255 255 255 255 255 Or else you could use ppmdither -red 2 -green 2 -blue 2 . OPTIONS -rle -back -render alg -gamma int -center -xpos pos -ypos pos Run-length encode the image. (This can result in larger images.) Enhance the foreground by indicating if the background is light or dark compared to the foreground. Use an internal rendering algorithm (default dither). Gamma correct the image using the integer parameter as a gamma (default 0). Center the image to an 8.5 by 11 page. Move by pos pixels in the x direction. Move by pos pixels in the y direction. REFERENCES HP PaintJet XL Color Graphics Printer User’s Guide SEE ALSO pnmdepth (1), ppmquant (1), ppmdither(1), ppm(5) BUGS Most of the options have not been tested because of the price of the paper. AUTHOR Copyright 1991 by Christos Zoulas. 13 July 1991 pr 429 DESCRIPTION reads a portable pixmap as input and produces three raw files—basename.Y, basename.U , and basename.V—as output. These files are the subsampled raw YUV representation of the input pixmap, as required by the Stanford MPEG code. The subsampling is done by arithmetic mean of 4 pixels colors into one. The YUV values are scaled according to CCIR.601, as assumed by MPEG. ppmtoyuvsplit SEE ALSO mpeg(1), ppm(5) AUTHOR k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 1 e 6 i 4 v Pre Page Copyright 1993 by Andre Beck ([email protected]). Based on ppmtoyuv.c . 9 September 1993 pr pr—Convert SYNOPSIS text files for printing pr [+PAGE] [–COLUMN] [–abcdfFmrtv] [–e[in-tab-char[in-tab-width]]] [–h header] [–i[out-tab-char[out-tab-width]]] [–l page-length] [–n[number-separator[digits]]] [–o left-margin] [–s[column-separator]] [–w page-width] [--help] [-- version] [file...] DESCRIPTION This manual page documents the GNU version of pr. pr prints on the standard output a paginated and optionally multicolumn copy of the text files given on the command line, or of the standard input if no files are given or when the filename – is encountered. Form feeds in the input cause page breaks in the output. OPTIONS PAGE –COLUMN –a –b –c –d –e[in-tab-char [in-tab-width]] –F, –f –h header --help –i[out-tab-char [out-tab-width]] –l page-length –m Begin printing with page PAGE. Produce COLUMN-column output and print columns down. The column width is automatically decreased as COLUMN increases; unless you use the –w option to increase the page width as well, this option might cause some columns to be truncated. Print columns across rather than down. Balance columns on the last page. Print control characters using hat notation (for example, ˆG); print other unprintable characters in octal backslash notation. Double-space the output. Expand tabs to spaces on input. Optional argument in-tab-char is the input tab character, default tab. Optional argument in-tab-width is the input tab character’s width, default 8. Use a form feed instead of newlines to separate output pages. Replace the filename in the header with the string header. Print a usage message and exit with a nonzero status. Replace spaces with tabs on output. Optional argument out-tab-char is the output tab character, default tab. Optional argument out-tab-width is the output tab character’s width, default 8. Set the page length to page-length lines. The default is 66. If page-length is less than 10, the headers and footers are omitted, as if the –t option had been given. Print all files in parallel, one in each column. pr w h r n txx O[+|-]k1[,[+|-]k2[,...]] pids 431 Wide output: don’t truncate command lines to fit on one line. No header. Running procs only. Numeric output for USER and WCHAN . Only procs with controlling tty xx; use for xx the same letters as shown in the TT field. The tty name must be given immediately after the option, with no intervening space, for example, ps -tv1. Order the process listing according to the multilevel sort specified by the sequence of short keys from SORT KEYS , k1, k2, …. Default order specifications exist for each of the various formats of ps. These are overridden by a user-specified ordering. The + is quite optional, merely reiterating the default direction on a key. - reverses direction only on the key it precedes. As with t and pids, the O option must be the last option in a single command argument, but specifications in successive arguments are catenated. List only the specified processes; they are comma-delimited. The list must be given immediately after the last option in a single command-line argument, with no intervening space, for example, ps -j1,4,5 . Lists specified in subsequent arguments are catenated, for example, ps -l1,23,4 5 6 will list all of the processes 1-6 in long format. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 3 e 6 i 4 v Pre Page LONG COMMAND-LINE OPTIONS These options are preceded by a double hyphen. --sortX[+|-]key[, [+|-]key[,...]] Choose a multiletter key from the SORTKEYS section. X may be any convenient separator character. To be GNU-ish, use =. The + is really optional because default direction is increasing numerical or lexicographic order. Example: ps -jax –sort=uid,-ppid,+pid Get a help message that summarizes the usage and gives a list of supported sort keys. This list may be more up-to-date than this man page. --help SORT KEYS Note that the values used in sorting are the internal values ps uses and not the “cooked” values used in some of the output format fields. If someone wants to volunteer to write special comparison functions for the cooked values,…;-) Short Long Description c cmd C cmdline f flags g pgrp G tpgid j cutime J cstime k utime K stime m min_flt M maj_flt n cmin_flt N cmaj_flt o session p pid Simple name of executable Full command line Flags as in long format F field Process group ID Controlling tty process group ID Cumulative user time Cumulative system time User time System time Number of minor page faults Number of major page faults Cumulative minor page faults Cumulative major page faults Session ID Process ID continues ranlib 437 SEE ALSO ppm(5) AUTHOR Copyright 1989 by Jef Poskanzer. 25 August 1989 quota k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 9 e 6 i 4 v Pre Page quota—Display SYNOPSIS disk usage and limits quota [ -guv | q ] quota [ -uv | q ] user quota [ -gv | q ] group DESCRIPTION quota displays users’ disk usage and limits. By default, only the user quotas are printed. –g –v -q Print group quotas for the group of which the user is a member. The optional –u flag is equivalent to the default. Will display quotas on filesystems where no storage is allocated. Print a more terse message, containing only information on filesystems where usage is over quota. Specifying both –g and –u displays both the user quotas and the group quotas (for the user). Only the superuser may use the –u flag and the optional user argument to view the limits of other users. Non-superusers can use the –g flag and optional group argument to view only the limits of groups of which they are members. The –q flag takes precedence over the –v flag. reports the quotas of all the filesystems listed in /etc/fstab. For filesystems that are NFS-mounted, a call to the on the server machine is performed to get the information. If quota exits with a nonzero status, one or more filesystems are over quota. quota rpc.rquotad FILES quota.user Located at the filesystem root with user quotas quota.group Located at the filesystem root with group quotas /etc/fstab To find filesystem names and locations SEE ALSO quotactl (2), fstab (5), edquota (8), quotacheck (8), quotaon (8), repquota(8) 8 January 1993 ranlib ranlib—Generate index to archive SYNOPSIS ranlib [ –v|–V] archive rdist 451 IDENTIFICATION Author: Walter F. Tichy. Manual Page Revision: 5.6; Release Date: 1995/06/01. Copyright 1982, 1988, 1989 Walter F. Tichy. Copyright 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995 Paul Eggert. SEE ALSO ci(1), co(1), ident(1), merge(1), rcs(1), rcsdiff (1), rcsintro (1), rlog(1), rcsfile(5) “RCS—A System for Version Control” by Walter F. Tichy, Software–Practice 637–654. & Experience 15, 7 (July 1985), pages k u . o .c e l rdist a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 3 e 8 i 4 v Pre Page GNU, 1 June 1995 rdist—Remote file distribution program SYNOPSIS rdist [-nqbRhivwy] [-f distfile] [-d var=value] [-m host] [name ...] rdist [-nqbRhivwy] -c name ... [[email protected]:dest] DESCRIPTION is a program to maintain identical copies of files over multiple hosts. It preserves the owner, group, mode, and mtime of files if possible and can update programs that are executing. rdist reads commands from distfile to direct the updating of files and/or directories. rdist Options specific to the first SYNOPSIS form: -f distfile If distfile is -, the standard input is used. Use the specified distfile . If either the -f or - option is not specified, the program looks first for distfile, then Distfile to use as the input. If no names are specified on the command line, rdist will update all of the files and directories listed in distfile . Otherwise, the argument is taken to be the name of a file to be updated or the label of a command to execute. If label and filenames conflict, it is assumed to be a label. These may be used together to update specific files using specific commands. Options specific to the second SYNOPSIS form: -c Forces rdist to interpret the remaining arguments as a small distfile. The equivalent distfile is as follows: name ... -¿ [email protected] host install dest ; Options common to both forms: -b -d var=value -h -i -m host Binary comparison. Perform a binary comparison and update files if they differ rather than comparing dates and sizes. Define var to have value . The -d option is used to define or override variable definitions in the distfile. value can be the empty string, one name, or a list of names surrounded by parentheses and separated by tabs and/or spaces. Follow symbolic links. Copy the file that the link points to rather than the link itself. Ignore unresolved links. rdist will normally try to maintain the link structure of files being transferred and warn the user if all the links cannot be found. Limit which machines are to be updated. Multiple -m arguments can be given to limit updates to a subset of the hosts listed in the distfile. Part I: User Commands 456 NOTES You might want to generate a tags file for the directory that contains the source code for standard C library on your system. If licensing restrictions prevent you from making the library source readable by everybody, then you can have ctags generate a refs file, and make refs readable by everybody. If your system doesn’t come with the library source code, then perhaps you can produce something workable from the lint libraries. SEE ALSO elvis(1), ctags(1) AUTHOR k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 8 e 8 i 4 v Pre Page Steve Kirkendall ([email protected]) reset reset—Reset SYNOPSIS clear DESCRIPTION the terminal reset calls tput(1) with the clear, rmacs, rmm, rmul, rs1, rs2, and rs3 arguments. This causes tput to send appropriate reset strings to the terminal based on information in /etc/termcap (for the GNU or BSD tput) or in the terminfo database (for the ncurses tput). This sequence seems to be sufficient to reset the Linux VC’s when they start printing “funnylooking” characters. For good measure, stty(1) is called with the sane argument in an attempt to get Cooked mode back. SEE ALSO reset(1), stty(1), tput(1) AUTHOR Rik Faith ( [email protected]) Linux 0.99, 10 October 1993 resize resize—Set TERMCAP and terminal settings to current xterm window size SYNOPSIS resize [ -u | -c ][-s [ row col ]] DESCRIPTION resize prints a shell command for setting the TERM and TERMCAP environment variables to indicate the current size of xterm window from which the command is run. For this output to take effect, resize must either be evaluated as part of the command line (usually done with a shell alias or function) or else redirected to a file that can then be read in. From the C shell (usually known as /bin/csh), the following alias could be defined in the user’s .cshrc: % alias rs ‘set noglob; eval ‘resize’’ After resizing the window, the user would type: %rs Part I: User Commands 458 SYNOPSIS rgb3toppmredpgmfile greenpgmfile bluepgmfile DESCRIPTION rgb3toppm reads three portable graymaps as input and combines them and produces one portable pixmap as output. SEE ALSO ppmtorgb3(1), pgmtoppm(1), ppmtopgm(1), ppm(5), pgm(5) AUTHOR k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 0 e 9 i 4 v Pre Page Copyright 1991 by Jef Poskanzer. 15 February 1990 rlog rlog—Print SYNOPSIS log messages and other information about RCS files rlog [ options ] file ... DESCRIPTION rlog prints information about RCS files. Pathnames matching an RCS suffix denote RCS files; all others denote working files. Names are paired as explained in ci(1). prints the following information for each RCS file: RCS pathname, working pathname, head (the number of the latest revision on the trunk), default branch, access list, locks, symbolic names, suffix, total number of revisions, number of revisions selected for printing, and descriptive text. This is followed by entries for the selected revisions in reverse chronological order for each branch. For each revision, rlog prints revision number, author, date/time, state, number of lines added/ deleted (with respect to the previous revision), locker of the revision (if any), and log message. All times are displayed in Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) by default; this can be overridden with -z. Without options, rlog prints complete information. The options below restrict this output. rlog -L -R -h -t -N -b -ddates -l[lockers] Ignore RCS files that have no locks set. This is convenient in combination with -h, -l, and -R. Print only the name of the RCS file. This is convenient for translating a working pathname into an RCS pathname. Print only the RCS pathname, working pathname, head, default branch, access list, locks, symbolic names, and suffix. Print the same as -h, plus the descriptive text. Do not print the symbolic names. Print information about the revisions on the default branch, normally the highest branch on the trunk. Print information about revisions with a checkin date/time in the ranges given by the semicolon-separated list of dates. A range of the form d1<d2 or d2>d1 selects the revisions that were deposited between d1 and d2 exclusive. A range of the form <d or d> selects all revisions earlier than d. A range of the form d< or >d selects all revisions dated later than d. If < or > is followed by =, then the ranges are inclusive, not exclusive. A range of the form d selects the single, latest revision dated d or earlier. The date/time strings d, d1, and d2 are in the free format explained in co(1). Quoting is normally necessary, especially for < and >. Note that the separator is a semicolon. Print information about locked revisions only. In addition, if the comma-separated list lockers of login names is given, ignore all locks other than those held by the lockers. For example, rlog -L -R -lwft RCS/* prints the name of RCS files locked by the user wft. Part I: User Commands 460 IDENTIFICATION Author: Walter F. Tichy Manual Page Revision: 5.9; Release Date: 1995/06/16 Copyright 1982, 1988, 1989 Walter F. Tichy Copyright 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994, 1995 Paul Eggert SEE ALSO ci(1), co(1), ident(1), rcs(1), rcsdiff(1), rcsintro(1), rcsmerge(1), rcsfile(5) “RCS-A System for Version Control” by Walter F. Tichy, Software-Practice & Experience 15, 7 (July 1985), pages 637–654. BUGS k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 2 e 9 i 4 v Pre Page The separator for revision ranges in the -r option used to be - instead of :, but this leads to confusion when symbolic names contain -. For backwards compatibility, rlog -r still supports the old - separator, but it warns about this obsolete use. GNU, 16 June 1995 rlogin rlogin—Remote SYNOPSIS login rlogin [-8EKLdx] [-e char] [-k realm] [-l username] host DESCRIPTION rlogin starts a terminal session on a remote host host. rlogin first attempts to use the Kerberos authorization mechanism, described in the following subsection. If the remote host does not support Kerberos, the standard Berkeley authorization mechanism is used. The options are as follows: -8 -E -K -L -d -e -k -x The -8 option allows an eight-bit input data path at all times; otherwise, parity bits are stripped except when the remote side’s stop and start characters are other than ˆS/ˆQ. The -E option stops any character from being recognized as an escape character. When used with the -8 option, this provides a completely transparent connection. The -K option turns off all Kerberos authentication. The -L option allows the rlogin session to be run in litout mode.(See tty(4) for details). The -d option turns on socket debugging (see the setsockopt(2) man page) on the TCP sockets used for communication with the remote host. The -e option allows user specification of the escape character, which is the tilde (˜) by default. This specification may be as a literal character, or as an octal value in the form nnnn. The -k option requests rlogin to obtain tickets for the remote host in realm realm instead of the remote host’s realm as determined by krb_realmofhost(3). The -x option turns on DES encryption for all data passed via the rlogin session. This may impact response time and CPU utilization, but provides increased security. A line of the form <escape char> disconnects from the remote host. Similarly, the line <escape char>ˆZ will suspend the rlogin session, and <escape char><delayed-suspend char> suspends the send portion of the rlogin, but allows output from the remote system. By default, the tilde (˜) character is the escape character, and normally control -Y (ˆY) is the delayed-suspend character. All echoing takes place at the remote site, so that (except for delays) the rlogin is transparent. Flow control via ˆS/ˆQ and flushing of input and output on interrupts is handled properly. Part I: User Commands 462 -f, --force Ignore nonexistent files and never prompt the user. Prompt whether to remove each file. If the response does not begin with y or Y, the file is skipped. Remove the contents of directories recursively. Print the name of each file before removing it. Print a usage message on standard output and exit successfully. Print version information on standard output, then exit successfully. -i, --interactive -r, -R, --recursive -v, --verbose --help --version GNU File Utilities rmdir k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 4 e 9 i 4 v Pre Page rmdir—Remove empty SYNOPSIS directories rmdir [-p] [--parents] [--help] [--version] dir... DESCRIPTION This manual page documents the GNU version of rmdir. rmdir removes each given empty directory. If any nonoption argument does not refer to an existing empty directory, it is an error. OPTIONS -p, --parents --help --version Remove any parent directories that are explicitly mentioned in an argument, if they become empty after the argument file is removed. Print a usage message on standard output and exit successfully. Print version information on standard output, then exit successfully. GNU File Utilities rmmod rmmod—Unload loadable modules SYNOPSIS rmmod [ -r ] module ... DESCRIPTION rmmod unloads loadable modules from the kernel. tries to unload a set of modules from the kernel, with the restriction that they are not in use and that they are not referred to by other modules. rmmod If more than one module is named on the command line, the modules will be removed in the given order. This supports unloading of stacked modules. With the option -r, a recursive removal of modules will be attempted. This means that if a top module in a stack is named on the command line, all modules that are used by this module will be removed as well, if possible. SEE ALSO insmod(1), lsmod(1), ksyms(1), modules(2) Part I: User Commands 464 HISTORY Written by Rich $alz ([email protected]) for InterNetNews. SEE ALSO innd(8). rpcgen rpcgen—An SYNOPSIS rpcgen rpcgen rpcgen rpcgen rpcgen RPC protocol compiler k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 6 e 9 i 4 v Pre Page infile [-D name[= value]] [-T] [-K secs] infile -c|-h|-l|-m|-t [-o outfile] infile [-I] -s nettype [-o outfile] infile -n netid [-o outfile] infile DESCRIPTION rpcgen is a tool that generates C code to implement an RPC protocol. The input to rpcgen is a language similar to C known as RPC language (Remote Procedure Call Language). rpcgen is normally used as in the first synopsis where it takes an input file and generates up to four output files. If the infile is named proto.x, then rpcgen will generate a header file in proto.h, xdr routines in proto_xdr.c, server-side stubs in proto_svc.c, and client-side stubs in proto_clnt.c. With the -T option, it will also generate the RPC dispatch table in proto_tbl.i. With the -Sc option, it will also generate sample code that would illustrate how to use the remote procedures on the client side. This code would be created in proto_client.c. With the -Ss option, it will also generate a sample server code that would illustrate how to write the remote procedures. This code would be created in proto_server.c. The server created can be started both by the port monitors (for example, inetd or listen) or by itself. When it is started by a port monitor, it creates servers only for the transport for which the file descriptor 0 was passed. The name of the transport must be specified by setting up the environmental variable PM_TRANSPORT. When the server generated by rpcgen is executed, it creates server handles for all the transports specified in NETPATH environment variable, or if it is unset, it creates server handles for all the visible transports from /etc/netconfig file. Note: the transports are chosen at runtime and not at compile time. When the server is self-started, it backgrounds itself by default. A special define symbol RPC_SVC_FG can be used to run the server process in the foreground. The second synopsis provides special features that allow for the creation of more sophisticated RPC servers. These features include support for userprovided #defines and RPC dispatch tables. The entries in the RPC dispatch table contain ■ ■ ■ Pointers to the service routine corresponding to that procedure A pointer to the input and output arguments The size of these routines A server can use the dispatch table to check authorization and then to execute the service routine; a client library may use it to deal with the details of storage management and xdr data conversion. The other three synopses shown in the preceding paragraph are used when one does not want to generate all the output files, but only a particular one. (Some examples of their usage is described in the “Example” subsection.) When rpcgen is executed with the -s option, it creates servers for that particular class of transports. When executed with the -n option, it creates a server for the transport specified by netid. If infile is not specified, rpcgen accepts the standard input. The C preprocessor, cc -E (see cc(1) for details), is run on the input file before it is actually interpreted by rpcgen. For each type of output file, rpcgen defines a special preprocessor symbol for use by the rpcgen programmer, as follows: Part I: User Commands 470 Any commands run are provided a few useful pieces of information in environment variables. The exact names are configurable, but the supplied defaults are The name of the context The global contexts directory The local contexts directory The global generic commands directory The local generic commands directory $RSTART_CONTEXT $RSTART_GLOBAL_CONTEXTS $RSTART_LOCAL_CONTEXTS $RSTART_GLOBAL_COMMANDS $RSTART_LOCAL_COMMANDS should contain one special file, @List, which contains a list of the contexts in that directory in the format specified for ListContexts. The supplied version of ListContexts will cat both the global and local copies of @List. $RSTART_{GLOBAL,LOCAL}_CONTEXTS k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 2 e 0 i 5 v Pre Page Generic commands are searched for in several places: (defaults) Per-user per-context directory $HOME/.rstart.commands/<context> Global per-context directory <XRoot>/lib/X11/rstart/commands/<context> Per-user all-contexts directory $HOME/.rstart.commands Global all-contexts directory (<XRoot>/lib/X11/rstart/commands) (Yes, this means you can’t have an all-contexts generic command with the same name as a context. It didn’t seem like a big deal.) Each of these directories should have a file called @List that gives the names and descriptions of the commands in that directory in the format specified for ListGenericCommands. CONFIGURATION KEYWORDS There are several special rstart keywords defined for rstartd configuration. Unless otherwise specified, there are no defaults; related features are disabled in this case. Internal-Registries name...—Gives a space-separated list of MISC registries that this system understands. (Registries other than these are accepted but generate a warning.) Internal-Local-Default relative_filename—Gives the name ($HOME INTERNAL-GLOBAL-CONTEXTS absolute_directory_name—Gives INTERNAL-LOCAL-CONTEXTS relative_directory_name—Gives of the per-user config file. the name ($HOME relative) of the per-user contexts directory. INTERNAL-GLOBAL-COMMANDS absolute_directory_name—Gives INTERNAL-LOCAL-COMMANDS relative_directory_name—Gives relative) the name of the system-wide contexts directory. the name of the system-wide generic commands directory. the name ($HOME relative) of the per-user generic com- mands directory. INTERNAL-VARIABLE-PREFIX prefix—Gives the prefix for the configuration environment variables rstartd passes to its kids. INTERNAL-AUTH-PROGRAM authscheme program argv[0] argv[1]...—Specifies the tion for the specified authentication scheme. program form as the EXEC keyword. argv[0] ... program to run to set up authenticagives the program to run and its arguments, in the same INTERNAL-AUTH-INPUT authscheme—Specifies the data to be given to the authorization program as its standard input. Each argument is passed as a single line. $n, where n is a number, is replaced by the nth argument to the AUTH authscheme arg1 arg2 ... line. INTERNAL-PRINT arbitrary text—Prints used to debug config files. its arguments as a Debug message. Mostly for rstartd debugging, but could be Part I: User Commands 478 GROUPING COMMANDS Braces ({, }) can be used to nest one address within another or to apply multiple commands to the same address: [address][,address]{ command 1 command 2 ... } The opening { must end a line and the closing } must be on a line by itself. COMMANDS The maximum number of permissible addresses for each command is indicated in parentheses in the following list. An argument denoted text consists of one or more lines of text. If text is longer than one line in length, then any newline characters must be hidden by preceding them with a backslash (\). k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 0 e 1 i 5 v Pre Page An argument denoted read-filename or write-filename must terminate the command line and must be preceded by exactly one space. Each write-filename is created before processing begins. (0) (0) #comment (0) : label (1) = (1)a\text (2) b label (2) c\text (2) d (2) D (2) g (2) G (2) h (2) H (1) i\text (2) l An empty command is ignored. The line is a comment and is ignored by sed. If, however, the first such line in a script is of the form #n, then sed behaves as if the -n flag had been specified. Affix label to a line in the script for a transfer of control by b or t commands. Write the current line number on the standard output as a line. Append text following each line matched by the address on the standard output before reading the next input line. Unconditionally transfer control to the : command bearing the label. If no label is specified, then branch to the end of the script; no more commands are executed on the current pattern space. Change the pattern space by replacing the selected pattern with text. When multiple lines are specified, all lines in the pattern space are replaced with a single copy of text. The end result is that the pattern space is deleted and no further editing commands can be applied to it. Delete the pattern space, preventing the line from being passed to the standard output, and start the next cycle. Delete the initial segment of the pattern space through the first newline and start the next cycle. Replace the contents of the pattern space by the contents of the hold space. Append a newline character followed by the contents of the hold space to the pattern space. Replace the contents of the hold space by the contents of the pattern space. Append a newline character followed by the contents of the pattern space to the hold space. Insert text by writing it to the standard output. Write the pattern space to standard output in a visually unambiguous form. Nonprinting characters are displayed as either three-digit octal values, preceded by a \, or as one of the following character constant escape sequences: \\ Backslash \a Alert \b Backspace \f Form-feed \n Newline \r Carriage-return \t Tab \v Vertical tab sed (2) n (2) N (2) p (2) P (1) q 479 Long lines are folded, with the point of folding indicated by a backslash (\) and a newline character. The end of every line is marked with a $. Copy the pattern space to the standard output. Replace the pattern space with the next line of input. Append the next line of input to the pattern space with an embedded newline. (The current line number changes.) Print the pattern space to the standard output. Copy the initial segment of the pattern space through the first newline to the standard output. Quit by transferring control to the end of the script and do not start a new cycle. The pattern space is still written to the standard output. Read the contents of read-filename. Place them on the output before reading the next input line. Substitute the replacement string for instances of the regular expression in the pattern space. Any character may be used instead of /. (For a fuller description, see the explanation of replacement patterns in the “Regular Expressions” section of this manual page.) flags is zero or more of: n Substitute for just the nth occurrence of the regular expression. g Globally substitute for all nonoverlapping instances of the regular expression rather than just the first one. p Print the pattern space if a replacement was made. Append the pattern space to write-filename if a replacement was made. Branch to the : command bearing the label if any substitutions have been made since the most recent reading of an input line or execution of a t. If label is empty, branch to the end of the script. Append the pattern space to write-filename. Exchange the contents of the pattern and hold spaces. Replace all occurrences of characters in string1 with the corresponding character in string2. The lengths of string1 and string2 must be equal. Any character other than ‘’ or newline can be used instead of slash to delimit the strings. Within string1 and string2, the delimiter itself can be used as a literal character if it is preceded by a backslash. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 1 e 1 i 5 v Pre Page (2) r read-filename (2) s/regularexpression/ replacement/flags w write-filename (2) t label (2) w write-filename (2) x (2) y/string1/string2/ DIAGNOSTICS Command only uses one address—A command that takes one address had two addresses specified. command that takes no addresses had an address specified. Extra characters after command—A command had extra text after the end. Unexpected End-of-file—The end of a script was reached before it should have been. This usually occurs when a command is started, but not finished. No previous regular expression—A metacharacter calling for a previous regular expression before any regular expressions were used. Missing command—An address was not followed by a command. Unknown command—A command was not one of the ones recognized by sed. Unexpected ‘,’—A command had a spurious comma after an address. Multiple ‘!’s—More than one ! (exclamation point) was used in a command. Unexpected g—A g character was given in a command without a preceding f. Unexpected f—An f character was given in a command without a following g. } doesn’t want any addresses—} should be alone on a line. Command doesn’t take any addresses—A Part I: User Commands 480 : doesn’t want any addresses—The : command should not be preceded by an address. replacement field of the s command should be completed with a / character. Multiple p options to s command —The p option was given more than once in an s command. Multiple g options to s command—The g option was given more than once in an s command. Multiple number options to s command—More than one number option was given to an s command. Unknown option to s—An unknown option was used for the s command. Maybe you shouldn’t do that. Strings for y command are different lengths—There should be a one-to-one mapping between strings for the y command. Missing ‘ ‘ before filename—There was no space between an r, w, or s///w command, and the filename specified for that command. Hopelessly evil compiled in limit on number of open file. re-compile sed.—An attempt was made to open too many files, no matter how you look at it. Unterminated s command—The SEE ALSO k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 2 e 1 i 5 v Pre Page awk(1), ed(1), grep(1), perl(1), regex(3) HISTORY A sed command appeared in version 7 AT&T UNIX. STANDARDS GNU sed is expected to be a superset of the IEEE Std1003.2 (POSIX) specification. CAVEATS GNU sed uses the POSIX basic regular expression syntax. According to the standard, the meaning of some escape sequences is undefined in this syntax; notably \| and \+. As in all GNU programs that use POSIX basic regular expressions, sed interprets these escape sequences as metacharacters. So, x\+ matches one or more occurrences of x. abc\|def matches either abc or def. This syntax may cause problems when running scripts written for other versions of sed. Some sed programs have been written with the assumption that \| and \+ match the literal characters | and +. Such scripts must be modified by removing the spurious backslashes if they are to be used with GNU sed. BUGS It has long been noted that GNU sed is much slower than other implementations. The current bottleneck is the way sed reads and writes data files. It should read large blocks at a time (or even map files, where that is supported). When possible, it should avoid copying its input from one place in memory to another. Patches to make it do those things are welcome! Version 2.05, December 1994 sessreg sessreg—Manage utmp/wtmp entries for non-init clients SYNOPSIS sessreg [-w wtmp-file] [-u utmp-file] [-l line-name] [-h host-name] [-s slot-number] [-x Xservers-file] [-t ttys-file] [-a] [-d] user-name DESCRIPTION sessreg is a simple program for managing utmp/wtmp entries for xdm sessions. Part I: User Commands 482 setterm setterm—Set terminal attributes SYNOPSIS setterm [ -term terminal name ] setterm [-reset ] setterm [ -initialize ] setterm [ -cursor [on|off] ] k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 4 e 1 i 5 v Pre Page setterm [ -keyboard pc|olivetti|dutch|extended ] setterm [ -repeat [on|off] ] setterm [ -appcursorkeys [on|off] ] setterm [ -linewrap [on|off] ] setterm [ -snow [on|off] ] setterm [ -softscroll [on|off] ] setterm [ -defaults ] setterm [ -foreground black|red|green|yellow|blue|magenta|cyan|white|default ] setterm [ -background black|red|green|yellow|blue|magenta|cyan|white|default ] setterm [ -ulcolor black|grey|red|green|yellow|blue|magenta|cyan|white ] setterm [ -ulcolor bright red|green|yellow|blue|magenta|cyan|white ] setterm [ -hbcolor black|grey|red|green|yellow|blue|magenta|cyan|white ] setterm [ -hbcolor bright red|green|yellow|blue|magenta|cyan|white ] setterm [ -inversescreen [on|off] ] setterm [ -bold [on|off] ] setterm [ -half-bright [on|off] ] setterm [ -blink [on|off] ] setterm [ -reverse [on|off] ] setterm [ -underline [on|off] ] setterm [ -store ] setterm [ -clear [ all|rest ] ] setterm [ -tabs [tab1 tab2 tab3 ... ] ] where (tabn = 1-160) setterm [ -clrtabs [ tab1 tab2 tab3 ... ] where (tabn = 1-160) Part I: User Commands 484 OPTIONS -verbose Give some information about the SGI image file BUGS Probably REFERENCES SGI Image File Format documentation (draft v0.95) by Paul Haeberli ([email protected]). Available via ftp at sgi.com:graphics/SGIIMAGESPEC. SEE ALSO k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 6 e 1 i 5 v Pre Page pnm(5), pnmtosgi(1) AUTHOR Copyright 1994 by Ingo Wilken ([email protected]). 29 January 1994 shar shar—Create SYNOPSIS shell archives shar [ options ] file ... shar -S [ options ] DESCRIPTION shar creates shell archives (or shar files) that are in text format and can be mailed. These files may be unpacked later by executing them with /bin/sh. The resulting archive is sent to standard out unless the -o option is given. A wide range of features provide extensive flexibility in manufacturing shars and in specifying shar “smartness.” Archives may be “vanilla” or comprehensive. This manual page reflects shar version 4.0. OPTIONS Options have a one-letter version starting with - or a long version starting with --. The exceptions are --help and -which do not have short versions. Options can be given in any order. Some options depend on each other: The -o option is required if the -l or -L option is used. version, The -n option is required if the -a option is used. See -V in the following list. These are the available options: --version --help -V, --vanilla-operation Print the version number of the program on standard output, then immediately exit. Print a help summary on standard output, then immediately exit. Produce vanilla shars that rely only upon the existence of sed and echo in the unsharing environment. In addition, if test must also be supported if the -X option is used. The -V silently disables options offensive to the network cop (or brown shirt), but does warn you if it is specified with -B, z, -Z, -p, or -M (any of which does or might require uudecode, gzip or compress in the unsharing environment). Part I: User Commands 488 showrgb showrgb—Uncompile an RGB colorname database SYNOPSIS showrgb [ database ] DESCRIPTION The showrgb program reads an RGB colorname database compiled for use with the dbm database routines and converts it back to source form, printing the result to standard output. The default database is the one that X was built with, and may be overridden on the command line. Specify the database name without the .pag or .dir suffix. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 shrinkfile 5 m 1 o r f f o w 0 e 2 i 5 v Pre Page FILES <XRoot>/lib/X11/rgb Default database X Version 11 Release 6 shrinkfile—Shrink a file on a line boundary SYNOPSIS shrinkfile [ -s size ][-v ] file... DESCRIPTION The shrinkfile program shrinks files to a given size, preserving the data at the end of the file. Truncation is performed on line boundaries, where a line is a series of bytes ending with a newline, \n. There is no line length restriction and files may contain any binary data. Temporary files are created in the /tmp directory. The TMPDIR environment variable may be used to specify a different directory. A newline will be added to any nonempty file that does not end with a newline. The maximum file size will not be exceeded by this addition. By default, files are truncated to zero bytes. The -s flag may be used to change the maximum size. Because the program truncates only on line boundaries, the final size may be may be smaller then the specified maximum. The size parameter may end with a k, m, or g, indicating kilobyte (1024), megabyte (1048576) or gigabyte (1073741824) lengths. Uppercase letters are also allowed. The maximum file size is 2147483647 bytes. If the -v flag is used, then shrinkfile will print a status line if a file was shrunk. HISTORY Written by Landon Curt Noll ([email protected]) and Rich $alz ([email protected]) for InterNetNews. sirtopnm sirtopnm—Convert SYNOPSIS sirtopnm [sirfile] a Solitaire file into a portable anymap sort -b -d -f -i -M -n -r 493 Ignore leading blanks when finding sort keys in each line. Sort in phone directory order; ignore all characters except letters, digits, and blanks when sorting. Fold lowercase characters into the equivalent uppercase characters when sorting so that, for example, b is sorted the same way B is. Ignore characters outside the ASCII range 040–0176 octal (inclusive) when sorting. An initial string, consisting of any amount of whitespace, followed by three letters abbreviating a month name, is folded to uppercase and compared in the order ‘JAN’ < ‘FEB’ < ... < ‘DEC’. Invalid names compare low to valid names. Compare according to arithmetic value an initial numeric string consisting of optional whitespace, an optional sign, and zero or more digits, optionally followed by a decimal point and zero or more digits. Reverse the result of comparison, so that lines with greater key values appear earlier in the output instead of later. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 5 e 2 i 5 v Pre Page Other options are -o output-file -t separator -u +POS1 [-POS2] -k POS1[,POS2] Write output to output-file instead of to the standard output. If output-file is one of the input files, sort copies it to a temporary file before sorting and writing the output to output-file. Use character separator as the field separator when finding the sort keys in each line. By default, fields are separated by the empty string between a nonwhitespace character and a whitespace character. That is to say, given the input line foo bar, sort breaks it into fields foo and bar. The field separator is not considered to be part of either the field preceding or the field following it. For the default case or the -m option, only output the first of a sequence of lines that compare equal. For the -c option, check that no pair of consecutive lines compares equal. Specify a field within each line to use as a sorting key. The field consists of the portion of the line starting at POS1 and up to (but not including) POS2 (or to the end of the line if POS2 is not given). The fields and character positions are numbered starting with 0. An alternate syntax for specifying sorting keys. The fields and character positions are numbered starting with 1. A position has the form f.c, where f is the number of the field to use and c is the number of the first character from the beginning of the field (for +pos) or from the end of the previous field (for -pos). The .c part of a position may be omitted, in which case it is taken to be the first character in the field. If the -b option has been given, the .c part of a field specification is counted from the first nonblank character of the field (for +pos) or from the first nonblank character following the previous field (for -pos). A +pos or -pos argument may also have any of the option letters Mbdfinr appended to it, in which case the global ordering options are not used for that particular field. The -b option may be independently attached to either or both of the +pos and -pos parts of a field specification, and if it is inherited from the global options, it will be attached to both. If a -n or -M option is used, thus implying a -b option, the -b option is taken to apply to both the +pos and the -pos parts of a key specification. Keys may span multiple fields. In addition, when GNU join is invoked with exactly one argument, the following options are recognized: --help --version Print a usage message on standard output and exit successfully Print version information on standard output, then exit successfully COMPATIBILITY Historical (BSD and System V) implementations of sort have differed in their interpretation of some options, particularly -b, -f, and -n. GNU sort follows the POSIX behavior, which is usually (but not always) like the System V behavior. According to POSIX, -n no longer implies -b. For consistency, -M has been changed in the same way. This may affect the meaning of character positions in field specifications in obscure cases. If this bites you, the fix is to add an explicit -b. BUGS The different meaning of field numbers depending on whether -k is used is confusing. It’s all POSIX’s fault! GNU Text Utilities sputoppm 495 Print a usage message and exit with a non-zero status. Print version information on standard output then exit. --help --version GNU Text Utilities spottopgm spottopgm—Convert SPOT satellite images to portable graymap format SYNTAX k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 7 e 2 i 5 v Pre Page spottopgm [-1|2|3] [Firstcol Firstline Lastcol Lastline] inputfile OPTIONS -1|2|3 Firstcol Firstline Lastcol Lastline Extract the given color from the SPOT image. The colors are infrared, visible light, and ultra-violet, although I don’t know which corresponds to which number. If the image is in color, this will be announced on standard error. The default color is 1. Extract the specified rectangle from the SPOT image. Most SPOT images are 3,000 lines long and 3,000 or more columns wide. Unfortunately, the SPOT format only gives the width and not the length. The width is printed on standard error. The default rectangle is the width of the input image by 3,000 lines. DESCRIPTION spottopgm converts the named inputfile into portable graymap format, defaulting to the first color and the whole SPOT image unless specified by the options. INSTALLATION You must edit the source program and either define BIGENDIAN or LITTLEENDIAN, and fix the typedefs for uint32t, uint16t, and uint8t appropriately. BUGS Currently, spottopgm doesn’t determine the length of the input file; this would involve two passes over the input file. It defaults to 3,000 lines instead. spottopgm could extract a three-color image (ppm), but I didn’t feel like making the program more complicated than it is now. Besides, there is no one-to-one correspondence between red, green, blue, and infra-red, visible, and ultra-violet. I’ve had only a limited number of SPOT images to play with, and therefore wouldn’t guarantee that this will work on any other images. AUTHOR Warren Toomey ([email protected]) SEE ALSO The rest of the pbmplus suite. sputoppm sputoppm—Convert an Atari uncompressed Spectrum file into a portable pixmap Part I: User Commands 500 subst subst—Substitute definitions into file(s) SYNOPSIS subst [ -e editor ] -f substitutions victim ... DESCRIPTION subst makes substitutions into files, in a way that is suitable for customizing software to local conditions. Each victim file is altered according to the contents of the substitutions file. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 2 e 3 i 5 v Pre Page The substitutions file contains one line per substitution. A line consists of two fields separated by one or more tabs. The first field is the name of the substitution, the second is the value. Neither should contain the character #, and use of texteditor metacharacters like & and \ is also unwise; the name in particular is best restricted to alphanumeric. A line starting with # is a comment and is ignored. In the victim files, each line on which a substitution is to be made (a target line) must be preceded by a prototype line. The prototype line should be delimited in such a way that it will be taken as a comment by whatever program processes the file later. The prototype line must contain a prototype of the target line bracketed by =()< and >()=; everything else on the prototype line is ignored. subst extracts the prototype, changes all instances of substitution names bracketed by @< and >@ to their values, and then replaces the target line with the result. Substitutions are done using the sed(1) editor, which must be found in either the /bin or /usr/bin directories. To specify a different executable, use the -e flag. EXAMPLE If the substitutions file is FIRST 111 SECOND 222 and the victim file is x =2; /* =()<y [email protected]<FIRST>@[email protected]<SECOND>@;>()= */ y =88 +99; z =5; then subst -f substitutions victim changes victim to x =2; /* =()<y [email protected]<FIRST>@[email protected]<SECOND>@;>()= */ y = 111 + 222; z =5; FILES victimdir/substtmp.new New version being built victimdir/substtmp.old Old version during renaming SEE ALSO sed(1) DIAGNOSTICS Complains and halts if it is unable to create its temporary files or if they already exist. tac 503 NOTE You may want to redirect stdout to a file when you run Terminals on the console). SuperProbe (especially if your OS does not support Virtual However, if you have any 8-bit cards installed, you should initially run SuperProbe as SuperProbe -verbose -no16 (the -verbose option is included so you can see what SuperProbe is skipping). k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 5 e 3 i 5 v Pre Page Finer granularity can be obtained with an exclusion list, for example, SuperProbe -verbose -excl 0x200,0x220-0x230,0x250 will not test for any device that uses port 0x200, ports 0x220 through 0x230, inclusive, or port 0x250. If you have any 8-bit cards installed, you should add -mask10 to the list of options. To restrict the search to Western Digital, Tseng, and Cirrus chipset, run SuperProbe as follows: SuperProbe -order WD,Tseng,Cirrus BUGS Probably a lot at this point. Please report any bugs or incorrect identifications to the author. It is possible that SuperProbe can lock up your machine. Be sure to narrow the search by using the -no16, -excl, and mask10 options provided to keep SuperProbe from conflicting with other installed hardware. SEE ALSO The vgadoc3.zip documentation package by Finn Thoegersen, available in the MS-DOS archives of many FTP repositories. Programmer’s Guide to the EGA and VGA Cards, Second Edition, by Richard Ferraro. AUTHOR David E. Wexelblat ([email protected]) with help from David Dawes ([email protected]) and the XFree86 development team. Version 2.2 tac tac—Concatenate and print files in reverse SYNOPSIS tac [-br] [-s separator] [--before] [--regex] [--separator=separator] [--help] [--version] [file...] DESCRIPTION This manual page documents the GNU version of tac. tac copies each given file, or the standard input if none are given or when a filename of - is encountered, to the standard output with the order of the records reversed. The records are separated by instances of a string, or a newline if none is given. By default, the separator string is attached to the end of the record that it follows in the file. Part I: User Commands 506 tcal tcal—Runs the gcal program with the date of tomorrow’s day SYNOPSIS tcal [ --help | --version ] | [ --shift=[+|-]number ][Argument... ] DESCRIPTION tcal is a program that runs gcal with a date set one day ahead (equivalent to the --shift=1 option). All given arguments are passed unmodified to the gcal program. If the gcal program shall be called with a date other than tomorrow’s date, this desired date can be selected by using the --shift=[+|-]number option, in which [+|-]number is the number of days the desired date is distant from the actual date. The --shift option must be given before all other arguments, which are passed to the gcal program. An exit status of 0 means all processing is successfully done; any other value means an error has occurred. OPTIONS --help --version k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 8 e 3 i 5 v Pre Page --shift=[+|-]number ENVIRONMENT GCALPROG Print a usage message listing all available options, then exit successfully. Print the version number, then exit successfully. Define the displacement in [+|-]number days the desired date is distant from the actual date. The GCALPROG environment variable contains the filename of the executable gcal program, which is used by tcal to call gcal. Takes precedence over the filename gcal, which is burned-in during the compilation step of tcal. COPYRIGHT Copyright 1995, 1996 by Thomas Esken. This software doesn’t claim completeness, correctness, or usability. On principle, I will not be liable for any damages or losses (implicit or explicit), which result from using or handling my software. If you use this software, you agree without any exception to this agreement, which binds you LEGALLY. is free software and distributed under the terms of the GNU General Public License; published by the Free Software Foundation; version 2 or (at your option) any later version. tcal Any suggestions, improvements, extensions, bug reports, donations, proposals for contract work, and so forth are welcome! If you like this tool, I’d appreciate a postcard from you! Enjoy it =8ˆ) AUTHOR Thomas Esken ([email protected]) m Hagenfeld 84 D-48147 Muenster; Germany Phone : +49 251 232585 SEE ALSO gcal(1) 16 July 1996 Part I: User Commands 514 tftp tftp—Trivial file transfer program SYNOPSIS tftp [host] DESCRIPTION tftp is the user interface to the Internet TFTP (Trivial File Transfer Protocol), which allows users to transfer files to and from a remote machine. The remote host may be specified on the command line, in which case tftp uses host as the default host for future transfers. (See the connect command in the following section.) COMMANDS k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 6 e 4 i 5 v Pre Page Once tftp is running, it issues the prompt: tftp> and recognizes the following commands: ? command-name ... ascii binary connect host-name port get filename, get remotename localname, get file1 file2 ... fileN mode transfer-mode put file put localfile remotefile put file1 file2 ... fileN remote-directory quit rexmt Print help information. Shorthand for “mode ascii” Shorthand for “mode binary” Set the host (and optionally port ) for transfers. Note that the TFTP protocol, unlike the FTP protocol, does not maintain connections between transfers; thus, the connect command does not actually create a connection, but merely remembers what host is to be used for transfers. You do not have to use the connect command; the remote host can be specified as part of the get or put commands. Get a file or set of files from the specified sources. Source can be in one of two forms: a filename on the remote host, if the host has already been specified; or a string of the form hosts:filename to specify both a host and filename at the same time. If the latter form is used, the last hostname specified becomes the default for future transfers. Set the mode for transfers; transfer-mode may be ascii or binary. The default is ascii. Put a file or set of files to the specified remote file or directory. The destination can be in one of two forms: a filename on the remote host, if the host has already been specified; or a string of the form hosts:filename to specify both a host and filename at the same time. If the latterform is used, the hostname specified becomes the default for future transfers. If the remote-directory form is used, the remote host is assumed to be a UNIX machine. Exit tftp . An end-of-file also exits. Set the per-packet retransmission time-out, in seconds. retransmission-timeout status timeout Show current status. Set the total transmission time-out, in seconds. total-transmission-timeout trace verbose Toggle packet tracing. Toggle verbose mode. BUGS Because there is no user-login or validation within the TFTP protocol, the remote site will probably have some sort of fileaccess restrictions in place. The exact methods are specific to each site and therefore difficult to document here. Part I: User Commands 516 SEE ALSO pnmtotiff(1), pnm(5) BUGS This program is not self-contained. To use it you must fetch the TIFF Software package listed in the OTHER.SYSTEMS file and configure pbmplus to use libtiff. See the pbmplus Makefile for details on this configuration. AUTHOR Derived by Jef Poskanzer from tif2ras.c, which is copyright 1990 by Sun Microsystems, Inc. Author Patrick J. Naughton ([email protected]). k u . o .c e tin, rtin, cdtin, tind l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 8 e 4 i 5 v Pre Page 13 January 1991 tin, rtin, cdtin, tind—A Netnews reader SYNOPSIS tin/rtin/cdtin/tind [ options ][newsgroups ] DESCRIPTION tin is a full-screen easy-to-use Netnews reader. It can read news locally (/usr/spool/news) or remotely (rtin or tin -r option) via an NNTP (Network News Transport Protocol) server. cdtin can read news locally and news archived on CDROM. It will automatically utilize nov (news overview)-style index files if available locally or via the nntp xover command. has five separate levels of operation: group selection level, spooldir selection level, group level, thread level and article level. Use the h (help) command to view a list of the commands available at a particular level. tin On startup, tin will show a list of the newsgroups found in $HOME/.newsrc. An arrow -> or highlighted bar will point to the first newsgroup. Move to a group by using the terminal arrow keys (terminal-dependent) or j and k. Use PgUp/PgDn (terminal-dependent) or Ctrl-U and Ctrl-D to page up/down. Enter a newsgroup by pressing Return. The Tab key advances to the next newsgroup with unread articles and enters it. OPTIONS -c -f file -h -H -I dir -m dir -M user -n -p program -q -P Create/update index files for every group in $HOME/.newsrc or file specified by -f option and mark all articles as read. Use the specified file of subscribed to newsgroups in place of $HOME/.newsrc. Help listing all command-line options. Brief introduction to tin that is also shown the first time it is started. Directory in which to store newsgroup index files. Default is $HOME/.tin/.index. Mailbox directory to use. Default is $HOME/Mail. Mail unread articles to specified user for later reading. For more information read the “Automatic Mailing and Saving New News” section later in this manual page. Only load groups from the active file that are also subscribed to in the users .newsrc. This allows a noticeable speedup when connecting via a slow line. Print program with options. Quick start without checking for new newsgroups. Purge group index files of articles that no longer exist. Care should be taken when using this command as it starts each and every article in each group that is accessed. On a low-speed connection, this can have an undesirable effect and it also knocks the hell out of your file system. tin, rtin, cdtin, tind -r -R -s dir -S -u -U -v -w -z -Z tin 517 Read news remotely from the default NNTP server specified in the environment variable NNTPSERVER or contained in the file /etc/nntpserver. Read news saved by -S option (not yet implemented). Save articles to directory. Default is $HOME/News. Save unread articles for later reading by -R option. For more information, see “Automatic Mailing and Saving New News.” Create/update index files for every group in $HOME/.newsrc or file specified by -f option. This option is disabled if tin retrieves its index files via an NNTP server. Start tin in the background to update index files while reading news in the foreground. This option is disabled if tin retrieves its index files via an NNTP server. Verbose mode for -c, -M, -S, -u, and -Z options. Quick mode to post an article and then exit. Only start tin if there is any new/unread news. If there is news, tin will position cursor at first group with unread news. Useful for putting in login file. Check if there is any new/unread news and exit with appropriate status. If -v option is specified, the number of unread articles in each group is printed. An exit code 0 indicates no news, 1 that an error occurred, and 2 that new/unread news exists. Useful for writing scripts. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 9 e 4 i 5 v Pre Page can also dynamically change its options by the M menu command. Any changes are written to $HOME/.tin/tinrc. The index daemon version, tind, only supports the -f, -h, -I, and -v options. INDEX FILES In order to keep track of threads, tin maintains an index for each newsgroup. There are a number of methods in which index files can be created and updated. The simplest method is that each user creates/updates his or her own index files that are stored in $HOME/.tin/.index. This has the advantage that any user can compile and install tin, but the disadvantage is that each user is going to be creating duplicate files and using precious disk space. A good way to keep index files updated is by doing a tin -U that will update index files in the background while you are reading news in the foreground. You can also update index files via the system batcher cron with the -u option: 30 6 ***/usr/local/bin/tin -u. A slightly better method is to set tin setuid news and have all index files created and updated in the news spool directory (that is, /usr/spool/news/.index). This has the advantage that there will only be one copy of the index files on each machine on your network, but the disadvantage is that you will have tin running setuid news. A better method is to install the tind index file updating daemon and have it create and update index files for all groups in your active file at regular intervals in the news spool directory (/usr/spool/news/.index). This has the advantage that there will only be one copy of the index files on each machine on your network, and tin must not be setuid news, but the disadvantage is that you will have to have news permissions to install tind and root permissions to install an entry in the cron batcher system to have tind regularly update index files. The best method is to install the tind index file updating daemon on your NNTP server and have it create and update index files for all groups in your active file at regular intervals in the news spool directory (/usr/spool/news/.index). This has the advantage that there will only be one copy of the index files on the NNTP server for the whole of your network, but the disadvantage is that you will have to install my NNTP server patches to allow tin to retrieve index file from your NNTP server and you must install an entry in the cron batcher system to have tind regularly update index files. (This is the method we use on our network of 40 to 50 machines and we have not had any problems.) Entering a group the first time tends to be slow because the index file must be built from scratch unless the tind update daemon is being used. To alleviate the slowness, start tin to create all index files for the groups you subscribe to with tin -u -v and go for a coffee. Subsequent readings of a group will cause incremental updating of the index file. tin, rtin, cdtin, tind <Author><Organization> <Article body> i.e., 24 Jul 15:20:03 GMT Article 452 [email protected] alt.sources Bnews sources? Organization name 519 Thread 1 of 2 3 responses COMMON MOVING KEYS The following table shows the common keys/commands for moving at all five levels within tin: Beginning of list/article End of list/article Page up Page down Line up Line down Home 1 (ˆR or g at article level) (also G at article level) PgUp ˆU or ˆB or b PgDn ˆD or ˆF or <SPACE> Up arrow k (not at article level) Down arrow j (not at article level) End $ k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 1 e 5 i 5 v Pre Page COMMON EDITING COMMANDS An emacs-style editing package allows the easy editing of input strings. A history list allows the easy reuse of previously entered strings. The following commands are available when editing a string: ^A, ^E ^F, ^B ^D ^H, <DEL> ^K ^P, ^N ^L, ^R <CR> <ESC> Move to beginning or end of line, respectively. Nondestructive move forward or back one location, respectively. Delete the character currently under the cursor, or send EOF if no characters are in the buffer. Delete character left of the cursor. Delete from cursor to end of line. Move through history, previous and next, respectively. Redraw the current line. Places line on history list if nonblank, appends newline, and returns to the caller. Aborts the present editing operation. NEWSGROUP SELECTION COMMANDS 4 ^K ^L ^R <CR> <TAB> B c C d g Select group 4. Delete current group from $HOME/.newsrc file. Redraw page. Reset $HOME/.newsrc file. Read current group. View next group with unread news. Will wrap around to the beginning of the group selection list looking for unread groups. Mail a bug report or comment to the author. This is the best way to get bugs fixed and features added/ changed. Mark current group as all read with confirmation and go to next group in group selection list. Mark current group as all read and go to next unread group in group selection list. Toggle display to show just the group name or the group name and the group’s description. Choose a new group by name. The position of the group within the group list will also be asked for. When 1 is entered, the new group will be the first group in the displayed list; when 8 is entered, the group will be the eighth group in the list; and so on. When $ is entered, the group will be the last group displayed. tin, rtin, cdtin, tind 521 GROUP INDEX COMMANDS 4 ^K ^L <CR> <TAB> a A c C d g h H I K l m M n N o p P q Q s t u U v w W x X z Z Select article 4. Kill current article (for more information, see the “Automatic Kill and Selection” section later in this manual page). Redraw page. Read current article. View next unread article or group. Author forward search. Author backward search. Mark all articles as read with confirmation. Mark all articles as read and go to next group with unread news. Toggle display to show just the subject or the subject and author. Choose a new group by name. Help screen of group index commands. Toggle the display of help mini-menu at the bottom of the screen. Toggle inverse video. Mark article/thread as read and advance to next unread article/thread. List the author of each response in current thread and enter thread selection level. Mail current article/thread/auto-selected (hot) articles/articles matching pattern/tagged articles to someone. User-configurable Options menu (for more information see “Global Options Menu” section). Go to next group. Go to next unread article. Output current article/thread/autoselected (hot) articles/articles matching pattern/tagged articles to printer. Go to previous group. Go to previous unread article. Return to previous level. Quit tin. Save current article/thread/autoselected (hot) articles/articles matching pattern/tagged articles to file/files/ mailbox. To save to a mailbox, enter = or =mailbox when asked for filename to save to. To save in <newsgroup name>/<filename> format, enter +filename. Environment variables are allowed within a filename (for example, $SOURCES/dir/filename). Tag current article/thread for mailing (m)/piping (|)/printing (o)/saving ( s)/crossposting (x). Toggle display to show all articles as unthreaded or threaded. Untag all articles that were tagged. Print tin version information. Post an article to current group. List articles posted by user. The date posted, the newsgroup, and the subject are listed. Crosspost already posted current article/thread/autoselected (hot) articles/articles matching pattern/tagged articles to another newsgroup(s). Useful for reposting from global to local newsgroups. Mark all unread articles that have not been selected as read, redo screen to reflect changes, and put index at the first thread to begin reading. Pressing X again will toggle back to the way it was before. See ˜ command for clearing the toggle effect. Mark current article as unread. Mark current thread as unread. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 3 e 5 i 5 v Pre Page tin, rtin, cdtin, tind 527 newsgroups. Once entered, the user can abort the command and not save the kill description, edit the kill file, or save the kill description. On starting tin, the user’s kill file $HOME/.tin/kill is read and on entering a newsgroup any kill or select descriptions are applied. Articles that match a kill description are marked killed and are not displayed. Articles that match an autoselect description are marked with an * when displayed. POSTING ARTICLES tin allows article. posting of articles, follow-up to already posted articles, and replying direct through mail to the author of an k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 9 e 5 i 5 v Pre Page Use the w command to post an article to a newsgroup. After entering the post subject, the default editor (such as vi) or the editor specified by the $VISUAL environment variable will be started and the article can be entered. To crosspost articles, simply add a comma and the name of the newsgroup(s) to the end of the “Newsgroups:” line at the beginning of the article. After saving and exiting the editor, you are asked if you wish to abort posting the article, edit the article again or post the article to the specified newsgroup(s). Use the W command to display a history of the articles you have posted. The date the article was posted, which newsgroups the article was posted to, and the article’s subject line are displayed. Use the f/F command to post a follow-up article to an already posted article. The f command will copy the text of the original article into the editor. The editing procedure is the same as when posting an article with the w command. Use the r/R command to reply direct through mail to the author of an already posted article. The r command will copy the text of the original article into the editor. The editing procedure is the same as when posting an article with the w command. After saving and exiting the editor, you are asked if you wish to abort sending the article, edit the article again, or send the article to the author. CUSTOMIZING THE ARTICLE QUOTE STRING When posting a follow-up to an article or replying direct to the author of an article via e-mail, the text of the article can be quoted. The beginning of the quoted text can contain information about the quoted article (for example, the Name and the Message ID of the article). To allow for different situations, certain information from the article can be used in the quoted string. The following variables are expanded if found in the tinrc variables mail_quote_format= or news_quote_format=: %A %D %F %G %M %N Address (e-mail) Date Full address (%N (%A)) Groupname Message ID Name of user For example, mail_quote_format=On %D in %G you wrote: news_quote_format=In %M, %F wrote: would expand when used to: On 21 Jul 1992 09:45:51 -0400 in alt.sources you wrote: In <[email protected]>, Iain Lea ([email protected]) wrote: MAILING, PIPING, PRINTING, REPOSTING, AND SAVING ARTICLES The command interface to mail (m), pipe (|), print (o), crosspost ( x) and save (s) articles is the same for ease of use. The initial command will ask you to select which article, thread, hot (autoselected) regex pattern, tagged articles you wish to mail, pipe, and so on. top 533 AUTHOR Iain Lea ( [email protected]) Version 1.2 PL2 tload tload—Graphic representation of system load average SYNOPSIS k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 5 e 6 i 5 v Pre Page tload [-s scale] [-d delay] [tty] DESCRIPTION prints a graph of the current system load average to the specified tty (or the tty of the tload process if none is specified). tload OPTIONS The -s scale option allows a vertical scale to be specified for the display (in characters between graph ticks); thus, a smaller value represents a larger scale, and vice versa. The -d FILES delay sets /proc/loadavg the delay between graph updates in seconds. Load average information SEE ALSO ps(1), top(1), uptime(1), w(1) BUGS The -d delay option sets the time argument for an alarm(2); if -d the SIGALRM and update the display. 0 is specified, the alarm is set to 0, which will never send AUTHORS Branko Lankester, David Engel ([email protected]), and Michael K. Johnson ([email protected]) Cohesive Systems, 20 March 1993 top top—Display top CPU processes SYNOPSIS top [-][ddelay][q][S][s][i] DESCRIPTION provides an ongoing look at processor activity in real time. It displays a listing of the most CPU-intensive tasks on the system, and can provide an interactive interface for manipulating processes. top 548 Part I: User Commands IconManagerFont string IconManagerForeground string [{ win-list }] IconManagerGeometry string [ columns ] This variable specifies the font to be used when displaying icon manager entries. The default is variable. This variable specifies the foreground color to be used when displaying icon manager entries, and may be specified only inside of a Color, Grayscale, or Monochrome list. The optional win-list is a list of window names and colors so that per-window colors may be specified. See the BorderColor variable for a complete description of the win-list. The default is black. This variable specifies the geometry of the icon manager window. The string argument is standard geometry specification that indicates the initial full size of the icon manager. The icon manager window is then broken into columns pieces and scaled according to the number of entries in the icon manager. Extra entries are wrapped to form additional rows. The default number of columns is 1. This variable specifies the border color to be used when highlighting the icon manager entry that currently has the focus, and can only be specified inside of a Color, Grayscale, or Monochrome list. The optional win-list is a list of window names and colors so that perwindow colors may be specified. See the Border-Color variable for a complete description of the win-list. The default is black. This variable specifies a list of icon managers to create. Each item in the iconmgr-list has the following format: k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 0 e 8 i 5 v Pre Page IconManagerHighlight string [{ win-list }] IconManagers { iconmgr-list } 0 “win-name”[“iconname”] “geometry” columns where winname is the name of the windows that should be put into this icon manager, iconname is the name of that icon manager window’s icon, geometry is a standard geometry specification, and columns is the number of columns in this icon manager as described in Icon-ManagerGeometry. For example: IconManagers { ”XTerm” “=300x5+800+5” 5 ”myhost” “=400x5+100+5” 2 } IconManagerShow{ win-list IconRegion geomstring vgrav hgrav gridwidth gridheight Icons { win-list } Clients whose name or class is XTerm will have an entry created in the XTerm icon manager. Clients whose name was myhost would be put into the myhost icon manager. } This variable specifies a list of windows that should appear in the icon manager. When used in conjunction with the IconManagerDontShow variable, only the windows in this list will be shown in the icon manager. This variable specifies an area on the root window in which icons are placed if no specific icon location is provided by the client. The geomstring is a quoted string containing a standard geometry specification. If more than one IconRegion line is given, icons will be put into the succeeding icon regions when the first is full. The vgrav argument should be either North or South and is used to control whether icons are first filled in from the top or bottom of the icon region. Similarly, the hgrav argument should be either East or West and is used to control whether icons should be filled in from the left or from the right. Icons are laid out within the region in a grid with cells gridwidth pixels wide and gridheight pixels high. This variable specifies a list of window names and the bitmap filenames that should be used as their icons. For example, Icons { ”XTerm” “xterm.icon” ”xfd” “xfd_icon” } twm InterpolateMenuColors 549 Windows that match “XTerm” and would not be iconified by unmapping would try to use the icon bitmap in the file xterm.icon. If ForceIcons is specified, this bitmap will be used even if the client has requested its own icon pixmap. This variable indicates that menu entry colors should be interpolated between entry specified colors. In this example, Menu “mymenu” { ”Title” (“black”:”red”) f.title ”entry1" f.nop ”entry2" f.nop ”entry3" (“white”:”green”) f.nop k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 1 e 8 i 5 v Pre Page ”entry4" f.nop ”entry5" (“red”:”white”) f.nop } MakeTitle { win-list } MaxWindowSize string MenuBackground string MenuFont string MenuForeground string MenuShadowColor string MenuTitleBackground string MenuTitleForeground string Monochrome { colors } MoveDelta pixels NoBackingStore NoCaseSensitive NoDefaults NoGrabServer the foreground colors for “entry1” and “entry2” will be interpolated between black and white, and the background colors between red and green. Similarly, the foreground for “entry4” will be halfway between white and red, and the background will be halfway between green and white. This variable specifies a list of windows on which a title-bar should be placed and is used to request titles on specific windows when NoTitle has been set. This variable specifies a geometry in which the width and height give the maximum size for a given window. This is typically used to restrict windows to the size of the screen. The default width is 32767—screen width. The default height is 32767—screen height. This variable specifies the background color used for menus, and can only be specified inside of a Color or Monochrome list. The default is white. This variable specifies the font to use when displaying menus. The default is variable. This variable specifies the foreground color used for menus and can only be specified inside of a Color, Grayscale, or Monochrome list. The default is black. This variable specifies the color of the shadow behind pull-down menus and can only be specified inside of a Color, Grayscale, or Monochrome list. The default is black. This variable specifies the background color for f.title entries in menus, and can only be specified inside of a Color, Grayscale, or Monochrome list. The default is white. This variable specifies the foreground color for f.title entries in menus and can only be specified inside of a Color or Monochrome list. The default is black. This variable specifies a list of color assignments that should be made if the screen has a depth of 1. See the description of Colors. This variable specifies the number of pixels the pointer must move before the f.move function starts working. Also see the f.deltastop function. The default is zero pixels. This variable indicates that twm’s menus should not request backing store to minimize repainting of menus. This is typically used with servers that can repaint faster than they can handle backing store. This variable indicates that case should be ignored when sorting icon names in an icon manager. This option is typically used with applications that capitalize the first letter of their icon name. This variable indicates that twm should not supply the default titlebuttons and bindings. This option should only be used if the startup file contains a completely new set of bindings and definitions. This variable indicates that twm should not grab the server when popping up menus and moving opaque windows. 550 Part I: User Commands NoHighlight [{ win-list }] NoIconManagers NoMenuShadows NoRaiseOnDeiconify This variable indicates that borders should not be highlighted to track the location of the pointer. If the optional win-list is given, highlighting will only be disabled for those windows. When the border is highlighted, it will be drawn in the current BorderColor. When the border is not highlighted, it will be stippled with a gray pattern using the current BorderTileForeground and BorderTileBack-ground colors. This variable indicates that no icon manager should be created. This variable indicates that menus should not have drop shadows drawn behind them. This is typically used with slower servers because it speeds up menu drawing at the expense of making the menu slightly harder to read. This variable indicates that windows that are deiconified should not be raised. This variable indicates that windows should not be raised when moved. This is typically used to allow windows to slide underneath each other. This variable indicates that windows should not be raised when resized. This is typically used to allow windows to be resized underneath each other. This variable indicates that windows should not be raised when the pointer is warped into them with the f.warpto function. If this option is set, warping to an occluded window may result in the pointer ending up in the occluding window instead the desired window, which causes unexpected behavior with f.warpring. This variable indicates that menus should not request save-unders to minimize window repainting following menu selection. It is typically used with displays that can repaint faster than they can handle save-unders. This variable indicates that client window requests to change stacking order should be ignored. If the optional win-list is given, only requests on those windows will be ignored. This is typically used to prevent applications from relentlessly popping themselves to the front of the window stack. This variable indicates that windows should not have title-bars. If the optional win-list is given, only those windows will not have titlebars. MakeTitle may be used with this option to force titlebars to be put on specific windows. This variable indicates that twm should not set keyboard input focus to each window as it is entered. Normally, twm sets the focus so that focus and key events from the titlebar and icon managers are delivered to the application. If the pointer is moved quickly and twm is slow to respond, input can be directed to the old window instead of the new. This option is typically used to prevent this input lag and to work around bugs in older applications that have problems with focus events. This variable indicates that the highlight area of the titlebar, which is used to indicate the window that currently has the input focus, should not be displayed. If the optional winlist is given, only those windows will not have highlight areas. This and the SqueezeTitle options can be set to substantially reduce the amount of screen space required by titlebars. This variable indicates that the f.move function should actually move the window instead of just an outline so that the user can immediately see what the window will look like in the new position. This option is typically used on fast displays (particularly if NoGrabServer is set). This variable specifies a list of pixmaps that define the appearance of various images. Each entry is a keyword indicating the pixmap to set, followed by a string giving the name of the bitmap file. The following pixmaps may be specified: 0 Pixmaps { TitleHighlight k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 2 e 8 i 5 v Pre Page NoRaiseOnMove NoRaiseOnResize NoRaiseOnWarp NoSaveUnders NoStackMode [{ win-list }] NoTitle [{ win-list }] NoTitleFocus NoTitleHighlight [{ win-list }] OpaqueMove Pixmaps { pixmaps } “gray1” } Priority priority RandomPlacement The default for TitleHighlight is to use an even stipple pattern. This variable sets twm’s priority. priority should be an unquoted, signed number (for example, 999). This variable has an effect only if the server supports the SYNC extension. This variable indicates that windows with no specified geometry should be placed in a pseudorandom location instead of having the user drag out an outline. Part I: User Commands 554 User-defined functions contain the name by which they are referenced in calls to f.function and a list of other functions to execute. For example, Function “move-or-lower” { f.move f.deltastop f.lower } Function “move-or-raise” { f.move f.deltastop f.raise } Function “move-or-iconify” { f.move f.deltastop f.iconify } Function “restore-colormap” { f.colormap “default” f.lower } The function name must be used in f.function exactly as it appears in the function specification. In the following descriptions, if the function is said to operate on the selected window, but is invoked from a root menu, the cursor will be changed to the Select cursor and the next window to receive a button press will be chosen: ! string f.autoraise k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 6 e 8 i 5 v Pre Page f.backiconmgr f.beep f.bottomzoom f.circledown f.circleup f.colormap string f.deiconify f.delete f.deltastop f.destroy f.downiconmgr f.exec string f.focus This is an abbreviation for f.exec string. This function toggles whether or not the selected window is raised whenever entered by the pointer. See the description of the variable AutoRaise. This function warps the pointer to the previous column in the current icon manager, wrapping back to the previous row if necessary. This function sounds the keyboard bell. This function is similar to the f.fullzoom function, but resizes the window to fill only the bottom half of the screen. This function lowers the topmost window that occludes another window. This function raises the bottommost window that is occluded by another window. This function rotates the colormaps (obtained from the WM_COLORMAP_WINDOWS property on the window) that twm will display when the pointer is in this window. The argument string may have one of the following values: next, prev, and default. It should be noted here that in general, the installed colormap is determined by keyboard focus. A pointerdriven keyboard focus will install a private colormap upon entry of the window owning the colormap. Using the click-to-type model, private colormaps will not be installed until the user clicks on the target window. This function deiconifies the selected window. If the window is not an icon, this function does nothing. This function sends the WM_DELETE_WINDOW message to the selected window if the client application has requested it through the WM_PROTOCOLS window property. The application is supposed to respond to the message by removing the indicated window. If the window has not requested WM_DELETE_WINDOW messages, the keyboard bell will be rung, indicating that the user should choose an alternative method. Note this is very different from f.destroy. The intent here is to delete a single window, not necessarily the entire application. This function allows a user-defined function to be aborted if the pointer has been moved more than MoveDelta pixels. See the example definition given for Function “move-orraise” at the beginning of the section. This function instructs the X server to close the display connection of the client that created the selected window. This should only be used as a last resort for shutting down runaway clients. See also f.delete. This function warps the pointer to the next row in the current icon manger, wrapping to the beginning of the next column if necessary. This function passes the argument string to /bin/sh for execution. In multiscreen mode, if string starts a new X client without giving a display argument, the client will appear on the screen from which this function was invoked. This function toggles the keyboard focus of the server to the selected window, changing the focus rule from pointer-driven if necessary. If the selected window already was focused, this function executes an f.unfocus. Part I: User Commands 568 -q, --list -m, --status -p, --ps -i, --prompt -K, --kill-all k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 0 e 0 i 6 v Pre Page -R, --rejuvenate-all -M, --mail -N, --notify Display the status of commands, executions, and conversations for all remote systems for which commands or executions are queued. The -s, --system, -S, --not-system, -o, -older-than, -y, and --younger-than options may be used to restrict the systems that are listed. Systems for which no commands or executions are queued will never be listed. Display the status of conversations for all remote systems. Display the status of all processes holding uucp locks on systems or ports. For each listed job, prompt whether to kill the job or not. If the first character of the input line is y or Y, the job will be killed. Automatically kill each listed job. This can be useful for automatic cleanup scripts, in conjunction with the --mail and --notify options. Automatically rejuvenate each listed job. This may not be used with --kill-all. For each listed job, send mail to the UUCP administrator. If the job is killed (due to -kill-all or --prompt with an affirmative response), the mail will indicate that. A comment specified by the --comment option may be included. If the job is an execution, the initial portion of its standard input will be included in the mail message; the number of lines to include may be set with the --mail-lines option (the default is 100). If the standard input contains null characters, it is assumed to be a binary file and is not included. For each listed job, send mail to the user who requested the job. The mail is identical to that sent by the -M or --mail options. Specify a comment to be included in mail sent with the -M, --mail, -N, or --notify options. Do not actually list the job, but only take any actions indicated by the -i, --prompt, -K, -kill-all, -M, --mail, -N, or --notify options. Turn on particular debugging types. The following types are recognized: abnormal, chat, handshake, uucp-proto, proto, port, config, spooldir, execute, incoming, outgoing. Only abnormal, config, spooldir, and execute are meaningful for uustat. Multiple types may be given, separated by commas, and the --debug option may appear multiple times. A number may also be given, which will turn on that many types from the foregoing list; for example, --debug 2 is equivalent to --debug abnormal,chat. Set configuration file to use. This option may not be available, depending upon how uustat was compiled. Report version information and exit. Print a help message and exit. -W, --comment -Q, --no-list -x type, --debug type -I file, --config file -v, --version --help EXAMPLES uustat -all Display status of all jobs. A sample output line is as follows: bugsA027h bugs ian 04-01 13:50 Executing rmail [email protected] (sending 1283 bytes) The format is jobid system user queue-date command (size) uustat -executions The jobid may be passed to the --kill or --rejuvenate options. The size indicates how much data is to be transferred to the remote system, and is absent for a file receive request. The --system, --not-system, --user, --not-user, --command, --not-command, --olderthan, and --younger-than options may be used to control which jobs are listed. Display status of queued up execution requests. A sample output line is as follows: bugs bugs!ian 05-20 12:51 rmail ian The format is system requestor queue-date command The --system, --not-system, --user, --not-user, --command, --not-command, --olderthan, and --younger-than options may be used to control which requests are listed. Part I: User Commands 576 OPTIONS Search only for binaries. Search only for manual sections. Search only for sources. Search for unusual entries. A file is said to be unusual if it does not have one entry of each requested type. Thus whereisnn-mnn-unn* asks for those files in the current directory which have no documentation. Change or otherwise limit the places where whereis searches for binaries. Change or otherwise limit the places where whereis searches for manual sections. Change or otherwise limit the places where whereis searches for sources. Terminate the last directory list and signals the start of filenames; must be used when any of the -B, -M, or -S options are used. -b -m -s -u -B -M -S k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 8 e 0 i 6 v Pre Page -f EXAMPLE Find all files in /usr/bin that are not documented in /usr/man/man1 with source in /usr/src: example% cd /usr/bin example% whereis -u -M /usr/man/man1 -S /usr/src -f * FILES /{bin,sbin,etc} /usr/{lib,bin,old,new,local,games,include,etc,src,man,sbin, X386, TeX, g++-include} /usr/local/{X386,TeX,X11,include,lib,man,etc,bin,games,emacs} SEE ALSO chdir(2V) BUGS Since whereis uses chdir(2V) to run faster, pathnames given with the -M, -S, or -B must be full; that is, they must begin with a /. 8 May 1994 write write—Send a message to another user SYNOPSIS write user [ttyname] DESCRIPTION write allows you to communicate with other users by copying lines from your terminal to theirs. When you run the write command, the user you are writing to gets a message of the form: Message from [email protected] on yourtty at hh:mm ... Any further lines you enter will be copied to the specified user’s terminal. If the other user wants to reply, he or she must run write as well. When you are done, type an end-of-file or interrupt character. The other user will see the message EOF, indicating that the conversation is over. Part I: User Commands 586 X DEFAULTS There are no X defaults used by this program. SEE ALSO X(1), x11perf(1) AUTHORS Mark Moraes wrote the original scripts to compare servers. Joel McCormack just munged them together a bit. X Version 11 Release 6 xargs k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 8 e 1 i 6 v Pre Page xargs—Build and SYNOPSIS execute command lines from standard input xargs [-0prtx] [-e[eof-str]] [-i[replace-str]] [-l[max-lines]] [-n max-args] [-s max-chars] [-P max-procs] [--null] [--eof[=eof-str]] [--replace[=replace-str]] [--max-lines[=max-lines]] [--interactive] [--max-chars=max-chars] [--verbose] [--exit] [--max-procs=max-procs] [--max-args=max-args] [--no-run-if-empty] [--version] [--help] [command [initial-arguments]] DESCRIPTION This manual page documents the GNU version of xargs. xargs reads arguments from the standard input, delimited by blanks (which can be protected with double or single quotes or a backslash) or newlines, and executes the command (default is /bin/echo) one or more times with any initial-arguments followed by arguments read from standard input. Blank lines on the standard input are ignored. xargs exits with the following status: if it succeeds 123 if any invocation of the command exited with status 1-125 124 if the command exited with status 255 125 if the command is killed by a signal 126 if the command cannot be run 127 if the command is not found 1 if some other error occurred. 0 OPTIONS --null, -0 --eof[=eof-str], -e[eof-str] --help --replace[=replace-str], -i[replace-str] Input filenames are terminated by a null character instead of by whitespace, and the quotes and backslash are not special (every character is taken literally). Disables the end-of-file string, which is treated like any other argument. Useful when arguments might contain whitespace, quote marks, or backslashes. The GNU find -print0 option produces input suitable for this mode. Set the end-of-file string to eof-str. If the end-of-file string occurs as a line of input, the rest of the input is ignored. If eof-str is omitted, there is no end of file string. If this option is not given, the end-of-file string defaults to an underscore. Print a summary of the options to xargs and exit. Replace occurrences of replace-str in the initial arguments with names read from standard input. Also, unquoted blanks do not terminate arguments. If replace-str is omitted, it defaults to {} (like for find -exec). Implies -x and -l 1. xdm DisplayManager.accessFile DisplayManager.exportList DisplayManager.randomFile 603 To prevent unauthorized XDMCP service and to allow forwarding of XDMCP IndirectQuery requests, this file contains a database of hostnames that are either allowed direct access to this machine, or have a list of hosts to which queries should be forwarded to. The format of this file is described in the subsection “XDMCP Access Control.” A list of additional environment variables, separated by whitespace, to pass on to the Xsetup, Xstartup , Xsession ,and Xreset programs. A file to checksum to generate the seed of authorization keys. This should be a file that changes frequently. The default is /dev/mem . On systems that support a dynamically loadable greeter library, the name of the library. Default is <XRoot>/lib/X11/xdm/ libXdmGreet.so. Number of seconds to wait for display to respond after user has selected a host from the chooser . If the display sends an XDMCP IndirectQuery within this time, the request is forwarded to the chosen host. Otherwise, it is assumed to be from a new session and the chooser is offered again. Default is 15. This resource specifies the name of the file to be loaded by xrdb as the resource database onto the root window of screen 0 of the display. The Xsetup program, the Login widget, and chooser will use the resources set in this file. This resource database is loaded just before the authentication procedure is started, so it can control the appearance of the login window. See the subsection “Authentication Widget,” which describes the various resources that are appropriate to place in this file. There is no default value for this resource, but <XRoot>/lib/ X11/xdm/Xresources is the conventional name. Specifies the program run to offer a host menu for Indirect queries redirected to the special hostname CHOOSER . <XRoot> /lib/X11/xdm/chooser is the default. See the subsections “XDMCP Access Control” and “chooser .” Specifies the program used to load the resources. By default, xdm uses <XRoot>/bin/xrdb. This specifies the name of the C preprocessor that is used by xrdb. This specifies a program that is run (as root) before offering the Login window. This may be used to change the appearance of the screen around the Login window or to put up other windows (for example, you may want to run xconsole here). By default, no program is run. The conventional name for a file used here is Xsetup . See the subsection “Setup Program.” This specifies a program that is run (as root) after the authentication process succeeds. By default, no program is run. The conventional name for a file used here is Xstartup. See the subsection “Startup Program.” This specifies the session to be executed (not running as root). By default, <XRoot>/bin/xterm is run. The conventional name is Xsession . See the subsection “Session Program.” k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 5 e 3 i 6 v Pre Page DisplayManager.greeterLib DisplayManager.choiceTimeout DisplayManager.DISPLAY.resources DisplayManager.DISPLAY.chooser DisplayManager.DISPLAY.xrdb DisplayManager.DISPLAY.cpp DisplayManager.DISPLAY.setup DisplayManager.DISPLAY.startup DisplayManager.DISPLAY.session 612 Part I: User Commands #!/bin/sh # # Xsession # # This is the program that is run as the client # for the display manager. case $# in 1) case $1 in failsafe) exec xterm –geometry 80x24–0–0 ;; esac esac startup=$HOME/.xsession resources=$HOME/.Xresources if [ –f “$startup” ]; then exec “$startup” else if [ –f “$resources” ]; then xrdb –load “$resources” fi twm & xman –geometry +10–10 & exec xterm –geometry 80x24+10+10 –ls fi k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 4 e 4 i 6 v Pre Page The user’s .xsession file might look something like the following example. Don’t forget that the file must have execute permission. #!/bin/csh # no –f in the previous line so .cshrc gets run to set $PATH twm & xrdb –merge “$HOME/.Xresources” emacs –geometry +0+50 & xbiff –geometry –430+5 & xterm –geometry –0+50 -ls RESET PROGRAM Symmetrical with Xstartup, the Xreset script is run after the user session has terminated. Run as root, it should contain commands that undo the effects of commands in Xstartup , removing entries from /etc/utmp or unmounting directories from file servers. The environment variables that were passed to Xstartup are also passed to Xreset . A sample Xreset script: #!/bin/sh # # Xreset # # This program is run as root after the session ends # sessreg –d –l $DISPLAY –x /usr/X11R6/lib/xdm/Xservers $USER /usr/X11R6/lib/xdm/TakeConsole exit 0 CONTROLLING THE SERVER xdm controls local servers using POSIX signals. SIGHUP is expected to reset the server, closing all client connections and performing other cleanup duties. SIGTERM is expected to terminate the server. If these signals do not perform the expected actions, the resources DisplayManager.DISPLAY.resetSignal and DisplayManager.DISPLAY.termSignal can specify alternate signals. Part I: User Commands 622 slow_vram —(S3) Adjusts the VRAM timings for cards using slow VRAM. This is required for some Diamond Stealth 64 VRAM and Hercules Terminator 64 cards. Fast_vram —(S3) Adjusts the VRAM timings for faster VRAM access. There will be display errors and pixel garbage if your card can’t support it. Slow_dram_refresh—(S3) Adjusts the DRAM refresh for cards with slow DRAM to avoid lines of corrupted pixels when switching modes. No_block_write—(Mach64 ) Disables the block write mode on certain types of VRAM Mach64 cards. If noise or shadows appear on the screen, this option should remove them. Block_write —(Mach64) Enables the block write mode on certain types of VRAM Mach64 cards. Normally the Mach64 server will automatically determine if the card can handle block write mode, but this option will override the probe result. No_bios_clocks—(Mach64) The Mach64 server normally reads the clocks from the bios. This option overrides the bios clocks and forces the server to use the clocks given in the XF86Config file. There are also numerous tuning options for the AGX server. Refer to README.agx for details. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 4 e 5 i 6 v Pre Page Note that XFree86 has some internal capabilities to determine what hardware it is running on. Thus, normally the keywords chipset , clocks, and videoram don’t have to be specified. But there may be occasions when this autodetection mechanism fails, (for example, too high a load on the machine when you start the server). For cases like this, one should first run the server on an unloaded machine, look at the results of the autodetection (that are printed out during server startup), and then explicitly specify these parameters in the configuration file. It is recommended that all parameters, especially Clock values, be specified in the XF86Config file. FILES <XRoot>/bin/XF86 S3 <XRoot>/bin/XF86 Mach8 <XRoot>/bin/XF86 Mach32 <XRoot>/bin/XF86 Mach64 <XRoot>/bin/XF86 P9000 <XRoot>/bin/XF86 AGX <XRoot>/bin/XF86 W32 <XRoot>/bin/XF86 8514 /etc/XF86Config <XRoot>/lib/X11/XF86Config <XRoot>/lib/X11/doc/README.agx <XRoot>/lib/X11/doc/README.P9000 <XRoot>/lib/X11/doc/README.S3 <XRoot>/lib/X11/doc/README.W32 Note: <XRoot> refers to the root of the X11 install tree. The 8-, 16-, and 24-bit color X server for S3 The 8-bit color X server for Mach8 The 8- and 16-bit color X server for Mach32 The 8-, 16-, and 24-bit color X server for Mach64 The 8-, 16-, and 24-bit color X server for the P9000 The 8- and 16-bit color X server for AGX and XGA The 8-bit color X server for ET4000/W32 The 8-bit color X server for IBM 8514 and true compatibles Server configuration file Server configuration file (secondary location) Extra documentation for the AGX server Extra documentation for the P9000 server Extra documentation for the S3 server Extra documentation for the W32 server Part I: User Commands 628 Avance Logic Chips & Technology MX Video7 AL2101, ALI2301 , ALI2302 , ALI2308, ALI2401 65520, 65530, 65540 , 65545 MX68000 , MX68010 HT216-32 Accelerated support is included for most of the Cirrus chipsets, and for the Western Digital WD90C31 and WD90C33 chipsets. Accelerated support for the ET4000/W32 is implemented in a separate server (see XF86_W32 (1)). Users of boards based on ATI’s Mach8, Mach32, and Mach64 chipsets should refer to the XF86_Mach8 (1), XF86_Mach32(1) and XF86_Mach64(1) manual pages, respectively. OPTIONS k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 0 e 6 i 6 v Pre Page In addition to the normal server options described in the Xserver (1) manual page, XF86_SVGA accepts some more commandline switches, as described in the XFree86(1) man page. SETUP XFree86 uses a configuration file called XF86Config for its initial setup. See the XF86Config (4/5) man page for general details. Here only the XF86_SVGA specific parts are explained. This server requires a Screen section in the XF86Config file with the Driver entry set to svga. Entries for the Device section in the XF86Config file include chipset “name” Specifies a chipset so the correct driver can be used. Possible chipsets are ATI vgawonder Tseng et3000, et4000, et4000w32 , et4000w32i , et4000w32p Western Digital pvga1, wd90c00 , wd90c10 , wd90c24, wd90c30 , wd90c31, wd90c33 Genoa gvga Trident tvga8800cs , tvga8900b , tvga8900c, tvga8900cl , tvga9000 NCR ncr77c22 , ncr77c22e Cirrus Logic clgd5420 , clgd5422, clgd5424, clgd5426 , clgd5428, clgd5429, clgd5430 , clgd5434, clgd5436, clgd6205 , clgd6215, clgd6225, clgd6235 , cl6410, cl6412 , cl6420, cl6440 RealTek ARK Compaq Oak Avance Logic realtek ark1000pv , ark1000vl , ark2000pv cpq_avga oti067, oti077, oti087 al2101, ali2301, ali2302 , ali2308, ali2401 Chips & Technology MX Video7 Generic ct65520 , ct65530, ct65540 , ct65545 mx video7 generic XF86_VGA16 <XRoot>/lib/X11/doc/README.cirrus <XRoot>/lib/X11/doc/README.trident <XRoot>/lib/X11/doc/README.tseng <XRoot>/lib/X11/doc/README.Oak <XRoot>/lib/X11/doc/README.Video7 <XRoot>/lib/X11/doc/README.WstDig 631 Extra documentation for the Cirrus driver Extra documentation for the Trident driver Extra documentation for the ET4000 and ET3000 drivers Extra documentation for the Oak driver Extra documentation for the Video7 driver Extra documentation for the WD/PVGA driver Note: <XRoot> refers to the root of the X11 install tree. SEE ALSO k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 3 e 6 i 6 v Pre Page X(1), Xserver(1), XFree86 (1), XF86Config (4/5), xf86config (1), xvidtune(1), xdm(1), xinit(1) BUGS Bug reports are welcome, and should be e-mailed to the address listed below. CONTACT INFO XFree86 source is available from the FTP server ftp.XFree86.org. Send e-mail to [email protected] for details. AUTHORS Refer to the XFree86(1) manual page. XFree86 Version 3.1.2 XF86_VGA16 XF86 VGA16 —4-bit nonaccelerated X Window System server for UNIX on x86 platforms SYNOPSIS XF86 VGA16 [:displaynumber] [ option ] ... DESCRIPTION is a 4-bit color server for VGA cards. The default root visual for this server is StaticColor. It also includes support for the non-VGA monochrome cards described in the XF86_Mono (1) manual page. It may be run in a dual-headed configuration. XF86_VGA16 CONFIGURATIONS The XF86_VGA16 server supports the following popular SVGA chipsets in 16-color mode. ATI 18800, 18800-1 , 28800-2 , 28800-4, 28800-5, 28800-6, 68800-3, 68800-6 , 68800AX, 68800LX , 88800CX, 88800GX Tseng Trident Cirrus Oak ET4000 TVGA8800CS , TVGA8900B , TVGA8900C , TVGA8900CL, TVGA9000 CL6410, CL6412, CL6420 , CL6440 OTI067, OTI077, OTI087 Additionally, it supports generic VGA cards. XF86_VGA16 does not support the accelerated functions of the supported chipsets. xfd 635 Xfd xfd Paned pane Label fontname Box box Command quit Command prev Command next Label select Label metrics Label range Label start Form form FontGrid grid k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 7 e 6 i 6 v Pre Page FONTGRID RESOURCES The FontGrid widget is an application-specific widget, and a subclass of the Simple widget in the Athena widget set. The effects and instance names of this widget’s resources are given in the “Options” subsection. Capitalize the first letter of the resource instance name to get the corresponding class name. APPLICATION SPECIFIC RESOURCES The instance names of the application-specific resources are given in the following list. Capitalize the first letter of the resource instance name to get the corresponding class name. These resources are unlikely to be interesting unless you are localizing xfd for a different language. selectFormat metricsFormat rangeFormat startFormat nocharFormat Specifies a printf -style format string used to display information about the selected character. The default is character 0x%02x%02x (%u,%u) (%#o,%#o). The arguments that will come after the format string are char.byte1 , char.byte2 , char.byte1 , char.byte2 , char.byte1 , char.byte2 . char.byte1 is byte 1 of the selected character. char.byte2 is byte 2 of the selected character. Specifies a printf -style format string used to display character metrics. The default is width %d; left %d, right %d; ascent %d, descent %d (font %d, %d). The arguments that will come after the format string are the character metrics width, lbearing, rbearing, character ascent, character descent, font ascent, and font descent. Specifies a printf -style format string used to display the range of characters currently being displayed. The default is range: 0x%02x%02x (%u,%u) thru 0x%02x%02x (%u,%u). The arguments that will come after the format string are the following fields from the XFontStruct that is returned from opening the font: min_byte1 , min_char_or_byte2, min_byte1 , min_char_or_byte2 , max_byte1 , max_char_or_byte2, max_byte1 , max_char_or_byte2 . Specifies a printf -style format string used to display information about the character at the upper left corner of the font grid. The default is upper left: 0x%04x (%d,%d). The arguments that will come after the format string are the new character, the high byte of the new character, and the low byte of the new character. Specifies a printf -style format string to display when the selected character does not exist. The default is no such character 0x%02x%02x (%u,%u) (%#o,%#o . The arguments that will come after the format string are the same as for the select-Format resource. xieperf –showtechs –showlabels –showevents –events –errors –loCal –all –tests 647 Display a comprehensive list of techniques, by category, indicating which of the techniques are supported by the XIE server. Print test label to screen prior to calling any of the test code. This allows the user to know which test is executing in case the test hangs for some reason. Be verbose when running event and error tests. Also, can be used to catch and display information on any signals received during execution of xieperf. Note that this flag is best used in a debugging situation, or to validate that the error events received by xieperf are valid the first time the tests are executed on a new platform. Run tests that test for event generation. Run tests that test for error event generation. Skip test calibration. This may be used when running xieperf in situations where execution timing is not important. Execution times will not be reported by xieperf when this option is enabled. The inner loop repeat count, additionally, is set to a value of 5 (but can be overridden by the -reps option). Runs all tests. This may take a while, depending on the speed of your machine, and its floating-point capabilities. This option is ignored if a script file is used. Generate a list of the available tests for the xieperf program. In x11perf, this list is normally displayed in the usage statement. It was yanked from the usage of xieperf because it was too lengthy. Generate a script file suitable for use with the script option. If -repeat or -reps are also specified, they will be automatically placed at the end of each command in the script. The script is generated to stderr . See the -script command, above. Most test flos utilize a photomap resource for a source. A photomap cache of up to n entries is controlled by xieperf to avoid having to constantly reload these images during test initialization. The default cache size is 4. If a value less than the default is specified, the cache size will be set to the default. Generates just the descriptive labels for each test specified. Use -all or -range to specify which tests are included. See x11perfcomp (1) for more details. Pretend we are running xieperf while connected to a DIS-only capable implementation of XIE . This will cause xieperf to execute those tests that only use protocol requests found in the DIS subset of XIE , and bypass those which are not DIS compatible. If xieperf detects a DIS server, it will do this automatically, and this option is ignored. Use -all or -range to specify the initial range of tests. Runs all the tests starting from the specified name test1 until the name test2, including both the specified tests. Some tests, like the event and error tests, also require the -errors or events options to specified. This option is ignored if a script is used. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 9 e 7 i 6 v Pre Page –mkscript –cache <n> –labels –DIS –range <test1>[,<test2>] xieperf –point1 through –point3 –pointroi1 –pointcplane1 –pointroiphoto1 –pointcplanephoto1 –modify1 –modify2 –modify3 –modify4 –modify5 –rgb1 configuration. The tests can be configured so that the test init function will constrain the input photomap to a specified number of levels, on a per band basis, so that word-sized and quad-sized pixels are passed through the flos. Some tests below take advantage of this. See tests.c for test configuration, and hints on how to add similar tests. Simple Point element tests. Drawable destination. Simple Point element test that uses ROIs. Drawable destination. Simple Point element test that uses a control plane. Drawable destination. Simple Point element test. Photomap destination. Simple Point element test that uses ROIs. Photomap destination. Simple Point element test that uses a control plane. Photomap destination. Two flographs are created that are the same in structure, except for the x and y offsets specified for the ExportDrawable flo elements. The test init function creates a photoflo based upon one of the two flographs. The inner loop of the test function uses XieRedefinePhotoflo() to alternate between each of the flographs. Make sure that your inner loop reps are 2 or greater in order to exercise this test fully (see -reps ). Test XieModifyPhotoflo() by adjusting ROI offsets and size. Test XieModifyPhotoflo() by changing the LUT input to a Point element. Test XieModifyPhotoflo() by changing ExportDrawable x and y offsets. This test creates a rather long flo of arithmetic elements, each of which does nothing more than add 1 to a small image. The test init function scales the input photomap. The ExportDrawable x and y offset is modified randomly during each iteration of the test function inner loop. This test creates a rather long flo of arithmetic elements, each of which does nothing more than add 1 to a large image. Each rep, the Geometry and ExportDrawable elements at the end of the flo are modified to crop a small piece of the input into its appropriate place in the larger image. These tests all basically take an UncompressedTriple image as input, send it to ConvertFromRGB, which converts the image to some configured colorspace, and then send the converted image on to ConvertToRGB prior to display. The original image is displayed in the left-hand window, and the image that has passed through the flo is shown in the right-hand window. The goal of these test is to show that ConvertFromRGB -> ConvertToRGB is lossless. ConvertToIndex test, TripleBand BandByPixel. ConvertToIndex test, TripleBand BandByPlane. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 5 e 8 i 6 v Pre Page –pointphoto1 –redefine 653 through –rgb16 –converttoindexpixel –converttoindexplane xinetd 655 xinetd xinetd—The extended Internet services daemon SYNOPSIS xinetd [options] DESCRIPTION performs the same function as inetd : it starts programs that provide Internet services. Instead of having such servers started at system initialization time, and be dormant until a connection request arrives, xinetd is the only daemon process started and it listens on all service ports for the services listed in its configuration file. When a request comes in, xinetd starts the appropriate server. Because of the way it operates, xinetd (as well as inetd) is also referred to as a super-server. xinetd k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 7 e 8 i 6 v Pre Page The services listed in xinetd ’s configuration file can be separated into two groups. Services in the first group are called multithreaded and they require the forking of a new server process for each new connection request. The new server then handles that connection. For such services, xinetd keeps listening for new requests so that it can spawn new servers. On the other hand, the second group includes services for which the service daemon is responsible for handling all new connection requests. Such services are called single-threaded and xinetd will stop handling new requests for them until the server dies. Services in this group are usually datagram based. So far, the only reason for the existence of a super-server was to conserve system resources by avoiding to fork a lot of processes who might be dormant for most of their lifetime. While fulfilling this function, xinetd takes advantage of the idea of a super-server to provide features such as access control and logging. Furthermore, xinetd is not limited to services listed in /etc/services . Therefore, anybody can use xinetd to start special-purpose servers. OPTIONS –d –syslog syslog_facility –filelog logfile –f config_file –pid –loop rate –reuse Enables debug mode. This produces a lot of debugging output, and it makes it possible to use a debugger on xinetd . This option enables syslog logging of xinetd -produced messages using the specified syslog facility. The following facility names are supported: daemon , auth, user, local[0-7] (check syslog.conf(5) for their meanings). This option is ineffective in debug mode because all relevant messages are sent to the terminal. xinetd-produced messages will be placed in the specified file. Messages are always appended to the file. If the file does not exist, it will be created. This option is ineffective in debug mode because all relevant messages are sent to the terminal. Determines the file that xinetd uses for configuration. The default is /etc/xinetd.conf. The process pid is written to standard error. This option is ineffective in debug mode. This option sets the loop rate beyond which a service is considered in error and is deactivated. The loop rate is specified in terms of the number of servers per second that can be forked for a process. The speed of your machine determines the correct value for this option. The default rate is 10. If this option is used, xinetd will set the socket option SO_REUSEADDR before binding the service socket to an Internet address. This allows binding of the address even if there are programs that use it, which happens when a previous instance of xinetd has started some servers that are still running. This option has no effect on RPC services. xlsclients 669 OPTIONS This option specifies the X server to which to connect. This option specifies a printf-style string used to list each atom <value,name> pair, printed in that order (value is an unsigned long and name is a char * ). xlsatoms will supply a newline at the end of each line. The default is %ld\t%s. This option specifies the range of atom values to check. If low is not given, a value of 1 is assumed. If high is not given, xlsatoms will stop at the first undefined atom at or above low. This option specifies the name of an atom to list. If the atom does not exist, a message will be printed on the standard error. –display dpy –format string –range [low]-[high] –name string SEE ALSO k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 1 e 0 i 7 v Pre Page X(1), Xserver(1), xprop(1) ENVIRONMENT DISPLAY AUTHOR To get the default host and display to use Jim Fulton (MIT X Consortium) X Version 11 Release 6 xlsclients xlsclients —List client applications running on a display SYNOPSIS xlsclients [-display displayname] [-a] [-l] [-m maxcmdlen] DESCRIPTION is a utility for listing information about the client applications running on a display. It may be used to generate scripts representing a snapshot of the user’s current session. xlsclients OPTIONS –display displayname –a –l –m maxcmdlen This option specifies the X server to contact. This option indicates that clients on all screens should be listed. By default, only those clients on the default screen are listed. List in long format, giving the window name, icon name, and class hints in addition to the machine name and command string shown in the default format. This option specifies the maximum number of characters in a command to print out. The default is 10000 . ENVIRONMENT DISPLAY To get the default host, display number, and screen. xmodmap 673 OPTIONS The following options may be used with xmodmap : –display display –help –grammar –verbose –quiet –n k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 5 e 0 i 7 v Pre Page –e expression –pm –pk This option specifies the host and display to use. This option indicates that a brief description of the commandline arguments should be printed on the standard error channel. This will be done whenever an unhandled argument is given to xmodmap . This option indicates that a help message describing the expression grammar used in files and with –e expressions should be printed on the standard error. This option indicates that xmodmap should print logging information as it parses its input. This option turns off the verbose logging. This is the default. This option indicates that xmodmap should not change the mappings, but should display what it would do, like make(1) does when given this option. This option specifies an expression to be executed. Any number of expressions may be specified from the command line. This option indicates that the current modifier map should be printed on the standard output. This option indicates that the current keymap table should be printed on the standard output. This option indicates that the current keymap table should be printed on the standard output in the form of expressions that can be fed back to xmodmap. This option indicates that the current pointer map should be printed on the standard output. A lone dash means that the standard input should be used as the input file. –pke –pp - The filename specifies a file containing xmodmap expressions to be executed. This file is usually kept in the user’s home directory with a name like .xmodmaprc . EXPRESSION GRAMMAR The xmodmap program reads a list of expressions and parses them all before attempting to execute any of them. This makes it possible to refer to keysyms that are being redefined in a natural way without having to worry as much about name conflicts. keycode NUMBER = KEYSYMNAME ... keycode any = KEYSYMNAME ... keysym KEYSYMNAME = KEYSYMNAME ... The list of keysyms is assigned to the indicated keycode (which may be specified in decimal, hex, or octal and can be determined by running the xev program. If no existing key has the specified list of keysyms assigned to it, a spare key on the keyboard is selected and the keysyms are assigned to it. The list of keysyms may be specified in decimal, hex, or octal. The KEYSYMNAME on the left side is translated into matching keycodes used to perform the corresponding set of keycode expressions. The list of keysym names may be found in the Part I: User Commands 678 -font font -root -display display -len n -notype -fs file -frame This argument allows the user to specify that the properties of font font should be displayed. This argument specifies that X’s root window is the target window. This is useful in situations where the root window is completely obscured. This argument allows you to specify the server to connect to; see X (1). Specifies that at most, n bytes of any property should be read or displayed. Specifies that the type of each property should not be displayed. Specifies that file file should be used as a source of more formats for properties. Specifies that when selecting a window by hand (that is, if neither -name , -root, nor -id is given), look at the window manager frame (if any) instead of looking for the client window. Specifies the name of a property to be removed from the indicated window. Examine window properties forever, looking for property change events. Specifies that the format for name should be format and that the dformat for name should be dformat. If dformat is missing, ”= $0+\n” is assumed. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 0 e 1 i 7 v Pre Page -remove property-name -spy -f name format [dformat] DESCRIPTION For each of these properties, its value on the selected window or font is printed using the supplied formatting information, if any. If no formatting information is supplied, internal defaults are used. If a property is not defined on the selected window or font, not defined is printed as the value for that property. If no property list is given, all the properties possessed by the selected window or font are printed. A window may be selected in one of four ways. First, if the desired window is the root window, the -root argument may be used. If the desired window is not the root window, it may be selected in two ways on the command line, either by id number, such as might be obtained from xwininfo , or by name if the window possesses a name. The -id argument selects a window by id number in either decimal or hex (must start with 0x) while the -name argument selects a window by name. The last way to select a window does not involve the command line at all. If none of -font, -id , -name, and -root are specified, a crosshairs cursor is displayed and the user is allowed to choose any visible window by pressing any pointer button in the desired window. If it is desired to display properties of a font as opposed to a window, the -font argument must be used. Other than the preceding four arguments and the -help argument for obtaining help, and the -grammar argument for listing the full grammar for the command line, all the other command-line arguments are used in specifying both the format of the properties to be displayed and how to display them. The -len n argument specifies that at most, n bytes of any given property will be read and displayed. This is useful, for example, when displaying the cut buffer on the root window, which could run to several pages if displayed in full. Normally, each property name is displayed by printing first the property name then its type (if it has one) in parentheses, followed by its value. The -notype argument specifies that property types should not be displayed. The -fs argument is used to specify a file containing a list of formats for properties, while the -f argument is used to specify the format for one property. Part I: User Commands 682 NUM_SCREENS=num SCREEN_NUM=num BITS_PER_RGB=num CLASS=visualclass CLASS_visualclass=visualid COLOR k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 4 e 1 i 7 v Pre Page CLASS_visualclass_depth=num HEIGHT=num WIDTH=num PLANES=num The total number of screens. The number of the current screen (from zero). The number of significant bits in an RGB color specification. This is the log base 2 of the number of distinct shades of each primary that the hardware can generate. Note that it usually is not related to PLANES . One of StaticGray , GrayScale , StaticColor, PseudoColor, TrueColor , DirectColor . This is the visual class of the root window. The visual class of the root window in a form you can #ifdef on. The value is the numeric id of the visual. Defined only if CLASS is one of StaticColor, PseudoColor, TrueColor , or DirectColor . A symbol is defined for each visual supported for the screen. The symbol includes the class of the visual and its depth; the value is the numeric id of the visual. (If more than one visual has the same class and depth, the numeric id of the first one reported by the server is used.) The height of the root window in pixels. The width of the root window in pixels. The number of bit planes (the depth) of the root window. The x resolution of the screen in pixels per meter. The y resolution of the screen in pixels per meter. X_RESOLUTION=num Y_RESOLUTION=num SRVR_name , CLNT_name, VNDR_name , and EXT_name identifiers are formed by changing all characters other than letters and digits into underscores. Lines that begin with an exclamation mark (!) are ignored and may be used as comments. Note that since xrdb can read from standard input, it can be used to change the contents of properties directly from a terminal or from a shell script. OPTIONS xrdb program accepts the following options: –help –display display –all This option (or any unsupported option) will cause a brief description of the allowable options and parameters to be printed. This option specifies the X server to be used; see X(1). It also specifies the screen to use for the -screen option, and it specifies the screen from which preprocessor symbols are derived for the -global option. This option indicates that operation should be performed on the screen-independent resource property (RESOURCE_MANAGER), as well as the screen-specific property (SCREEN_RESOURCES) on every screen of the display. For example, when used in conjunction with -query , the contents of all properties are output. For -load, -override, and -merge, the input file is processed once for each screen. The resources that occur in common in the output for every screen are collected, and these are applied as the screen-independent resources. The remaining resources are applied for each individual per-screen property. This the default mode of operation. Part I: User Commands 684 This option specifies a suffix to be appended to the filename used with –edit to generate a backup file. This option is passed through to the preprocessor and is used to define symbols for use with conditionals such as #ifdef . This option is passed through to the preprocessor and is used to remove any definitions of this symbol. This option is passed through to the preprocessor and is used to specify a directory to search for files that are referenced with #include . –backup string –Dname[=value] –Uname –Idirectory FILES k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 6 e 1 i 7 v Pre Page Generalizes ~/.Xdefaults files SEE ALSO X(1), Xlib Resource Manager documentation, Xt resource documentation ENVIRONMENT DISPLAY BUGS To figure out which display to use. The default for no arguments should be to query, not to overwrite, so that it is consistent with other programs. AUTHORS Bob Scheifler and Phil Karlton, rewritten from the original by Jim Gettys X Version 11 Release 6 xrefresh xrefresh —Refresh all or part of an X screen SYNOPSIS xrefresh [-option ...] DESCRIPTION xrefresh is a simple X program that causes all or part of your screen to be repainted. This is useful when system messages have messed up your screen. xrefresh maps a window on top of the desired area of the screen and then immediately unmaps it, causing refresh events to be sent to all applications. By default, a window with no background is used, causing all applications to repaint smoothly. However, the various options can be used to indicate that a solid background (of any color) or the root window background should be used instead. ARGUMENTS –white –black –solid color –root Use a white background. The screen just appears to flash quickly, and then repaint. Use a black background (in effect, turning off all of the electron guns to the tube). This can be somewhat disorienting as everything goes black for a moment. Use a solid background of the specified color. Try green. Use the root window background. Part I: User Commands 700 ENVIRONMENT To get default host and display number DISPLAY SEE ALSO X(1) AUTHOR Donna Converse (MIT X Consortium) X Version 11 Release 6 xterm k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 2 e 3 i 7 v Pre Page xterm—Terminal emulator for X SYNOPSIS xterm [–toolkitoption ...] [–option ...] DESCRIPTION The xterm program is a terminal emulator for the X Window System. It provides DEC VT102- and Tektronix 4014compatible terminals for programs that can’t use the window system directly. If the underlying operating system supports terminal resizing capabilities (for example, the SIGWINCH signal in systems derived from 4.3bsd), xterm will use the facilities to notify programs running in the window whenever it is resized. The VT102 and Tektronix 4014 terminals all have their own windows so that you can edit text in one and look at graphics in the other at the same time. To maintain the correct aspect ratio (height/width), Tektronix graphics will be restricted to the largest box with a 4014’s aspect ratio that will fit in the window. This box is located in the upper-left area of the window. Although both windows may be displayed at the same time, one of them is considered the active window for receiving keyboard input and terminal output. This is the window that contains the text cursor. The active window can be chosen through escape sequences, the VT Options menu in the VT102 window, and the Tek Options menu in the 4014 window. EMULATIONS The VT102 emulation is fairly complete, but does not support smooth scrolling, VT52 mode, the blinking character attribute nor the double-wide and double-size character sets. termcap(5) entries that work with xterm include xterm, vt102 , vt100, and ansi, and xterm automatically searches the termcap file in this order for these entries and then sets the TERM and the TERMCAP environment variables. Many of the special xterm features may be modified under program control through a set of escape sequences different from the standard VT102 escape sequences. (See the “Xterm Control Sequences” document.) The Tektronix 4014 emulation is also fairly good. It supports 12-bit graphics addressing, scaled to the window size. Four different font sizes and five different lines types are supported. There is no write-through or defocused mode support. The Tektronix text and graphics commands are recorded internally by xterm and may be written to a file by sending the COPY escape sequence (or through the Tektronix menu, discussed later in this section). The name of the file will be COPYyy–MM– dd.hh:mm:ss , where yy, MM, dd, hh, mm, and ss are the year, month, day, hour, minute, and second when the COPY was performed (the file is created in the directory xterm is started in, or the home directory for a login xterm). OTHER FEATURES xterm automatically highlights the text cursor when the pointer enters the window (selected) and unhighlights it when the pointer leaves the window (unselected). If the window is the focus window, then the text cursor is highlighted no matter where the pointer is. In VT102 mode, there are escape sequences to activate and deactivate an alternate screen buffer, which xterm –name name –title string –rv –geometry geometry –xrm resourcestring RESOURCES This option specifies the application name under which resources are to be obtained, rather than the default executable filename. Name should not contain . or * characters. This option specifies the window title string, which may be displayed by window managers if the user so chooses. The default title is the command line specified after the –e option , if any; otherwise, the application name. This option indicates that reverse video should be simulated by swapping the foreground and background colors. This option specifies the preferred size and position of the VT102 window; see X (1). This option specifies the X server to contact; see X (1). This option specifies a resource string to be used. This is especially useful for setting resources that do not have separate command-line options. This option indicates that xterm should ask the window manager to start it as an icon rather than as the normal window. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 7 e 3 i 7 v Pre Page –display display –iconic 705 The program understands all of the core X Toolkit resource names and classes as well as the following: iconGeometry (class IconGeometry) iconName (class IconName) termName (class TermName) title (class Title) ttyModes (class TtyModes) useInsertMode (class UseInsertMode) utmpInhibit (class UtmpInhibit) sunFunctionKeys (class SunFunctionKeys) waitForMap (class WaitForMap) Specifies the preferred size and position of the application when iconified. It is not necessarily obeyed by all window managers. Specifies the icon name. The default is the application name. Specifies the terminal type name to be set in the TERM environment variable. Specifies a string that may be used by the window manager when displaying this application. Specifies a string containing terminal setting keywords and the characters to which they may be bound. Allowable keywords include intr , quit, erase , kill, eof , eol, swtch, start, stop, brk, susp , dsusp, rprnt , flush, weras , and lnext . Control characters may be specified as ˆchar (for example, ˆc or ˆu) and ˆ? may be used to indicate delete. This is very useful for overriding the default terminal settings without having to do an stty every time an xterm is started. Force use of insert mode by adding appropriate entries to the TERMCAP environment variable. This is useful if the system termcap is broken. The default is False . Specifies whether or not xterm should try to record the user’s terminal in /etc/utmp . Specifies whether or not Sun Function Key escape codes should be generated for function keys instead of standard escape sequences. Specifies whether or not xterm should wait for the initial window map before starting the subprocess. The default is false. xterm 713 48, 48, 48, 48, 48, 48, 48, 48, /*8 9 :;< => ?*/ 48, 48, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, /*@ABC D E F G*/ 64, 48, 48, 48, 48, 48, 48, 48, /* H I J K L M N O */ 48, 48, 48, 48, 48, 48, 48, 48, /*P QR S T UVW*/ 48, 48, 48, 48, 48, 48, 48, 48, /*XY Z [\]ˆ */ 48, 48, 48, 91, 92, 93, 94, 48, /*’ab c d e fg */ 96, 48, 48, 48, 48, 48, 48, 48, /*h ijklm n o */ 48, 48, 48, 48, 48, 48, 48, 48, /*p q rs tu v w */ 48, 48, 48, 48, 48, 48, 48, 48, /*x y zf jg˜ DEL */ 48, 48, 48, 123, 124, 125, 126, 1}; k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 5 e 4 i 7 v Pre Page For example, the string 33:48,37:48,45-47:48,64:48 indicates that the exclamation mark, percent sign, dash, period, slash, and ampersand characters should be treated the same way as characters and numbers. This is useful for cutting and pasting electronic mailing addresses and filenames. ACTIONS It is possible to rebind keys (or sequences of keys) to arbitrary strings for input by changing the translations for the vt100 or tek4014 widgets. Changing the translations for events other than key and button events is not expected, and will cause unpredictable behavior. The following actions are provided for using within the vt100 or tek4014 translations resources: bell([percent]) ignore() insert() insert-seven-bit() insert-eight-bit() insert-selection (sourcename [, ...]) keymap(name) popup-menu(menuname) secure() This action rings the keyboard bell at the specified percentage above or below the base volume. This action ignores the event but checks for special pointer position escape sequences. This action inserts the character or string associated with the key that was pressed. This action is a synonym for insert() . This action inserts an eight-bit (Meta) version of the character or string associated with the key that was pressed. The exact action depends on the value of the eightBitInput resource. This action inserts the string found in the selection or cut buffer indicated by sourcename . Sources are checked in the order given (case is significant) until one is found. Commonly used selections include PRIMARY, SECONDARY , and CLIPBOARD . Cut buffers are typically named CUT_BUFFER0 through CUT_BUFFER7. This action dynamically defines a new translation table whose resource name is name with the suffix Keymap (case is significant). The name None restores the original translation table. This action displays the specified pop-up menu. Valid names (case is significant) include mainMenu, vtMenu , fontMenu , and tekMenu . This action toggles the Secure Keyboard mode described in the “Security” subsection, and is invoked from the securekbd entry in mainMenu . xterm set-scrollbar(on/off/toggle) set-jumpscroll(on/off/toggle) set-reverse-video(on/off/toggle) set-autowrap(on/off/toggle) set-reversewrap(on/off/toggle) 715 This action toggles the scrollbar resource and is also invoked by the scrollbar entry in vtMenu. This action toggles the jumpscroll resource and is also invoked by the jumpscroll entry in vtMenu . This action toggles the reverseVideo resource and is also invoked by the reversevideo entry in vtMenu. This action toggles automatic wrapping of long lines and is also invoked by the autowrap entry in vtMenu. This action toggles the reverseWrap resource and is also invoked by the reversewrap entry in vtMenu. This action toggles automatic insertion of line-feeds and is also invoked by the autolinefeed entry in vtMenu. This action toggles the handling Application Cursor Key mode and is also invoked by the appcursor entry in vtMenu . This action toggles the handling of Application Key-pad mode and is also invoked by the appkeypad entry in vtMenu . This action toggles the scrollKey resource and is also invoked from the scrollkey entry in vtMenu . This action toggles the scrollTtyOutput resource and is also invoked from the scrollttyoutput entry in vtMenu. This action toggles the c132 resource and is also invoked from the allow132 entry in vtMenu. This action toggles the curses resource and is also invoked from the cursesemul entry in vtMenu. This action toggles the visualBell resource and is also invoked by the visualbell entry in vtMenu . This action toggles the marginBell resource and is also invoked from the marginbell entry in vtMenu. This action toggles between the alternate and current screens. This action resets the scrolling region and is also invoked from the softreset entry in vtMenu. This action resets the scrolling region, tabs, window size, and cursor keys, and clears the screen. It is also invoked from the hardreset entry in vtMenu. This action does hard-reset() and also clears the history of lines saved off the top of the screen. It is also invoked from the clearsavedlines entry in vtMenu . This action directs output to either the vt or tek windows, according to the type string. It is also invoked by the tekmode entry in vtMenu and the vtmode entry in tekMenu . This action controls whether or not the vt or tek windows are visible. It is also invoked from the tekshow and vthide entries in vtMenu and the vtshow and tekhide entries in tekMenu . This action sets font used in the Tektronix window to the value of the resources tektextlarge, tektext2, tektext3 , and tektextsmall according to the argument. It is also by the entries of the same names as the resources in tekMenu . This action clears the Tektronix window and is also invoked by the tekpage entry in tekMenu. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 7 e 4 i 7 v Pre Page set-autolinefeed(on/off/toggle) set-appcursor(on/off/toggle) set-appkeypad(on/off/toggle) set-scroll-on-key(on/off/toggle) set-scroll-on-tty-output(on/off/toggle) set-allow132(on/off/toggle) set-cursesemul(on/off/toggle) set-visual-bell(on/off/toggle) set-marginbell(on/off/toggle) set-altscreen(on/off/toggle) soft-reset() hard-reset() clear-saved-lines() set-terminal-type(type) set-visibility(vt/tek,on/off/toggle) set-tek-text(large/2/3/small) tek-page() xvfb 717 ENVIRONMENT sets the environment variables TERM and TERMCAP properly for the size window you have created. It also uses and sets the environment variable DISPLAY to specify which bit map display terminal to use. The environment variable WINDOWID is set to the X window id number of the xterm window. xterm SEE ALSO resize(1), X(1), pty(4), tty(4) Xterm Control Sequences BUGS k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 9 e 4 i 7 v Pre Page Large pastes do not work on some systems. This is not a bug in xterm; it is a bug in the pseudo-terminal driver of those systems. xterm feeds large pastes to the pty only as fast as the pty will accept data, but some pty drivers do not return enough information to know if the write has succeeded. Many of the options are not resettable after xterm starts. Only fixed-width, character-cell fonts are supported. This program still needs to be rewritten. It should be split into very modular sections, with the various emulators being completely separate widgets that don’t know about each other. Ideally, you’d like to be able to pick and choose emulator widgets and stick them into a single control widget. There needs to be a dialog box to allow entry of the Tek COPY filename. AUTHORS Far too many people, including Loretta Guarino Reid (DEC-UEG-WSL), Joel McCormack (DEC-UEG-WSL), Terry Weissman (DEC-UEG-WSL), Edward Moy (Berkeley), Ralph R. Swick (MIT-Athena), Mark Vandevoorde (MIT-Athena), Bob McNamara (DEC-MAD), Jim Gettys (MIT-Athena), Bob Scheifler (MIT X Consortium), Doug Mink (SAO), Steve Pitschke (Stellar), Ron Newman (MIT-Athena), Jim Fulton (MIT X Consortium), Dave Serisky (HP), Jonathan Kamens (MIT-Athena) X Version 11 Release 6 Xvfb Xvfb—Virtual framebuffer X server for X Version 11 SYNOPSIS Xvfb [ option ] ... DESCRIPTION is an X server that can run on machines with no display hardware and no physical input devices. It emulates a dumb framebuffer using virtual memory. Xvfb The primary use of this server is intended to be server testing. The mfb or cfb code for any depth can be exercised with this server without the need for real hardware that supports the desired depths. A secondary use is testing clients against unusual depths and screen configurations. xvidtune 719 xvidtune xvidtune —Video mode tuner for XFree86 SYNOPSIS xvidtune [ -prev j -next j -unlock j -query j -saver suspendtime [ offtime ]][–toolkitoption ... ] DESCRIPTION Xvidtune is a client interface to the XFree86 X server video mode extension (XFree86-VidModeExtension). When given one of the nontoolkit options, xvidtune provides a command-line interface to either switch the video mode or get/set monitor powersaver time-outs. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 1 e 5 i 7 v Pre Page Without any options (or with only toolkit options) it presents the user with various buttons and sliders that can be used to interactively adjust existing video modes. It will also print the settings in a format suitable for inclusion in an XF86Config file. NOTE The original mode settings can be restored by pressing the R key, and this can be used to restore a stable screen in situations where the screen becomes unreadable. The available buttons are Left Right Up Down Adjust the video mode so that the display will be moved in the appropriate direction: Wider Narrower Shorter Taller Adjust the video mode so that the display size is altered appropriately: Quit Apply Auto Test Restore Fetch Show Next Prev Exit the program. Adjust the current video mode to match the selected settings. Cause the Up/Down/Right/Left, Wider/Narrower/Shorter/ Taller, Restore, and the special S3 buttons to be applied immediately. This button can be toggled. Temporarily switch to the selected settings. Return the settings to their original values. Query the server for its current settings. Print the currently selected settings to stdout in XF86Config Modeline format. The primary selection is similarly set. Switch the Xserver to the next video mode. Switch the Xserver to the previous video mode. For some S3-based cards (964 and 968) the following are also available: InvertVCLK EarlySC Change the VCLK invert/noninvert state. Change the Early SC state. This affects screen wrapping. Part I: User Commands 720 BlankDelay1 , BlankDelay2 Set the blank delay values. This affects screen wrapping. Acceptable values are in the range 0–7. The values may be incremented or decremented with the + and - buttons, or by pressing the + or - keys in the text field. For S3-864/868 based cards, InvertVCLK and BlankDelay1 may be useful. For S3 Trio32/Trio64 cards, only InvertVCLK is available. At the moment there are no default settings available for these chips in the video mode extension and thus this feature is disabled in xvidtune . It can be enabled by setting any of the optional S3 commands in the screen section of XF86Config , for example, using blank delay “” 0 OPTIONS xvidtune k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 2 e 5 i 7 v Pre Page accepts the standard X Toolkit command-line options as well as the following: –prev –next –unlock –saver suspendtime [offtime] –query Switch the Xserver to the previous video mode. Switch the Xserver to the next video mode. Normally, xvidtune will disable the switching of video modes via hot keys while it is running. If for some reason the program did not exit cleanly and they are still disabled, the program can be rerun with this option to reenable the mode switching key combinations. Set the suspend and off screen saver inactivity time-outs. The values are in seconds. Display the monitor parameters and extended screen saver time-outs. SEE ALSO XF86Config (4/5) AUTHORS Kaleb S. Keithley (X Consortium), additions and modifications by Jon Tombs, David Dawes, and Joe Moss X Version 11 Release 6 xvminitoppm xvminitoppm —Convert an XV thumbnail picture to PPM SYNOPSIS xvminitoppm [xvminipic] DESCRIPTION Reads an XV thumbnail picture (a miniature picture generated by the VisualSchnauzer browser) as input. Produces a portable pixmap as output. SEE ALSO ppm(5), xv(1) AUTHOR Copyright (c) 1993 by Ingo Wilken 14 December 1993 xwd 721 xwd xwd—Dump an image of an X window SYNOPSIS xwd [-debug] [-help] [-nobdrs] [-out file] [-xy] [-frame] [-add value] [-root j -id id j -name name ] [-icmap] [-screen] [-display display] DESCRIPTION is an X Window System window dumping utility. xwd allows X users to store window images in a specially formatted dump file. This file can then be read by various other X utilities for redisplay, printing, editing, formatting, archiving, image processing, and so on. The target window is selected by clicking the pointer in the desired window. The keyboard bell is rung once at the beginning of the dump and twice when the dump is completed. xwd OPTIONS k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 3 e 5 i 7 v Pre Page -display display -help -nobdrs -out file -xy -add value -frame -root -id id -name name -icmap -screen This argument allows you to specify the server to connect to; see X (1). Print out the Usage: command syntax summary. This argument specifies that the window dump should not include the pixels that compose the X window border. This is useful in situations in which you may wish to include the window contents in a document as an illustration. This argument allows the user to explicitly specify the output file on the command line. The default is to output to standard out. This option applies to color displays only. It selects XY format dumping instead of the default Z format. This option specifies a signed value to be added to every pixel. This option indicates that the window manager frame should be included when manually selecting a window. This option indicates that the root window should be selected for the window dump, without requiring the user to select a window with the pointer. This option indicates that the window with the specified resource id should be selected for the window dump, without requiring the user to select a window with the pointer. This option indicates that the window with the specified WM_NAME property should be selected for the window dump, without requiring the user to select a window with the pointer. Normally, the colormap of the chosen window is used to obtain RGB values. This option forces the first installed colormap of the screen to be used instead. This option indicates that the GetImage request used to obtain the image should be done on the root window, rather than directly on the specified window. In this way, you can obtain pieces of other windows that overlap the specified window, and more importantly, you can capture menus or other popups that are independent windows but that appear over the specified window. Part I: User Commands 732 DESCRIPTION and zdiff are used to invoke the cmp or the diff program on compressed files. All options specified are passed directly to or diff. If only one file is specified, then the files compared are file1 and an uncompressed file1.gz. If two files are specified, then they are uncompressed if necessary and fed to cmp or diff. The exit status from cmp or diff is preserved. Zcmp cmp SEE ALSO cmp(1), diff(1), zmore(1), zgrep (1), znew (1), zforce (1), gzip(1), gzexe(1) BUGS Messages from the cmp or diff programs refer to temporary filenames instead of those specified. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 4 e 6 i 7 v Pre Page zeisstopnm zeisstopnm —Convert SYNOPSIS a Zeiss confocal file into a portable anymap zeisstopnm [-pgm j -ppm][zeissfile] DESCRIPTION Reads a Zeiss confocal file as input. Produces a portable anymap as output. The type of the output file depends on the input file—if it’s grayscale, a pgm file will be produced; otherwise, it will be a ppm file. The program tells you which type it is writing. OPTIONS Force the output to be a pgm file Force the output to be a ppm file -pgm -ppm SEE ALSO pnm(5) AUTHOR Copyright (c) 1993 by Oliver Trepte. 15 June 1993 zforce zforce—Force a .gz extension on all gzip files SYNOPSIS zforce [ name ... ] DESCRIPTION zforce forces a .gz extension on all gzip files so that gzip will not compress them twice. This can be useful for files with names truncated after a file transfer. On systems with a 14-character limitation on filenames, the original name is truncated to make room for the .gz suffix. For example, 12345678901234 is renamed to 12345678901.gz. A filename such as foo.tgz is left intact. 736 Part I: User Commands k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 8 e 6 i 7 v Pre Page 737 Part II: k u . o .c e l a s e t Systemm Calls No 1527 o r f f o w 9 e 6 i 7 v e e r P Pag Part II: System Calls 742 CONFORMS TO SVID, AT&T, POSIX, X/OPEN, BSD 4.3 SEE ALSO stat(2), open(2), chmod (2), chown (2), setuid(2), setgid(2) Linux 1.2.13, 17 March 1996 acct k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 4 e 7 i 7 v Pre Page acct—Switches SYNOPSIS process accounting on or off #include <unistd.h> int acct(const char *filename); DESCRIPTION Warning: Since this function is not implemented as of Linux 0.99.11, it will always return –1 and set errno to ENOSYS. If acctkit is installed, the function performs as advertised. When called with the name of an existing file as argument, accounting is turned on and records for each terminating process are appended to filename as it terminates. An argument of NULL causes accounting to be turned off. RETURN VALUE On success, 0 is returned. On error, –1 is returned and errno is set appropriately. NOTES No accounting is produced for programs running when a crash occurs. In particular, nonterminating processes are never accounted for. SEE ALSO acct(5) Linux 0.99.11, 10 August 1993 adjtimex adjtimex —Tunes kernel clock SYNOPSIS #include <sys/timex.h> int adjtimex(struct timex *buf); DESCRIPTION Linux uses David Mill’s clock adjustment algorithm. adjtimex reads and optionally sets adjustment parameters for this algorithm. adjtimex takes a pointer to a timex structure, updates kernel parameters from field values, and returns the same structure with current kernel values. This structure is declared as follows: dup, dup2 753 specified by serv_addr , which is an address in the communications space of the socket. Each communications space interprets the serv_addr , parameter in its own way. Generally, stream sockets may successfully connect only once; datagram sockets may use connect multiple times to change their association. Datagram sockets may dissolve the association by connecting to an invalid address, such as a null address. RETURN VALUE If the connection or binding succeeds, 0 is returned. On error, –1 is returned and errno is set appropriately. ERRORS See the Linux kernel source code for details. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o dup, dup2 w 5 e 8 i 7 v Pre Page HISTORY The connect function call first appeared in BSD 4.2. SEE ALSO accept(2), bind (2), listen (2), socket (2), getsockname(2) Linux 0.99.11, 23 July 1993 dup, dup2 —Duplicate a file descriptor SYNOPSIS #include <unistd.h> int dup(int oldfd); int dup2(int oldfd,intnewfd); DESCRIPTION dup and dup2 create a copy of the file descriptor oldfd . The old and new descriptors can be used interchangeably. They share locks, file position pointers and flags; for example, if the file position is modified by using lseek on one of the descriptors, the position is also changed for the other. The two descriptors do not share the close-on-exec flag, however. dup uses the lowest-numbered unused descriptor for the new descriptor. dup2 makes newfd be the copy of oldfd , closing newfd first if necessary. RETURN VALUE dup and dup2 return the new descriptor, or –1 if an error occurred (in which case errno is set appropriately). ERRORS EBADF EMFILE oldfd isn’t an open file descriptor, or newfd is out of the allowed range for file descriptors. The process already has the maximum number of file descriptors open and tried to open a new one. WARNING The error returned by dup2 is different from that returned by fcntl(...,F_DUPFD,...) when newfd is out of range. On some systems dup2 also sometimes returns EINVAL like F_DUPFD . getdents 759 ERRORS is not a valid file descriptor open for writing. is bound to a special file that does not support synchronization. An error occurred during synchronization. fd EBADF EROFS, EINVAL fd EIO CONFORMS TO POSIX.1b SEE ALSO bdflush (2), fdatasync (2), sync(2), update(8), sync(8) k u . o .c e l getdents a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 1 e 9 i 7 v Pre Page Linux 1.3.85, 13 April 1996 getdents —Gets directory entries SYNOPSIS #include <unistd.h> #include <linux/dirent.h> #include <linux/unistd.h> syscall3(int, getdents, uint, fd, struct dirent *, dirp, uint, count); int getdents(unsigned int fd, struct dirent *dirp, unsigned int count); DESCRIPTION reads several dirent structures from the directory pointed at by fd into the memory area pointed to by dirp. The parameter count is the size of the memory area. getdents The dirent structure is declared as follows: struct dirent { long d_ino; off_t d_off; unsigned short d_reclen; char d_name [NAME_MAX+1]; /* /* /* /* inode number */ offset to next dirent */ length of this dirent */ file name (null-terminated) */ } is an inode number. d_off is the distance from the start of the directory to the start of the next dirent. d_reclen is the size of this entire dirent. d_name is a null-terminated filename. d_ino This call supersedes readdir(2). RETURN VALUE On success, the number of bytes read is returned. On end of directory, 0 is returned. On error, –1 is returned and errno is set appropriately. ERRORS EBADF ENOTDIR Invalid file descriptor fd. File descriptor does not refer to a directory. SEE ALSO readdir (2), readdir (3) Linux 1.3.6, 22 July 1995 getrlimit, getrusage, setrlimit 767 In addition to these errors, setpriority will fail with the following: A process was located, but neither its effective nor real user ID matched the effective user ID of the caller. A nonsuperuser attempted to lower a process priority. EPERM EACCES HISTORY These function calls appeared in BSD 4.2. SEE ALSO nice(1), fork(2), renice (8) k u . o .c e l getrlimit, getrusage, setrlimit a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 9 e 9 i 7 v Pre Page BSD Man Page, 24 July 1993 getrlimit , getrusage , setrlimit—Get/set resource limits and usage SYNOPSIS #include <sys/time.h> #include <sys/resource.h> #include <unistd.h> int getrlimit (int resource, struct rlimit *rlim); int getrusage (int who, struct rusage *usage); int setrlimit (int resource, const struct rlimit *rlim); DESCRIPTION getrlimit RLIMIT RLIMIT RLIMIT RLIMIT RLIMIT RLIMIT RLIMIT RLIMIT RLIMIT and setrlimit get and set resource limits. resource should be one of the following: CPU /* CPU time in seconds */ FSIZE /* Maximum filesize */ DATA /* max data size */ STACK /* max stack size */ CORE /* max core file size */ RSS /* max resident set size */ NPROC /* max number of processes */ NOFILE /* max number of open files */ MEMLOCK /* max locked-in-memory address space*/ A resource may be unlimited if you set the limit to RLIM_INFINITY. RLIMIT_OFILE is the BSD name for RLIMIT_NOFILE. The rlimit structure is defined as follows : struct rlimit { int int rlim_cur; rlim_max; }; getrusage returns the current resource usages for a who of either RUSAGE_SELF or RUSAGE_CHILDREN: struct rusage { struct timeval ru_utime; struct timeval ru_stime; long ru_maxrss; long ru_ixrss; /* /* /* /* user time used */ system time used */ maximum resident set size */ integral shared memory size */ getuid, geteuid 773 And the following macros are defined to operate on this : #define timerisset(tvp)\ ((tvp)->tv_sec || (tvp)->tv_usec) #define timercmp(tvp, uvp, cmp)\ ((tvp)->tv_sec cmp (uvp)->tv_sec ||\ (tvp)->tv_sec == (uvp)->tv_sec &&\ (tvp)->tv_usec cmp (uvp)->tv_usec) #define timerclear(tvp) ((tvp)->tv_sec = (tvp)->tv_usec = 0) If either tv or tz is null, the corresponding structure is not set or returned. Only the superuser can use settimeofday. ERRORS k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 5 e 0 i 8 v Pre Page settimeofday is called by someone other than the superuser. Time zone (or something else) is invalid. EPERM EINVAL CONFORMS TO BSD 4.3 SEE ALSO date(1), adjtimex (2), time(2), ctime(3), ftime(3) Linux 1.2.4, 15 April 1995 getuid, geteuid getuid, geteuid —Get user identity SYNOPSIS #include <unistd.h> uid_t getuid(void); uid_t geteuid(void); DESCRIPTION getuid returns the real user ID of the current process. geteuid returns the effective user ID of the current process. The real ID corresponds to the ID of the calling process. The effective ID corresponds to the set ID bit on the file being executed. ERRORS These functions are always successful. CONFORMS TO POSIX, BSD 4.3 SEE ALSO setreuid (2), setuid (2) Linux 0.99.11, 23 July 1993 Part II: System Calls 774 idle idle—Makes process 0 idle SYNOPSIS #include <unistd.h> void idle(void); DESCRIPTION idle is an internal system call used during bootstrap. It marks the process’s pages as swappable, lowers its priority, and enters the main scheduling loop. idle never returns. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 6 e 0 i 8 v Pre Page Only process 0 may call idle . Any user process, even a process with superuser permission, will receive EPERM . RETURN VALUE idle never returns for process 0, and always returns –1 for a user process. ERRORS EPERM Always, for a user process. Linux 1.1.46, 21 August 1994 ioctl ioctl—Controls devices SYNOPSIS #include <sys/ioctl.h> int ioctl(int d,intrequest, ...); (The “third” argument is traditionally char *argp and will be so named for this discussion.) DESCRIPTION The ioctl function manipulates the underlying device parameters of special files. In particular, many operating characteristics of character special files (for example, terminals) may be controlled with ioctl requests. The argument d must be an open file descriptor. An ioctl request has encoded in it whether the argument is an in parameter or out parameter, and the size of the argument argp in bytes. Macros and defines used in specifying an ioctl request are located in the file <sys/ioctl.h>. RETURN VALUE On success, 0 is returned. On error, –1 is returned and errno is set appropriately. ERRORS EBADF ENOTTY ENOTTY EINVAL is not a valid descriptor. is not associated with a character special device. The specified request does not apply to the kind of object that the descriptor d references. request or argp is not valid. d d HISTORY An ioctl function call appeared in version 7 AT&T UNIX. ioctl 781 <include/linux/kd.h> 0x00004B3D KDUNMAPDISP void // MORE 0x00004B40 GIO_SCRNMAP struct f char [E_TABSZ]; g * 0x00004B41 PIO_SCRNMAP const struct f char [E_TABSZ]; g * 0x00004B69 GIO_UNISCRNMAP struct f short [E_TABSZ]; g * 0x00004B6A PIO_UNISCRNMAP const struct f short [E_TABSZ]; g * 0x00004B66 GIO_UNIMAP struct unimapdesc * // MORE // I-O 0x00004B67 PIO_UNIMAP const struct unimapdesc * // MORE k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 3 e 1 i 8 v Pre Page 0x00004B68 PIO_UNIMAPCLR const struct unimapinit * 0x00004B44 KDGKBMODE int * 0x00004B45 KDSKBMODE int 0x00004B62 KDGKBMETA int * 0x00004B63 KDSKBMETA int 0x00004B64 KDGKBLED int * 0x00004B65 KDSKBLED int 0x00004B46 KDGKBENT struct kbentry * // I-O 0x00004B47 KDSKBENT const struct kbentry * 0x00004B48 KDGKBSENT struct kbsentry * // I-O 0x00004B49 KDSKBSENT const struct kbsentry * 0x00004B4A KDGKBDIACR struct kbdiacrs * 0x00004B4B KDSKBDIACR const struct kbdiacrs * 0x00004B4C KDGETKEYCODE struct kbkeycode * // I-O 0x00004B4D KDSETKEYCODE const struct kbkeycode * 0x00004B4E KDSIGACCEPT int 0x00000601 LPCHAR int 0x00000602 LPTIME int 0x00000604 LPABORT int 0x00000605 LPSETIRQ int 0x00000606 LPGETIRQ int * 0x00000608 LPWAIT int 0x00000609 LPCAREFUL int 0x0000060A LPABORTOPEN int 0x0000060B LPGETSTATUS int * 0x0000060C LPRESET void 0x0000060D LPGETSTATS struct lp stats * <include/linux/lp.h> <include/linux/mroute.h> 0x000089E0 SIOCGETVIFCNT struct sioc_vif_req * // I-O 0x000089E1 SIOCGETSGCNT struct sioc_sg_req * // I-O ioctl 787 MORE ARGUMENTS Some ioctls take a pointer to a structure that contains additional pointers. These are documented here in alphabetical order. CDROMREADAUDIO takes an input pointer const struct cdrom read audio *. The buf field points to an output buffer of length nframes * CD FRAMESIZE RAW. CDROMREADCOOKED, CDROMREADMODE1, CDROMREADMODE2 , and CDROM-READRAW take an input pointer const struct cdrom msf *. They use the same pointer as an output pointer to char [] . The length varies by request. For CDROMREADMODE1, most drivers use CD_FRAMESIZE , but the optics storage driver uses OPT BLOCKSIZE instead (both have the numerical value 2048). CDROMREADCOOKED char [CD_FRAMESIZE] CDROMREADMODE1 char [CD_FRAMESIZE or OPT_BLOCKSIZE] CDROMREADMODE2 char [CD_FRAMESIZE_RAW0] CDROMREADRAW char [CD_FRAMESIZE_RAW] k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 9 e 1 i 8 v Pre Page EQL_ENSLAVE , EQL_EMANCIPATE, EQL_GETSLAVECFG, EQL_SETSLAVECFG , EQL_GETMASTERCFG, ifreq * . The ifr data EQL_ENSLAVE const struct slaving_request * EQL_EMANCIPATE const struct slaving_request * EQL_GETSLAVECFG struct slave_config * // I-O EQL_SETSLAVECFG const struct slave_config * EQL_GETMASTERCFG struct master_config * EQL_SETMASTERCFG const struct master_config * FDRAWCMD and EQL_SETMASTERCFG take a struct field is a pointer to another structure as follows: takes a struct floppy raw cmd * . length. If flags & FD RAW READ If flags & FD RAW WRITE is nonzero, then data points to an input buffer of length is nonzero, then data points to an output buffer of length length. and PIO_FONTX take a struct console font desc * or a const struct console_font_desc *, respectively. chardata points to a buffer of char [charcount]. This is an output buffer for GIO_FONTX and an input buffer for PIO_FONTX. GIO_FONTX and PIO_UNIMAP take a struct unimapdesc * or a const struct unimapdesc *, respectively. entries points to a buffer of struct unipair [entry ct]. This is an output buffer for GIO_UNIMAP and an input buffer for PIO_UNIMAP . GIO_UNIMAP KDADDIO , KDDELIO, KDDISABIO , and KDENABIO enable or disable access to I/O ports. They are essentially alternate interfaces to ioperm. KDMAPDISP and KDUNMAPDISP enable or disable memory mappings or I/O port access. They are not implemented in the kernel. takes an input pointer const buffer of this length. SCSI_IOCTL_PROBE_HOST a char [] SIOCADDRT which is a length. It uses the same pointer as an output pointer to and SIOCDELRT take an input pointer whose type depends on the protocol: Most protocols AX.25 NET/ROM const struct rtentry * const struct ax25_route * const struct nr_route_struct * takes a struct ifconf *. The ifc a list of type struct ifreq []. SIOCGIFCONF SIOCSIFHWADDR buf field points to a buffer of length ifc len bytes, into which the kernel writes takes an input pointer whose type depends on the protocol: Most protocols AX.25 const struct ifreq * const char [AX25_ADDR_LEN] takes a const char *. It uses this to distinguish several independent subcases. In the following table, N after an N-byte pad. struct selection is implicitly defined in drivers/char/selection.c: TIOCLINUX foo int * , + foo means Part II: System Calls 796 The file type should be one of S_IFREG , S_IFCHR, S_IFBLK , or S_IFIFO to specify a normal file (which will be created empty), character special file, block special file, or FIFO (named pipe), respectively, or 0, which will create a normal file. If the file type is S_IFCHR or S_IFBLK, then dev specifies the major and minor numbers of the newly created device special file; otherwise, it is ignored. The newly created node will be owned by the effective UID of the process. If the directory containing the node has the set group ID bit set, or if the filesystem is mounted with BSD group semantics, the new node will inherit the group ownership from its parent directory; otherwise it will be owned by the effective GID of the process. RETURN VALUE mknod returns 0 on success, or -1 if an error occurred (in which case, errno is set appropriately). ERRORS EPERM EINVAL EEXIST EFAULT EACCES ENAMETOOLONG ENOENT ENOTDIR k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 8 e 2 i 8 v Pre Page ENOMEM EROFS ELOOP ENOSPC requested creation of something other than a FIFO (named pipe), and the caller is not the superuser; also returned if the filesystem containing pathname does not support the type of node requested. mode requested creation of something other than a normal file, device special file or FIFO. pathname already exists. pathname points outside your accessible address space. The parent directory does not allow write permission to the process, or one of the directories in pathname did not allow search (execute) permission. pathname was too long. A directory component in pathname does not exist or is a dangling symbolic link. A component used as a directory in pathname is not, in fact, a directory. Insufficient kernel memory was available. pathname refers to a file on a read-only filesystem and write access was requested. pathname contains a reference to a circular symbolic link, that is, a symbolic link whose expansion contains a reference to itself. The device containing pathname has no room for the new node. mode BUGS In some older versions of Linux (for example, 0.99pl7) all the normal filesystems sometime allow the creation of two files in the same directory with the same name. This occurs only rarely and only on a heavily loaded system. It is believed that this bug was fixed in the Minix filesystem in Linux 0.99pl8 prerelease; and it is hoped that it was fixed in the other filesystems shortly afterward. mknod cannot be used to create directories or socket files, and cannot be used to create normal files by users other than the superuser. There are many infelicities in the protocol underlying NFS. SEE ALSO read(2), write (2), fcntl (2), close (2), unlink(2), open(2), mkdir(2), stat(2), umask (2), mount (2), socket(2), fopen(3) Linux 1.0, 29 March 1994 mlock mlock—Disables paging for some parts of memory msgop 809 int msgsnd ( int msqid, struct msgbuf *msgp”,int msgsz,int msgflg ); int msgrcv ( int msqid, struct msgbuf *msgp,int msgsz,long msgtyp,int msgflg ); DESCRIPTION To send or receive a message, the calling process allocates a structure that looks like the following: struct msgbuf { long mtype; /* message type, must be > 0 */ char mtext[1]; /* message data */ }; k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 1 e 4 i 8 v Pre Page but with an array mtext of size msgsz, a nonnegative integer value. The structure member mtype must have a strictly positive integer value that can be used by the receiving process for message selection (see the section about msgrcv ). The calling process must have write access permissions to send and read access permissions to receive a message on the queue. The msgsnd system call queues a copy of the message pointed to by the msgp argument on the message queue whose identifier is specified by the value of the msqid argument. The argument msgflg specifies the system call behavior if queuing the new message will require more than msg_qbytes in the queue. Asserting IPC_NOWAIT , the message will not be sent and the system call fails, returning with errno set to EAGAIN . Otherwise the process is suspended until the condition for the suspension no longer exists (in which case the message is sent and the system call succeeds), or the queue is removed (in which case the system call fails with errno set to EIDRM), or the process receives a signal that has to be caught (in which case the system call fails with errno set to EINTR). Upon successful completion, the message queue data structure is updated as follows: msg_lspid msg_qnum msg_stime Set to the process D of the calling process. Incremented by 1. Set to the current time. The system call msgrcv reads a message from the message queue specified by msqid into the msgbuf pointed to by the msgp argument, removing from the queue, on success, the read message. The argument msgsz specifies the maximum size in bytes for the member mtext of the structure pointed to by the msgp argument. If the message text has length greater than msgsz, then if the msgflg argument asserts MSG_NOERROR, the message text will be truncated (and the truncated part will be lost); otherwise, the message isn’t removed from the queue and the system call fails, returning with errno set to E2BIG. The argument msgtyp specifies the type of message requested as follows: If msgtyp is 0, the message on the queue’s front is read. If msgtyp is greater than 0 , the first message on the queue of type msgtyp is read if MSG_EXCEPT isn’t asserted by the msgflg argument; otherwise, the first message on the queue of type not equal to msgtyp will be read. If msgtyp is less than 0 , the first message on the queue with the lowest type less than or equal to the absolute value of msgtyp will be read. The msgflg argument asserts none, one, or more (OR–ing them) among the following flags: IPC_NOWAIT MSG_EXCEPT MSG_NOERROR For immediate return if no message of the requested type is on the queue. The system call fails with errno set to ENOMSG. Used with msgtyp greater than 0 to read the first message on the queue with message type that differs from msgtyp. To truncate the message text if longer than msgsz bytes. munlock 811 SEE ALSO ipc(5), msgctl(2), msgget (2), msgrcv (2), msgsnd(2) Linux 0.99.13, 1 November 1993 msync msync—Synchronizes a file with a memory map SYNOPSIS k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 3 e 4 i 8 v Pre Page #include <unistd.h> #include <sys/mman.h> #ifdef_POSIX_MAPPED_FILES #ifdef_POSIX_SYNCHRONIZED_IO int msync(const void *start, size_t length,int flags); #endif #endif DESCRIPTION flushes changes made to the in-core copy of a file that was mapped into memory using mmap(2) back to disk. Without use of this call, there is no guarantee that changes are written back before munmap (2) is called. To be more precise, the part of the file that corresponds to the memory area starting at start and having length length is updated. The flags argument may have the bits MS_ASYNC , MS_SYNC , and MS_INVALIDATE set, but not both MS_ASYNC and MS_SYNC. MS_ASYNC specifies that an update be scheduled, but the call returns immediately. MS_SYNC asks for an update and waits for it to complete. MS_INVALIDATE asks to invalidate other mappings of the same file (so that they can be updated with the fresh values just written). msync RETURN VALUE On success, 0 is returned. On error, –1 is returned and errno is set appropriately. ERRORS is not a multiple of PAGESIZE , or any bit other than MS_ASYNC is set in flags. The indicated memory (or part of it) was not mapped. start EINVAL | MS_INVALIDATE | MS_SYNC EFAULT CONFORMS TO POSIX.4. SEE ALSO mmap(2), B.O. Gallmeister, POSIX.4, O’Reilly, pp. 128–129, 389–391. Linux 1.3.86, 12 April 1996 munlock munlock —Reenables paging for some parts of memory SYNOPSIS #include <sys/mman.h> int munlock(const void *addr, size_t len); open, creat 815 open, creat open, creat —Open and possibly create a file or device SYNOPSIS #include <sys/types.h> #include <sys/stat.h> #include <fcntl.h> int open(const char *pathname,int flags); int open(const char *pathname,int flags,mode_t mode); int creat(const char *pathname,mode_t mode); k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 7 e 4 i 8 v Pre Page DESCRIPTION open attempts to open a file and return a file descriptor (a small, nonnegative integer for use in read, write, and so on). flags is one of O_RDONLY , O_WRONLY , or O_RDWR, which request opening the file read-only, write-only, or read/write, respectively. flags may also be bitwise-ORed with one or more of the following: O_CREAT O_EXCL O_NOCTTY O_TRUNC O_APPEND O_NONBLOCK or O_NDELAY O_SYNC If the file does not exist it will be created. When used with O_CREAT , if the file already exists, it is an error and the open will fail. See the “Bugs” section, though. If pathname refers to a terminal device—see tty(4) — it will not become the process’s controlling terminal even if the process does not have one. If the file already exists, it will be truncated. The file is opened in append mode. Initially, and before each write, the file pointer is positioned at the end of the file, as if with lseek . The file is opened in nonblocking mode. Neither the open nor any subsequent operations on the file descriptor that is returned will cause the calling process to wait. The file is opened for synchronous I/O. Any write s on the resulting file descriptor will block the calling process until the data has been physically written to the underlying hardware. See the “Bugs” section, though. Some of these optional flags can be altered using fcntl after the file has been opened. specifies the permissions to use if a new file is created. It is modified by the process’s umask in the usual way: The permission of the created file is (mode & ˜umask). mode The following symbolic constants are provided for mode: S_IRWXU S_IRUSR (S_IREAD ) S_IWUSR (S_IWRITE ) S_IXUSR (S_IEXEC ) S_IRWXG S_IRGRP S_IWGRP S_IXGRP S_IRWXO S_IROTH S_IWOTH S_IXOTH mode 00700 user (file owner) has read, write, and execute permission. 00400 user has read permission. 00200 user has write permission. 00100 user has execute permission. 00070 group has read, write, and execute permission. 00040 group has read permission. 00020 group has write permission. 00010 group has execute permission. 00007 others have read, write, and execute permission. 00004 others have read permission. 00002 others have write permission. 00001 others have execute permission. should always be specified when O_CREAT is in the flags, and is ignored otherwise. creat is equivalent to open with flags equal to O_CREAT|O_WRONLY|O_TRUNC. profil 819 SYNOPSIS #include <unistd.h> int pipe(int filedes[2]); DESCRIPTION creates a pair of file descriptors, pointing to a pipe inode, and places them in the array pointed to by filedes. filedes[0] is for reading, filedes[1] is for writing. pipe RETURN VALUE On success, 0 is returned. On error, –1 is returned and errno is set appropriately. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 1 e 5 i 8 v e e g a profilPr P ERRORS Too many file descriptors are in use by the process. The system file table is full. filedes is not valid. EMFILE ENFILE EFAULT SEE ALSO read(2), write (2), fork (2), socketpair (2) Linux 0.99.11, 23 July 1993 profil—Execution time profile SYNOPSIS #include <unistd.h> int profil(char *buf, int bufsiz,int offset,int scale); DESCRIPTION Under Linux 0.99.11, profil is not implemented in the kernel. Instead, the DLL 4.4.1 libraries provide a user-space implementation. points to bufsiz bytes of core. Every virtual 10 milliseconds, the user’s program counter (PC) is examined: offset is subtracted and the result is multiplied by scale. If this address is in buf , the word pointed to is incremented. buf If scale is less than 2 or bufsiz is 0 , profiling is disabled. RETURN VALUE 0 is always returned. BUGS profil cannot be used on a program that also uses ITIMER_PROF itimers. Calling profil with an invalid buf will result in a core dump. True kernel profiling provides more accurate results. SEE ALSO gprof(1), setitimer (2), signal(2), sigaction(2) Linux 0.99.11, 23 July 1993 select, FD_CLR, FD_ISSET, FD_SET, FD_ZERO 835 BUGS As of Linux 1.3.81, SCHED_RR has not yet been tested carefully and might not behave exactly as described or required by POSIX.1b. SEE ALSO sched_setparam(2), sched_getparam(2), sched_yield (2), sched_get_priority_max (2), sched_get_priority_min (2), nice (2), setpriority (2), getpriority (2), mlockall (2), munlockall(2), mlock (2), munlock (2). Programming for the Real World—POSIX.4 by Bill O. Gallmeister, O’Reilly & Associates, Inc., ISBN 1-56592-074-0 IEEE Std 1003.1b-1003 (POSIX.1b standard) k u . o .c e l a s e t sched_yield o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 7 e 6 i 8 v Pre Page ISO/IEC 9945-1:1996—This is the new 1996 revision of POSIX.1, which contains in one single standard POSIX.1(1990), POSIX.1b(1993), POSIX.1c(1995), and POSIX.1i(1995). Linux 1.3.81, 10 April 1996 sched_yield —Yields the processor SYNOPSIS #include <sched.h> int sched_yield(void); DESCRIPTION A process can relinquish the processor voluntarily without blocking by calling sched_yield. The process will then be moved to the end of the queue for its static priority and a new process gets to run. Note: If the current process is the only process in the highest priority list at that time, this process will continue to run after a call to sched_yield. POSIX systems on which sched_yield is available define _POSIX_PRIORITY_SCHEDULING in <unistd.h> . RETURN VALUE On success, sched_yield returns 0. On error, –1 is returned, and errno is set appropriately. STANDARDS POSIX.1b (formerly POSIX.4) SEE ALSO sched_setscheduler(2) for a description of Linux scheduling Programming for the Real World—POSIX.4 by Bill O. Gallmeister, O’Reilly & Associates, Inc., ISBN 1-56592-074-0 IEEE Std 1003.1b-1993 (POSIX.1b standard) ISO/IEC 9945-1:1996 Linux 1.3.81, 10 April 1996 select, FD_CLR, FD_ISSET, FD_SET, FD_ZERO select, FD_CLR, FD_ISSET , FD_SET, FD_ZERO —Synchronous I/O multiplexing Part II: System Calls 846 Process groups are used for distribution of signals, and by terminals to arbitrate requests for their input; processes that have the same process group as the terminal are foreground and may read, whereas others will block with a signal if they attempt to read. These calls are thus used by programs such as csh (1) to create process groups in implementing job control. The TIOCGPGRP and TIOCSPGRP calls described in termios(4) are used to get/set the process group of the control terminal. RETURN VALUE On success, setpgid and setpgrp return 0. On error, –1 is returned, and errno is set appropriately. getpgid returns a process group on success. On error, –1 is returned, and errno is set appropriately. getpgrp always returns the current process group. ERRORS EINVAL EPERM ESRCH CONFORMS TO k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 8 e 7 i 8 v Pre Page pgid is less than 0. Various permission violations. pid does not match any process. The functions setpgid and getpgrp conform to POSIX.1. The function setpgrp is from BSD 4.2. I have no information on the source of getpgid. SEE ALSO getuid(2), setsid (2), tcsetpgrp (3), termios(4) Linux 1.2.4, 15 April 1995 setregid, setegid setregid , setegid—Sets real and/or effective group ID SYNOPSIS #include <unistd.h> int setregid(gid_t rgid, gid_t egid); int setegid(gid_t egid); DESCRIPTION setregid sets real and effective group IDs of the current process. Unprivileged users may change the real group ID to the effective group ID, and vice versa. Prior to Linux 1.1.38, the saved ID paradigm, when used with setregid or setegid, was broken. Starting at 1.1.38, it is also possible to set the effective group ID from the saved user ID. Only the superuser may make other changes. Supplying a value of –1 for either the real or effective group ID forces the system to leave that ID unchanged. Currently (libc-4.x.x), setegid(egid) is functionally equivalent to setregid(-1, egid). If the real group ID is changed or the effective group ID is set to a value not equal to the previous real group ID, the saved group ID will be set to the new effective group ID. RETURN VALUE On success, 0 is returned. On error, –1 is returned, and errno is set appropriately. wait, waitpid 887 pid_t wait(int *status) pid_t waitpid(pid_t pid,int*status,int options); DESCRIPTION The wait function suspends execution of the current process until a child has exited, or until a signal is delivered whose action is to terminate the current process or to call a signal-handling function. If a child has already exited by the time of the call (a so–called zombie process), the function returns immediately. Any system resources used by the child are freed. The waitpid function suspends execution of the current process until a child as specified by the pid argument has exited, or until a signal is delivered whose action is to terminate the current process or to call a signal-handling function. Just as with wait, if a child requested by pid has already exited by the time of the call, the function returns immediately. Any system resources used by the child are freed. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 9 e 1 i 9 v Pre Page The value of pid can be one of the following: < –1 –1 0 > 0 Wait for any child process whose process group ID is equal to the absolute value of pid. Wait for any child process; this is the same behavior that wait exhibits. Wait for any child process whose process group ID is equal to that of the calling process. Wait for the child whose process ID is equal to the value of pid. The value of options is an OR of zero or more of the following constants: WNOHANG WUNTRACED Return immediately if no child has exited. Also return for children that are stopped and whose status has not been reported. If status is not NULL , wait or waitpid stores status information in the location pointed to by statloc. This status can be evaluated with the following macros (these macros take the stat buffer as an argument—not a pointer to the buffer!): WIFEXITED(status) WEXITSTATUS(status) WIFSIGNALED(status) WTERMSIG(status) WIFSTOPPED(status) WSTOPSIG(status) Is nonzero if the child exited normally. Evaluates to the least significant eight bits of the return code of the child that terminated, which may have been set as the argument to a call to exit() or as the argument for a return statement in the main program. This macro can only be evaluated if WIFEXITED returned nonzero. Returns true if the child process exited because of a signal that was not caught. Returns the number of the signal that caused the child process to terminate. This macro can only be evaluated if WIFSIGNALED returned nonzero. Returns true if the child process that caused the return is currently stopped; this is only possible if the call was done using WUNTRACED. Returns the number of the signal that caused the child to stop. This macro can only be evaluated if WIFSTOPPED returned nonzero. RETURN VALUE The process ID of the child that exited returns –1 on error or 0 if WNOHANG was used and no child was available (in which case errno is set to an appropriate value). ERRORS ECHILD EPERM ERESTARTSYS If the child process specified in pid does not exist. If the effective user ID of the calling process does not match that of the process being waited for, and the effective user ID of the calling process is not that of the superuser. If WNOHANG was not set and an unblocked signal or a SIGCHLD was caught; this is an extension to the POSIX.1 standard. write WIFSTOPPED(*status) WSTOPSIG(*status) 889 Returns true if the child process that caused the return is currently stopped; this is only possible if the call was done using WUNTRACED. Returns the number of the signal that caused the child to stop. This macro can only be evaluated if WIFSTOPPED returned nonzero. If rusage is not NULL , the struct rusage as defined in <sys/resource.h> it points to will be filled with accounting information. See getrusage(2) for details. RETURN VALUE These calls return the process ID of the child that exited, –1 on error, or 0 if WNOHANG was used and no child was available (in which case errno will be set appropriately). ERRORS ECHILD EPERM k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 1 e 2 i 9 v Pre Page ERESTARTSYS If the child process specified in pid does not exist. If the effective user ID of the calling process does not match that of the process being waited for, and the effective user ID of the calling process is not that of the superuser. If WNOHANG was not set and an unblocked signal or a SIGCHLD was caught; this is an extension to the POSIX.1 standard. CONFORMS TO POSIX.1 SEE ALSO signal(2), getrusage (2), wait(2), signal(7) Linux, 24 July 1993 write write—Writes to a file descriptor SYNOPSIS #include <unistd.h> ssize_t write(int fd, const void *buf, size_t count); DESCRIPTION writes up to count bytes to the file referenced by the file descriptor fd from the buffer starting at buf . POSIX requires that a read() that can be proved to occur after a write() returned returns the new data. Note that not all filesystems are POSIX conforming. write RETURN VALUE On success, the number of bytes written is returned (0 indicates nothing was written). On error, –1 is returned, and errno is set appropriately. If count is 0 and the file descriptor refers to a regular file, 0 will be returned without causing any other effect. For a special file, the results are not portable. ERRORS is not a valid file descriptor or is not open for writing. is attached to an object that is unsuitable for writing. buf is outside your accessible address space. EBADF fd EINVAL fd EFAULT 891 Part III: k u . o .c e l a s e t Library Functions o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 3 e 2 i 9 v Pre Page acosh 893 SYNOPSIS #include <stdlib.h> int abs(int j); DESCRIPTION The abs() function computes the absolute value of the integer argument j. RETURN VALUE Returns the absolute value of the integer argument. CONFORMS TO k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 5 e 2 i 9 v Pre Page SVID 3, POSIX, BSD 4.3, ISO 9899 NOTES Trying to take the absolute value of the most negative integer is not defined. SEE ALSO ceil(3), floor(3), fabs (3), labs (3), rint (3) GNU, 6 June 1993 acos acos—Arc cosine function SYNOPSIS #include <math.h> double acos(double x); DESCRIPTION The acos() function calculates the arc cosine of x; that is the value whose cosine is x. If x falls outside the range –1 to 1, acos() fails and errno is set. RETURN VALUE The acos() function returns the arc cosine in radians; the value is mathematically defined to be between 0 and pi (inclusive). ERRORS EDOM x is out of range. CONFORMS TO SVID 3, POSIX, BSD 4.3, ISO 9899 SEE ALSO asin(3), atan(3), atan2 (3), cos (3), sin (3), tan (3) 8 June 1993 acosh acosh—Inverse hyperbolic cosine function Part III: Library Functions 896 DESCRIPTION assert() prints an error message to standard output and terminates the program by calling abort() if expression is false (that is, evaluates to 0). This only happens when the macro NDEBUG is undefined. RETURN VALUE No value is returned. CONFORMS TO ISO9899 (ANSI C) BUGS k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 8 e 2 i 9 v Pre Page assert() is implemented as a macro; if the expression tested has side effects, program behavior will be different depending on whether NDEBUG is defined. This may create Heisenbugs, which go away when debugging is turned on. SEE ALSO exit(3), abort (3) GNU, 4 April 1993 atan atan—Arc tangent function SYNOPSIS #include <math.h> double atan(double x); DESCRIPTION The atan() function calculates the arc tangent of x—that is, the value whose tangent is x. RETURN VALUE The atan() function returns the arc tangent in radians, and the value is mathematically defined to be between -PI/2 and PI/2 (inclusive). CONFORMS TO SVID 3, POSIX, BSD 4.3, ISO 9899 SEE ALSO acos(3), asin(3), atan2 (3), cos (3), sin (3), tan (3) 8 June 1993 atan2 atan2—Arc tangent function of two variables SYNOPSIS #include <math.h> double atan2(double y, double x); execl, execlp, execle, exect, execv, execvp 915 DESCRIPTION The exec family of functions replaces the current process image with a new process image. The functions described in this manual page are front ends for the function execve(2). (See the manual page for execve for detailed information about the replacement of the current process.) The initial argument for these functions is the pathname of a file that is to be executed. The const and subsequent ellipses in the execl, execlp, and execle functions can be thought of as arg0, arg1, …, describe a list of one or more pointers to null-terminated strings that represent the argument list available to the executed program. The first argument, by convention, should point to the file name associated with the file being executed. The list of arguments must be terminated by a NULL pointer. char *arg argn. Together they k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 7 e 4 i 9 v Pre Page The exect, execv , and execvp functions provide an array of pointers to null-terminated strings that represent the argument list available to the new program. The first argument, by convention, should point to the filename associated with the file being executed. The array of pointers must be terminated by a NULL pointer. The execle and exect functions also specify the environment of the executed process by following the NULL pointer that terminates the list of arguments in the parameter list or the pointer to the argv array with an additional parameter. This additional parameter is an array of pointers to null-terminated strings and must be terminated by a NULL pointer. The other functions take the environment for the new process image from the external variable environ in the current process. Some of these functions have special semantics. The functions execlp and execvp will duplicate the actions of the shell in searching for an executable file if the specified filename does not contain a slash (/) character. The search path is the path specified in the environment by the PATH variable. If this variable isn’t specified, the default path /bin:/usr/bin: is used (is this true for Linux?). In addition, certain errors are treated specially. If permission is denied for a file (the attempted execve returned EACCES ), these functions will continue searching the rest of the search path. If no other file is found, however, they will return with the global variable errno set to EACCES. If the header of a file isn’t recognized (the attempted execve returned ENOEXEC), these functions will execute the shell with the path of the file as its first argument. (If this attempt fails, no further searching is done.) If the file is currently busy (the attempted execve returned ETXTBUSY ), these functions will sleep for several seconds, periodically re-attempting to execute the file. (Is this true for Linux?) The function exect executes a file with the program-tracing facilities enabled (see ptrace(2)). RETURN VALUES If any of the exec functions returns, an error will have occurred. The return value is –1, and the global variable errno will be set to indicate the error. FILES /bin/sh ERRORS execl, execle , execlp, and execvp may fail and set errno for any of the errors specified for the library functions execve (2) and malloc(3). exect and execv may fail and set errno for any of the errors specified for the library function execve(2). SEE ALSO sh(1), execve(2), fork(2), trace (2), environ (5), ptrace(2) COMPATIBILITY Historically, the default path for the execlp and execvp functions was /bin:/usr/bin. This was changed to place the current directory last to enhance system security. fgetpos, fseek, fsetpos, ftell, rewind 927 SYNOPSIS #include <stdio.h> size_t fread(void *ptr, size_t size, size_t nmemb,FILE*stream); size_t fwrite(void *ptr, size_t size, size_t nmemb,FILE*stream); DESCRIPTION The function fread reads nmemb elements of data, each size bytes long, from the stream pointed to by stream, storing them at the location given by ptr. The function fwrite writes nmemb elements of data, each size bytes long, to the stream pointed to by stream , obtaining them from the location given by ptr. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 9 e 5 i 9 v Pre Page RETURN VALUES and fwrite return the number of items successfully read or written (that is, not the number of characters). If an error occurs, or the end-of-file is reached, the return value is a short item count (or 0). fread does not distinguish between end-of-file and error, and callers must use feof(3) and ferror(3) to determine which occurred. fread SEE ALSO feof(3), ferror (3), read (2), write (2) STANDARDS The functions fread and fwrite conform to ANSI C3.159-1989 (“ANSI C”). BSD Man Page, 17 May 1996 frexp frexp—Converts floating-point number to fractional and integral components SYNOPSIS #include <math.h> double frexp(double x, int *exp); DESCRIPTION The frexp() function is used to split the number x into a normalized fraction and an exponent that is stored in exp. RETURN VALUE The frexp() function returns the normalized fraction. If the argument x is not 0, the normalized fraction is x times a power of 2, and is always in the range 1⁄2 (inclusive) to 1 (exclusive). If x is 0, the normalized fraction is 0, and 0 is stored in exp . CONFORMS TO SVID 3, POSIX, BSD 4.3, ISO 9899 SEE ALSO ldexp(3), modf(3) GNU, 6 June 1993 fgetpos, fseek, fsetpos, ftell, rewind fgetpos , fseek, fsetpos , ftell, rewind —Reposition a stream getdirentries 931 RETURN VALUE The gcvt() function returns the address of the string pointed to by buf. SEE ALSO ecvt(3), fcvt(3), sprintf (3) 29 March 1993 getcwd, get_current_dir_name, getwd k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 3 e 6 i 9 v Pre Page getcwd, get_current_dir_name, getwd —Get SYNOPSIS current working directory #include <unistd.h> char *getcwd(char *buf, size_t size); char *get_current_working_dir_name(void); char *getwd(char *buf); DESCRIPTION The getcwd() function copies the absolute pathname of the current working directory to the array pointed to by buf, which is of length size. If the current absolute pathname would require a buffer longer than size elements, NULL is returned, and errno is set to ERANGE; an application should check for this error, and allocate a larger buffer if necessary. As an extension to the POSIX.1 standard, getcwd() allocates the buffer dynamically using malloc() if buf is NULL on call. In this case, the allocated buffer has the length size unless size is less than 0, when buf is allocated as large as necessary. It is possible (and, indeed, advisable) to free the buffers if they have been obtained this way. get_current_dir_name , which is only prototyped if __USE_GNU is defined, will malloc(3) an array big enough to hold the current directory name. If the environment variable PWD is set, and its value is correct, that value will be returned. getwd, which is only prototyped if __USE_BSD is defined, will not malloc (3) any memory. The buf argument should be a pointer to an array at least PATH_MAX bytes long. getwd returns only the first PATH_MAX bytes of the actual pathname. RETURN VALUE NULL on failure (for example, if the current directory is not readable), with errno set accordingly, and buf on success. CONFORMS TO POSIX.1 SEE ALSO chdir(2), free(3), malloc (3). GNU, 21 July 1993 getdirentries getdirentries —Gets directory entries in a filesystem-independent format SYNOPSIS #define __USE_BSD or #define __USE_MISC #include <dirent.h> ssize_t getdirentries(int fd, char *buf, size_t nbytes ,offt *basep); getmntent, setmntent, addmntent, endmntent, hasmntopt 935 FILES The /etc/passwd password database file /etc/utmp (or /var/adm/utmp , or wherever your utmp file lives these days—the proper location depends on your libc version) CONFORMS TO POSIX.1. System V has a cuserid function that uses the real user ID rather than the effective user ID. The cuserid function was included in the 1988 version of POSIX, but was removed from the 1990 version. BUGS Unfortunately, it is often rather easy to fool getlogin() . Sometimes it does not work at all, because some program messed up the utmp file. Often, it gives only the first eight characters of the login name. The user currently logged in on the controlling tty of your program need not be the user who started it. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 7 e 6 i 9 v Pre Page Nobody knows precisely what cuserid() does; so ■ ■ ■ Avoid it in portable programs Avoid it altogether Use getpwuid (geteuid() ) instead, if that is what you meant. Simply, do not use cuserid() . SEE ALSO geteuid (2), getuid (2) Linux 1.2.13, 3 September 1995 getmntent, setmntent, addmntent, endmntent, hasmntopt getmntent , setmntent , addmntent, endmntent , hasmntopt —Get filesystem descriptor file entry SYNOPSIS #include <stdio.h> #include <mntent.h> FILE *setmntent(const char *filep, const char *type); struct mntent *getmntent(FILE *filep); int addmntent(FILE *filep, const struct mntent *mnt); int endmntent(FILE *filep); char *hasmntopt(const struct mntent *mnt, const char *opt); DESCRIPTION These routines are used to access the filesystem description file /etc/fstab and the mounted filesystem description file /etc/ mstab. The setmntent() function opens the filesystem description file filep and returns a file pointer that can be used by getmntent() . The argument type is the type of access required and can take the same values as the mode argument of fopen (3). The getmntent() function reads the next line from the filesystem description file filep and returns a pointer to a structure containing the broken-out fields from a line in the file. The pointer points to a static area of memory that is overwritten by subsequent calls to getmntent(). The addmntent() function adds the mntent structure mnt to the end of the open file filep. The endmntent() function closes the filesystem description file filep . The hasmntopt() function scans the mnt_opts field of the mntent structure mnt for a substring that matches opt. (See for valid mount options.) <mntent.h> Part III: Library Functions 938 DESCRIPTION The getopt() function parses the command-line arguments. Its arguments argc and argv are the argument count and array as passed to the main() function on program invocation. An element of argv that starts with - (and is not exactly - or –-) is an option element. The characters of this element (aside from the initial - ) are option characters. If getopt() is called repeatedly, it returns successively each of the option characters from each of the option elements. If getopt() finds another option character, it returns that character, updating the external variable optind and a static variable nextchar so that the next call to getopt() can resume the scan with the following option character or argv element. If there are no more option characters, getopt() returns EOF. Then optind is the index in argv of the first argv element that is not an option. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 0 e 7 i 9 v Pre Page optstring is a string containing the legitimate option characters. If such a character is followed by a colon, the option requires an argument, so getopt places a pointer to the following text in the same argv element, or the text of the following argv element, in optarg. Two colons mean an option takes an optional arg; if there is text in the current argv element, it is returned in optarg ; otherwise, optarg is set to 0. By default, getargs() permutes the contents of argv as it scans, so that eventually all the non-options are at the end. Two other modes are also implemented. If the first character of optstring is + or the environment variable POSIXLY_CORRECT is set, option processing stops as soon as a non-option argument is encountered. If the first character of optstring is -, each nonoption argv element is handled as if it were the argument of an option with character code 1. (This is used by programs that were written to expect options and other argv elements in any order and that care about the ordering of the two.) The special argument – forces an end of option-scanning regardless of the scanning mode. If getopt() does not recognize an option character, it prints an error message to stderr , stores the character in optopt , and returns?. The calling program may prevent the error message by setting opterr to 0. The getopt_long()function works like getopt() , except that it also accepts long options, started out by two dashes. Long option names may be abbreviated if the abbreviation is unique or is an exact match for some defined option. A long option may take a parameter, of the form -–arg=param or –-arg param. longopts is a pointer to the first element of an array of struct option declared in <getopt.h> : as struct option { const char *name; int has_arg; int *flag; int val; }; The meanings of the different fields are name has_arg flag val The name of the long option. no_argument (or 0) if the option does not take an argument, required_argument (or 1) if the option requires an argument, or optional_argument (or 2) if the option takes an optional argument. Specifies how results are returned for a long option. If flag is NULL, getopt_long() returns val. (For example, the calling program might set val to the equivalent short option character.) Otherwise, getopt_long() returns 0, and flag points to a variable that is set to val if the option is found, but left unchanged if the option is not found. The value to return or to load into the variable pointed to by flag . The last element of the array has to be filled with zeroes. If longindex is not NULL, it points to a variable that is set to the index of the long option relative to longopts . getopt_long_only() is like getopt_long() , but - as well as -– can indicate a long option. If an option that starts with - (not –-) doesn’t match a long option but does match a short option, it is parsed as a short option instead. Part III: Library Functions 942 The members of the protoent structure are The official name of the protocol. A zero-terminated list of alternative names for the protocol. The protocol number. p_name p_aliases p_proto RETURN VALUE The getprotoent(), getprotobyname(), and getprotobynumber() functions return the protoent structure, or a NULL pointer if an error occurs or the end of the file is reached. FILES k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 4 e 7 i 9 v Pre Page /etc/protocols CONFORMS TO BSD 4.3 SEE ALSO protocol database file getservent (3), getnetent (3), protocols (5) BSD, 24 April 1993 getpw getpw—Reconstructs password line entry SYNOPSIS #include <pwd.h> #include <sys/types.h> int getpw(uid_t uid, char *buf); DESCRIPTION The getpw() function reconstructs the password line entry for the given user UID uid in the buffer buf . The returned buffer contains a line of format name:passwd:uid:gid:gecos:dir:shell The passwd structure is defined in <pwd.h> as follows: struct passwd { char char uid_t gid_t char char char }; *pw_name; *pw_passwd; pw_uid; pw_gid; *pw_gecos; *pw_dir; *pw_shell; /*username*/ /* user password */ /* user id */ /* group id */ /* real name */ /* home directory */ /* shell program */ RETURN VALUE The getpw()function returns 0 on success, or –1 if an error occurs. ERRORS ENOMEM Insufficient memory to allocate passwd structure. getutent, getutid, getutline, pututline, setutent, endutent, utmpname 947 void setusershell(void); void endusershell(void); DESCRIPTION The getusershell() function returns the next line from the file /etc/shells, opening the file if necessary. The line should contain the pathname of a valid user shell. If /etc/shells does not exist or is unreadable, getusershell() behaves as if /bin/sh and /bin/csh were listed in the file. The setusershell() function rewinds /etc/shells. The endusershell() function closes /etc/shells. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 9 e 7 i 9 v Pre Page RETURN VALUE The getusershell() function returns a NULL pointer on end of file. FILES /etc/shells CONFORMS TO BSD 4.3 SEE ALSO shells(5) BSD, 4 July 1993 getutent, getutid, getutline, pututline, setutent, endutent, utmpname getutent , getutid, getutline , pututline , setutent , endutent, utmpname —Access utmp file entries SYNOPSIS #include <utmp.h> struct utmp *getutent(void); struct utmp *getutid(struct utmp *ut); struct utmp *getutline(struct utmp *ut); void pututline(struct utmp *ut); void setutent(void); void endutent(void); void utmpname(const char *file); DESCRIPTION sets the name of the utmp-format file for the other utmp functions to access. If utmpname() is not used to set the filename before the other functions are used, they assume PATH_UTMP , as defined in <paths.h> . utmpname() rewinds the file pointer to the beginning of the utmp file. It is generally a good idea to call it before any of the other functions. setutent() endutent() closes getutent() the utmp file. It should be called when the user code is done accessing the file with the other functions. reads a line from the current file position in the utmp file. It returns a pointer to a structure containing the fields of the line. getutid() searches NEW_TIME , forward from the current file position in the utmp file based on ut. If ut->ut_type is RUN_LVL, BOOT_TIME , or OLD_TIME , getutid() will find the first entry whose ut_type field matches ut->ut_type . If ut->ut_type is glob, globfree 949 glob, globfree glob, globfree —Find pathnames matching a pattern; free memory from glob() SYNOPSIS #include <glob.h> int glob(const char *pattern, int flags, int errfunc(const char * epath, int eerrno), glob_t *pglob); void globfree(glob_t *pglob); DESCRIPTION k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 1 e 8 i 9 v Pre Page The glob() function searches for all the pathnames matching pattern according to the rules used by the shell (see glob(7)). No tilde expansion or parameter substitution is done. The globfree() function frees the dynamically allocated storage from an earlier call to glob() . The results of a glob() call are stored in the structure pointed to by pglob , which is a glob_t that is declared in <glob.h> as typedef struct { int gl_pathc; char **gl_pathv; int gl_offs; int gl_flags; } glob_t; /* /* /* /* Count of paths matched so far */ List of matched pathnames. */ Slots to reserve in ‘gl pathv’. */ Flags for globbing */ Results are stored in dynamically allocated storage. The parameter flags is made up of bitwise OR of zero or more the following symbolic constants, which modify the of behavior of glob() : GLOB_ERR GLOB_MARK GLOB_NOSORT GLOB_DOOFS GLOB_NOCHECK GLOB_APPEND GLOB_NOESCAPE GLOB_PERIOD Return on read error (because a directory does not have read permission, for example). Append a slash to each path which corresponds to a directory. Don’t sort the returned pathnames (they are by default). pglob->gl_offs slots will be reserved at the beginning of the list of strings in pglob->pathv. If no pattern matches, return the original pattern. Append to the results of a previous call. Do not set this flag on the first invocation of glob() . Meta characters cannot be quoted by backslashes. A leading period can be matched by meta characters. If errfunc is not NULL , it will be called in case of an error with the arguments epath, a pointer to the path that failed, and of errno as returned from one of the calls to opendir(), readdir() , or stat() . If errfunc returns nonzero, or if GLOB_ERR is set, glob() will terminate after the call to errfunc. eerrno, the value Upon successful return, pglob->gl_pathc contains the number of matched pathnames and pglob->gl_pathv a pointer to the list of matched pathnames. The first pointer after the last pathname is NULL. It is possible to call glob() several times. In that case, the GLOB_APPEND flag has to be set in flags on the second and later invocations. RETURN VALUES On successful completion, glob() returns 0. Other possible returns are GLOB_NOSPACE GLOB_ABEND GLOB_NOMATCH For running out of memory, For a read error, and For no found matches. initgroups 955 DESCRIPTION The infnan() function returns a suitable value for infinity and not-a-number (NaN) results. The value of error can be ERANGE to represent infinity, or anything else to represent NaN. errno is also set. RETURN VALUE If error is ERANGE (Infinity), HUGE_VAL is returned. If error is -ERANGE (-Infinity), -HUGE_VAL is returned. If error is anything else, NaN is returned. ERRORS k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o 7 initgroups view 8 9 Pre Page The value of error is positive or negative infinity. The value of error is not-a-number (NaN). ERANGE EDOM CONFORMS TO BSD 4.3 GNU, 2 June 1993 initgroups —Initializes the supplementary group access list SYNOPSIS #include <grp.h> #include <sys/types.h> int initgroups(const char *user, gid_t group); DESCRIPTION The initgroups() function initializes the group access list by reading the group database /etc/group and using all groups of which user is a member. The additional group group is also added to the list. RETURN VALUE The initgroups() function returns 0 on success, or –1 if an error occurs. ERRORS The calling process does not have sufficient privileges. Insufficient memory to allocate group information structure. EPERM ENOMEM FILES /etc/group group database file CONFORMS TO SVID 3, BSD 4.3 SEE ALSO getgroups (2), setgroups(2) GNU, 5 April 1993 Part III: Library Functions 962 lgamma lgamma—Logs gamma function SYNOPSIS #include <math.h> double lgamma(double x); DESCRIPTION The lgamma() function returns the log of the absolute value of the Gamma function. The sign of the Gamma function is returned in the external integer signgam. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 4 e 9 i 9 v Pre Page For negative integer values of x, lgamma() returns HUGE_VAL , and errno is set to ERANGE . ERRORS ERANGE CONFORMS TO Invalid argument—negative integer value of x. SVID 3, BSD 4.3 SEE ALSO infnan(3) BSD, 25 June 1993 libinn libinn—InterNetNews library routines SYNOPSIS #include “libinn.h” typedef struct _TIMEINFO { time_t time; long usec; long tzone; } TIMEINFO; char *GenerateMessageID() void HeaderCleanFrom(from) char *from; char *HeaderFind(Article, Header, size) char *Article; char *Header; int size; FILE *CAopen(FromServer, ToServer) FILE *FromServer; FILE *ToServer; FILE FILE FILE char *CAlistopen(FromServer, ToServer, request) *FromServer; *ToServer; *request; libinn 965 can make a descriptor close-on-exec so that it is not shared with any child processes. If the flag is nonzero, the file is so marked; if it is 0, the close-on-exec mode is cleared. CloseOnExec DDstart , DDcheck, and DDend are used to set the Distribution header; the DD stands for Default Distribution. The file is consulted to determine the proper value for the Distribution header after all newsgroups have been checked. DDstart begins the parsing. It returns a pointer to an opaque handle that should be used on subsequent calls. The FromServer and ToServer parameters should be FILE s connected to the NNTP server for input and output, respectively. If either parameter is NULL , an empty default will ultimately be returned if the file is not locally available. distrib.pats (5) should be called with the handle, h, returned by DDstart and a new group, group, to check. It can be called as often as necessary. DDcheck DDend releases any state maintained in the handle and returns an allocated copy of the text that should be used for the header. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o r f f o w 7 e 9 i 9 v Pre Page Distribution enables (if flag is nonzero) or disables (if flag is 0) non-blocking I/O on the indicated descriptor. It returns –1 on failure and 0 on success. SetNonBlocking tries to lock the file descriptor fd. If flag is nonzero it will block until the lock can be made; otherwise it will return if the file cannot be locked. It returns –1 on failure and 0 on success. LockFile –1 returns the value of the specified configuration parameter. (See inn.conf (5) for details on the parameters and their interpretation.) The returned value points to static space that is reused on subsequent calls. GetConfigValue returns the specified configuration parameter from the inn.conf file without checking for any defaults. The returned value points to static space that is reused on subsequent calls, or NULL if the value is not present. GetFileConfigValue returns the fully qualified domain name of the local host. The returned value points to static space that is reused on subsequent calls, or NULL on error. GetFQDN returns the mailing address of the moderator for the specified group or NULL on error. (See moderators (5) for details on how the address is determined.) GetModeratorAddress does no checking to see if the specified group is actually moderated. The returned value points to static space that is reused on subsequent calls. GetModeratorAddress fills in the usertime and systime parameters with the total user and system time used by the current process and any children it may have spawned. It gets the values by doing a times(2) system call. It returns –1 on failure, or 0 on success. GetResourceUsage fills in the now parameter with information about the current time and tzone. The time and usec fields will be filled in by a call to gettimeofday(2). The time field will be filled in by a call to time(2), and the usec field will be set to 0. The tzone field will be filled in with the current offset from GMT. This is done by calling localtime(3) and taking the value of the tm_gmtoff field, negating it, and dividing it by 60. This is done by calling localtime (3) and comparing the value with that returned by a call to gmtime(3). For efficiency, the tzone field is only recalculated if more than an hour has passed since the last time GetTimeInfo was called. This routine returns –1 on failure, and 0 on success. GetTimeInfo opens a connection to the private port of an InterNetNews server running on the local host. It returns –1 on failure, or 0 on success. FromServerp and ToServerp will be filled in with FILE s that can be used to communicate with the server. errbuff can either be NULL or a pointer to a buffer at least 512 bytes long. If it is not NULL , and the server refuses the connection, it will be filled in with the text of the server’s reply. This routine is not for general use; it is a subroutine for compatibility with systems that have UNIX-domain stream sockets. It always returns –1. NNTPlocalopen does the same as NNTPlocalopen, except that it calls GetConfigValue to find the name of the local server and opens a connection to the standard NNTP port. Any client program can use this routine. It returns –1 on failure, or 0 on success. NNTPremoteopen NNTPconnect is the same as NNTPremoteopen, except that the desired host is given as the host parameter. NNTPcheckarticle valid. verifies that the text meets the NNTP limitations on line length. It returns –1 on failure, or 0 if the text is parsedate 989 opendir opendir —Opens a directory SYNOPSIS #include <sys/types.h> #include <dirent.h> DIR *opendir(const char *name); DESCRIPTION The opendir() function opens a directory stream corresponding to the directory name, and returns a pointer to the directory stream. The stream is positioned at the first entry in the directory. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 1 w 2 e i 0 v 1 e e g Pr a P RETURN VALUE The opendir() function returns a pointer to the directory stream or NULL if an error occurred. ERRORS EACESS EMFILE ENFILE ENOENT ENOMEM ENOTDIR Permission denied Too many file descriptors in use by process Too many files are currently open in the system Directory does not exist, or name is an empty string Insufficient memory to complete the operation name is not a directory CONFORMS TO SVID 3, POSIX, BSD 4.3 SEE ALSO open(2), readdir (3), closedir (3), rewinddir(3), seekdir (3), telldir (3), scandir (3) 11 June 1995 parsedate parsedate —Converts time and date string to number SYNOPSIS #include <sys/types.h> typedef struct_TIMEINFO f time_t time; long usec; long tzone; } TIMEINFO; time_t parsedate(text, now) char *text; TIMEINFO *now; DESCRIPTION parsedate time(2). converts many common time specifications into the number of seconds since the epoch, that is, a time_t; see qio 999 char * QIOread(qp) QIOSTATE *qp; int QIOlength(qp) QIOSTATE *qp; int QIOtoolong(qp) QIOSTATE *qp; int QIOerror(qp) QIOSTATE *qp; int QIOtell(qp) QIOSTATE *qp; int QIOrewind(qp) QIOSTATE *qp; int QIOfileno(qp) QIOSTATE *qp; k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 1 w 3 e i 0 v 1 e e g Pr a P DESCRIPTION The routines described in this manual page are part of the InterNetNews library, libinn(3). They are used to provide quick read access to files. The letters QIO stand for Quick I/O. opens the file name for reading. It uses a buffer of size bytes, which must also be larger then the longest expected line. The header file defines the constant QIO_BUFFER as a reasonable default. If size is zero, then QIOopen will call stat(2) and use the returned block size; if that fails it will use QIO_BUFFER . It returns NULL on error, or a pointer to a handle to be used in other calls. QIOfdopen performs the same function except that fd refers to an already-open descriptor. QIOopen QIOclose closes the open file and releases any resources used by it. returns a pointer to the next line in the file. The trailing newline will be replaced with a \0. If EOF is reached, an error occurs, or if the line is longer than the buffer, QIOread returns NULL. QIOread After a successful call to QIOread , QIOlength will return the length of the current line. The functions QIOtoolong and QIOerror can be called after QIOread returns NULL to determine if there was an error, or if the line was too long. If QIOtoolong returns non-zero, then the current line did not fit in the buffer, and the next call to QIOread will try read the rest of the line. Long lines can only be discarded. If QIOerror returns non-zero, then a serious I/O error occurred. QIOtell returns the lseek (2) offset at which the next line will start. QIOrewind sets the read pointer back to the beginning of the file. QIOfileno returns the descriptor of the open file. QIOlength , QIOtoolong , QIOerror, QIOtell , and QIOfileno are implemented as macros defined in the header file. EXAMPLE QIOSTATE *h; long offset; char *p; h = QIOopen(“/etc/motd”, QIO_BUFFER); for (offset = QIOtell(h); (p = QIOread(h)) != NULL; offset = QIOtell(h)) printf(“At %ld, %s\n”, offset, p); if (QIOerror(h)) { perror(“Read error”); exit(1); } QIOclose(h); HISTORY Written by Rich $alz ([email protected]) for InterNetNews. Part III: Library Functions 1000 qsort qsort—Sorts an array SYNOPSIS #include <stdlib.h> void qsort(void *base, size_t nmemb, size_t size,int(*compar) (const void *, const void *)); DESCRIPTION The qsort() function sorts an array with nmemb elements of size size.The base argument points to the start of the array. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 2 w 3 e i 0 v 1 e e g Pr a P The contents of the array are sorted in ascending order according to a comparison function pointed to by compar, which is called with two arguments that point to the objects being compared. The comparison function must return an integer less than, equal to, or greater than zero if the first argument is considered to be respectively less than, equal to, or greater than the second. If two members compare as equal, their order in the sorted array is undefined. RETURN VALUE The qsort() function returns no value. CONFORMS TO SVID 3, POSIX, BSD 4.3, ISO 9899 SEE ALSO sort(1) GNU, 29 March 1993 raise raise—Sends a signal to the current process SYNOPSIS #include <signal.h> int raise (int sig); DESCRIPTION The raise function sends a signal to the current process. It is equivalent to kill(getpid(),sig) RETURN VALUE Zero on success, non-zero for failure. CONFORMS TO ANSI C SEE ALSO kill(2), signal (2), getpid (2) GNU, 31 August 1995 random, srandom, initstate, setstate 1001 rand, srand rand, srand —Random number generator SYNOPSIS #include <stdlib.h> int rand(void); void srand(unsigned int seed); DESCRIPTION The rand() function returns a pseudo-random integer between 0 and RAND_MAX . k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 3 w 3 e i 0 v 1 e e g Pr a P The srand() function sets its argument as the seed for a new sequence of pseudo-random integers to be returned by rand(). These sequences are repeatable by calling srand() with the same seed value. If no seed value is provided, the rand() function is automatically seeded with a value of 1. RETURN VALUE The rand() function returns a value between 0 and RAND_MAX . The srand() returns no value. NOTES The versions of rand() and srand() in the Linux C Library use the same random number generator as random() and srandom() , so the lower-order bits should be as random as the higher-order bits. However, on older rand() implementations, the lower-order bits are much less random than the higher-order bits. In Numerical Recipes in C: The Art of Scientific Computing (William H. Press, Brian P. Flannery, Saul A. Teukolsky, William T. Vetterling; New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990, first ed, p. 207), the following comments are made: “If you want to generate a random integer between 1 and 10, you should always do it by j=1+(int) (10.0*rand()/(RAND+MAX+1.0)); and never by anything resembling j=1+((int) (1000000.0*rand()) % 10); (which uses lower-order bits).” Random-number generation is a complex topic. The Numerical Recipes in C book (see preceding reference) provides an excellent discussion of practical random-number generation issues in Chapter 7, “Random Numbers.” For a more theoretical discussion that also covers many practical issues in depth, please see Chapter 3, “Random Numbers,” in Donald E. Knuth’s The Art of Computer Programming, Volume 2 (Seminumerical Algorithms), 2nd ed.; Reading, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, 1981. CONFORMS TO SVID 3, BSD 4.3, ISO 9899 SEE ALSO random(3), srandom (3), initstate (3), setstate(3) GNU, 18 May 1995 random, srandom, initstate, setstate random, srandom, initstate , setstate —Random number generator Part III: Library Functions 1006 cflags may be the bitwise or of one or more of the following: REG_EXTENDED REG_ICASE REG_NOSUB REG_NEWLINE Use POSIX extended regular expression syntax when interpreting regex . If not set, POSIX basic regular expression syntax is used. Do not differentiate case. Subsequent regexec searches using this pattern buffer will be case-insensitive. Support for substring addressing of matches is not required. The nmatch and pmatch parameters to regexec are ignored if the pattern buffer supplied was compiled with this flag set. Match-any-character operators don’t match a newline. A nonmatching list ([^...]) not containing a newline matches a newline. Match-beginning-ofline operator (^) matches the empty string immediately after a newline, regardless of whether eflags, the execution flags of regexec , contains REG_NOTBOL . Match-end-of-line operator ($) matches the empty string immediately before a newline, regardless of whether eflags contains REG_NOTEOL . k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 8 w 3 e i 0 v 1 e e g Pr a P POSIX REGEX MATCHING regexec is used to match a null-terminated string against the precompiled pattern buffer, preg . nmatch and pmatch are used to provide information regarding the location of any matches. eflags may be the bitwise or of one or both of REG_NOTBOL and REG_NOTEOL , which cause changes in matching behavior described in the following list. REG_NOTBOL REG_NOTEOL The match-beginning-of-line operator always fails to match (but see the compilation flag REG_NEWLINE, in the preceding subsection). This flag may be used when different portions of a string are passed to regexec and the beginning of the string should not be interpreted as the beginning of the line. The match-end-of-line operator always fails to match (but see the compilation flag REG_NEWLINE, in the preceding subsection). BYTE OFFSETS Unless REG_NOSUB was set for the compilation of the pattern buffer, it is possible to obtain substring match addressing information. pmatch must be dimensioned to have at least nmatch elements. These are filled in by regexec with substring match addresses. Any unused structure elements will contain the value -1. The regmatch_t structure that is the type of pmatch is defined in regex.h : typedef struct { regoff_t rm_so; regoff_t rm_eo; } regmatch_t; Each rm_so element that is not -1 indicates the start offset of the next largest substring match within the string. The relative rm_eo element indicates the end offset of the match. POSIX ERROR REPORTING regerror is used to turn the error codes that can be returned by both regcomp and regexec into error message strings. regerror is passed the error code, errcode; the pattern buffer, preg; a pointer to a character string buffer, errbuf ; and the size of the string buffer, errbuf_size. It returns the size of the errbuf required to contain the null-terminated error message string. If both errbuf and errbuf_size are non-zero, errbuf is filled in with the first errbuf_size - 1 characters of the error message and a terminating null. Part III: Library Functions 1020 SYNOPSIS #include <signal.h> int sigemptyset(sigset_t *set); int sigfillset(sigset_t *set); int sigaddset(sigset_t *set,int signum); int sigdelset(sigset_t *set,int signum); int sigismember(const sigset_t *set,int signum); DESCRIPTION The sigsetops (3) functions allow the manipulation of POSIX signal sets. sigemptyset sigfillset sigaddset initializes the signal set given by set to empty, with all signals excluded from the set. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 2 w 5 e i 0 v 1 e e g Pr a P initializes set to full, including all signals. and sigdelset add and delete, respectively, signal signum from set. sigismember tests whether signum is a member of set. RETURN VALUES sigemptyset , sigfullset , sigaddset, sigismember and sigdelset return 0 on success and -1 on error. returns 1 if signum is a member of set, 0 if signum is not a member, and -1 on error. ERRORS EINVAL CONFORMS TO sig is not a valid signal. POSIX SEE ALSO sigaction (2), sigpending(2), sigprocmask (2), sigsuspend (2) Linux 1.0, 24 September 1994 sin sin—Sine function SYNOPSIS #include <math.h> double sin(double x); DESCRIPTION The sin() function returns the sine of x, where x is given in radians. RETURN VALUE The sin() function returns a value between –1 and 1. CONFORMS TO SVID 3, POSIX, BSD 4.3, ISO 9899 Part III: Library Functions 1024 The va_arg macro expands to an expression that has the type and value of the next argument in the call. The parameter ap is the va_list ap initialized by va_start . Each call to va_arg modifies ap so that the next call returns the next argument. The parameter type is a type name specified so that the type of a pointer to an object that has the specified type can be obtained simply by adding a * to type. If there is no next argument, or if type is not compatible with the type of the actual next argument (as promoted according to the default argument promotions), random errors will occur. The first use of the va_arg macro after that of the va_start macro returns the argument after last. Successive invocations return the values of the remaining arguments. The va_end macro handles a normal return from the function whose variable argument list was initialized by va_start . k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 6 w 5 e i 0 v 1 e e g Pr a P The va_end macro returns no value. EXAMPLE The function foo takes a string of format characters and prints out the argument associated with each format character based on the type. void foo(char *fmt, ...) { va_list ap; int d; char c, *p, *s; va_start(ap, fmt); while (*fmt) switch(*fmt++) { case ‘s’: /* string */ s = va_arg(ap, char *); printf(“string %s\n”, s); break; case ‘d’: /* int */ d = va_arg(ap, int); printf(“int %d\n”, d); break; case ‘c’: /* char */ c = va_arg(ap, char); printf(“char %c\n”, c); break; } va_end(ap); } STANDARDS The va_start , va_arg, and va_end macros conform to ANSI C3.159-1989 (ANSI C). COMPATIBILITY These macros are not compatible with the historic macros they replace. A backwards-compatible version can be found in the include file varargs.h. BUGS Unlike the varargs macros, the stdarg macros do not permit programmers to code a function with no fixed arguments. This problem generates work mainly when converting varargs code to stdarg code, but it also creates difficulties for variadic functions that wish to pass all of their arguments on to a function that takes a va_list argument, such as vfprintf (3). BSD man page, 29 November 1993 stdio 1025 stdio stdio—Standard input/output library functions SYNOPSIS #include <stdio.h> FILE *stdin; FILE *stdout; FILE *stderr; DESCRIPTION k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 7 w 5 e i 0 v 1 e e g Pr a P The standard I/O library provides a simple and efficient buffered stream I/O interface. Input and output is mapped into logical data streams and the physical I/O characteristics are concealed. The functions and macros are listed in this section; more information is available from the individual man pages. A stream is associated with an external file (which may be a physical device) by opening a file, which may involve creating a new file. Creating an existing file causes its former contents to be discarded. If a file can support positioning requests (such as a disk file, as opposed to a terminal), then a file position indicator associated with the stream is positioned at the start of the file (byte zero), unless the file is opened with append mode. If append mode is used, the position indicator will be placed the end-of-file. The position indicator is maintained by subsequent reads, writes, and positioning requests. All input occurs as if the characters were read by successive calls to the fgetc (3) function; all output takes place as if all characters were read by successive calls to the fputc (3) function. A file is disassociated from a stream by closing the file. Output streams are flushed (any unwritten buffer contents are transferred to the host environment) before the stream is disassociated from the file. The value of a pointer to a FILE object is indeterminate after a file is closed (garbage). A file may be subsequently reopened, by the same or another program execution, and its contents reclaimed or modified (if it can be repositioned at the start). If the main function returns to its original caller, or the exit (3) function is called, all open files are closed (hence all output streams are flushed) before program termination. Other methods of program termination, such as abort (3) do not bother about closing files properly. At program startup, three text streams are predefined and need not be opened explicitly: standard input (for reading conventional input), standard output (for writing conventional input), and standard error (for writing diagnostic output). These streams are abbreviated stdin, stdout , and stderr . When opened, the standard error stream is not fully buffered; the standard input and output streams are fully buffered if and only if the streams do not to refer to an interactive device. Output streams that refer to terminal devices are always line buffered by default; pending output to such streams is written automatically whenever an input stream that refers to a terminal device is read. In cases where a large amount of computation is done after printing part of a line on an output terminal, it is necessary to fflush(3) the standard output before going off and computing so that the output will appear. The stdio library is a part of the library libc and routines are automatically loaded as needed by the compilers cc(1) and The SYNOPSIS sections of the following manual pages indicate which include files are to be used, what the compiler declaration for the function looks like, and which external variables are of interest. pc(1). The following are defined as macros; these names may not be reused without first removing their current definitions with #undef: BUFSIZ , EOF, FILENAME_MAX , FOPEN_MAX , L_cuserid , L_ctermid , L_tmpnam, NULL , SEEK_END, SEEK_SET, SEE_CUR , TMP_MAX, clearerr , feof, ferror , fileno, fropen , fwopen, getc , getchar, putc , putchar, stderr , stdin, stdout . Function versions of the macro functions feof, ferror , clearerr , fileno, getc , getchar, putc, and putchar exist and will be used if the macros definitions are explicitly removed. SEE ALSO open(2), close (2), read (2), write (2) Part III: Library Functions 1026 BUGS The standard buffered functions do not interact well with certain other library and system functions, especially vfork and abort. This may not be the case under Linux. STANDARDS The stdio library conforms to ANSI C3.159-1989 (ANSI C). LIST OF FUNCTIONS Function clearerr fclose fdopen feof ferror fflush fgetc fgetline fgetpos fgets fileno fopen fprintf fpurge fputc fputs fread freopen fropen fscanf fseek fsetpos ftell fwrite getc getchar gets getw mktemp perror printf putc putchar puts putw Description k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 8 w 5 e i 0 v 1 e e g Pr a P Check and reset stream status Close a stream Stream open functions Check and reset stream status Check and reset stream status Flush a stream Get next character or word from input stream Get a line from a stream Reposition a stream Get a line from a stream Check and reset stream status Stream open functions Formatted output conversion Flush a stream Output a character or word to a stream Output a line to a stream Binary stream input/output Stream open functions Open a stream Input format conversion Reposition a stream Reposition a stream Reposition a stream Binary stream input/output Get next character or word from input stream Get next character or word from input stream Get a line from a stream Get next character or word from input stream Make temporary filename (unique) System error messages Formatted output conversion Output a character or word to a stream Output a character or word to a stream Output a line to a stream Output a character or word to a stream Part III: Library Functions 1034 The members of the tm structure are tm_sec tm_min tm_hour tm_mday tm_mon tm_year tm_wday k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 6 w 6 e i 0 v 1 e e g Pr a P tm_yday tm_isdst RETURN VALUE The number of seconds after the minute, normally in the range 0 to 59, but can be up to 61 to allow for leap seconds. The number of minutes after the hour, in the range 0 to 59. The number of hours past midnight, in the range 0 to 23. The day of the month, in the range 1 to 31. The number of months since January, in the range 0 to 11. The number of years since 1900. The number of days since Sunday, in the range 0 to 6. The number of days since January 1, in the range 0 to 365. A flag that indicates whether daylight saving time is in effect at the time described. The value is positive if daylight saving time is in effect, zero if it is not, and negative if the information is not available. The strftime() function returns the number of characters placed in the array s, not including the terminating NULL character. If the value equals max , it means that the array was too small. CONFORMS TO SVID 3, POSIX, BSD 4.3, ISO 9899 SEE ALSO date(1), time(2), ctime (3), setlocale (3), sprintf(3) NOTES The function supports only those locales specified in locale (7) GNU, 2 July 1993 strcasecmp, strcat, strchr, strcmp, strcoll, strcpy, strcspn, strdup, strfry, strlen, strncat, strncmp, strncpy, strncasecmp, strpbrk, strrchr, strsep, strspn, strstr, strtok, strxfrm, index, rindex strcasecmp , strcat, strchr , strcmp , strcoll, strcpy , strcspn, strdup, strfry , strlen, strncat , strncmp, strncpy, strncasecmp , strpbrk , strrchr, strsep , strspn, strstr, strtok , strxfrm, index , rindex—String SYNOPSIS #include <string.h> int strcasecmp(const char *s1, const char *s2); char *strcat(char *dest, const char *src); char *strchr(const char *s,int c); int strcmp(const char *s1, const char *s2); int strcoll(const char *s1, const char *s2); char *strcpy(char *dest, const char *src); size_t strcspn(const char *s, const char *reject); char *strdup(const char *s); operations Part III: Library Functions 1038 DESCRIPTION The strsep() function returns the next token from the string stringp which is delimited by delim. The token is terminated with a \0 character and stringp is updated to point past the token. RETURN VALUE The strsep() function returns a pointer to the token, or NULL if delim is not found in stringp . CONFORMS TO BSD 4.3 SEE ALSO k u . o .c e l a s e t strsignal o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 0 w 7 e i 0 v 1 e e g Pr a P index(3), memchr (3), rindex (3), strchr (3), strpbrk(3), strspn(3), strstr (3), strtok (3) GNU, 12 April 1993 strsignal —Returns string describing signal SYNOPSIS #include <string.h> char *strsignal(int sig); extern const char * const sys_siglist[] DESCRIPTION The strsignal() function returns a string describing the signal number passed in the argument sig . The string can only be used until the next call to strsignal(). The array sys_siglist holds the signal description strings indexed by signal number. RETURN VALUE The strsignal() function returns the appropriate description string, or an unknown signal message if the signal number is invalid. SEE ALSO psignal (3), strerror (3) GNU, 13 April 1993 strspn, strcspn strspn, strcspn —Search a string for a set of characters SYNOPSIS #include <string.h> size t strspn(const char *s, const char *accept); size t strcspn(const char *s, const char *reject); DESCRIPTION The strspn() function calculates the length of the initial segment of s, which consists entirely of characters in accept. The strcspn() function calculates the length of the initial segment of s, which consists entirely of characters not in reject . toupper, tolower 1055 toascii toascii —Converts character to ASCII SYNOPSIS #include <ctype.h> int toascii (int c); DESCRIPTION toascii() converts c to a 7-bit unsigned char value that fits into the ASCII character set, by clearing the high-order bits. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 7 w 8 e i 0 v 1 e e g Pr a P RETURN VALUE The value returned is that of the converted character. CONFORMS TO SVID, BSD BUGS Many people will be unhappy if you use this function. This function will convert accented letters into random characters. SEE ALSO isascii (3), toupper (3), tolower (3) GNU, 16 September 1995 toupper, tolower toupper , tolower—Convert letter to uppercase or lowercase SYNOPSIS #include <ctype.h> int toupper (int c); int tolower (int c); DESCRIPTION toupper() converts the letter c to uppercase, if possible. tolower() converts the letter c to lowercase, if possible. RETURN VALUE The value returned is that of the converted letter, or c if the conversion was not possible. CONFORMS TO ANSI C, BSD 4.3 BUGS The details of what constitutes an uppercase or lowercase letter depend on the current locale. For example, the default locale does not know about umlauts, so no conversion is done for them. In some non-English locales, there are lowercase letters with no corresponding uppercase equivalent; the German sharp s is one example. console_codes 1067 Common ways to switch consoles are the following: ■ Use Alt+Fn or Ctrl+Alt+Fn to switch to console n; AltGr+Fn might bring you to console n+12 [here Alt and AltGr refer to the left and right Alt keys, respectively] ■ Use Alt+RightArrow or Alt+LeftArrow to cycle through the presently allocated consoles ■ Use the program chvt(1). (The key mapping can be set by the user; see loadkeys (1); the preceding key combinations are according to the default settings.) The command disalloc (8) will free the memory taken by the screen buffers for consoles that no longer have any associated process. PROPERTIES k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 9 w 9 e i 0 v 1 e e g Pr a P Consoles carry a lot of state. I hope to document that some other time. The most important fact is that the consoles simulate vt100 terminals. In particular, a console is reset to the initial state by printing the two characters ESC c. All escape sequences can be found in console codes(4). FILES /dev/console /dev/tty* SEE ALSO charsets (4), console_codes (4), console_ioctl (4), mknod(1), tty(4), ttys(4), getty(8), init(8), chvt (1), open (1), disalloc (8), loadkeys (1), resizecons (8), setfont(8), mapscrn (8) Linux, 31 October 1994 console_codes console_codes —Linux console escape and control sequences DESCRIPTION The Linux console implements a large subset of the VT102 and ECMA-48/ISO 6429/ANSI X3.64 terminal controls, plus certain private-mode sequences for changing the color palette, character-set mapping, and so on. In the following tabular descriptions, the second column gives ECMA-48 or DEC mnemonics (the latter if prefixed with DEC) for the given function. Sequences without a mnemonic are neither ECMA-48 nor VT102. After all the normal output processing has been done, and a stream of characters arrives at the console driver for actual printing, the first thing that happens is a translation from the code used for processing to the code used for printing. If the console is in UTF-8 mode, then the incoming bytes are first assembled into 16-bit Unicode codes. Otherwise, each byte is transformed according to the current mapping table (which translates it to a Unicode value). (See the “Character Sets” subsection for discussion.) In the normal case, the Unicode value is converted to a font index, and this is stored in video memory, so that the corresponding glyph (as found in video ROM) appears on the screen. Note that the use of Unicode (and the design of the PC hardware) allows the use of 512 different glyphs simultaneously. If the current Unicode value is a control character, or you are currently processing an escape sequence, the value will treated specially. Instead of being turned into a font index and rendered as a glyph, it may trigger cursor movement or other control functions. (See the “Linux Console Controls” subsection.) It is generally not good practice to hardwire terminal controls into programs. Linux supports a terminfo (5) database of terminal capabilities. Rather than emitting console escape sequences by hand, you will almost always want to use a terminfo -aware screen library or utility such as ncurses (3), tput(1), or reset (1). console_codes Select null mapping—straight to character ROM. Select user mapping, the map that is loaded by the utility mapscrn (8). Start sequence defining G1 (followed by one of B, 0, U, K, as above). Set numeric keypad mode. Set application keypad mode. (Should be: Operating system command) ESC ] P nrrggbb: set palette, with parameter given in 7 hexadecimal digits after the final P :-( . Here n is the color (0–16), and rrggbb indicates the red/green/blue values (0–255). ESC ] R: reset palette. ESC ( U ESC ( K ESC ) ESC > DECPNM ESC = DECPAM ESC ] OSC 1069 k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 1 w 0 e i 1 v 1 e e g Pr a P ECMA-48 CSI SEQUENCES (or ESC [) is followed by a sequence of parameters, at most NPAR(16), that are decimal numbers separated by semicolons. An empty or absent parameter is taken to be 0. The sequence of parameters may be preceded by a single question mark. CSI However, after CSI [ (or ESC echoed function key.) [ [) a single character is read and this entire sequence is ignored. (The idea is to ignore an The action of a CSI sequence is determined by its final character. Character @ A Function Description ICH Insert the indicated # of blank characters. Move cursor up the indicated # of rows. Move cursor down the indicated # of rows. Move cursor right the indicated # of columns. Move cursor left the indicated # of columns. Move cursor down the indicated # of rows, to column 1. Move cursor up the indicated # of rows, to column 1. Move cursor to indicated column in current row. Move cursor to the indicated row, column (origin at 1,1). Erase display (default: from cursor to end of display). ESC [ 1 J : erase from start to cursor. ESC [ 2 J : erase whole display. Erase line (default: from cursor to end of line). ESC [ 1 K : erase from start of line to cursor. ESC [ 2 K : erase whole line. Insert the indicated # of blank lines. Delete the indicated # of lines. Delete the indicated # of characters on the current line. Erase the indicated # of characters on the current line. Move cursor right the indicated # of columns. Answer ESC [ ? 6 c: ‘I am a VT102’. Move cursor to the indicated row, current column. Move cursor down the indicated # of rows. Move cursor to the indicated row, column. CUU B CUD C CUF D CUB E CNL F CPL G CHA H CUP J ED K EL L IL M DL P DCH X ECH a HPR c DA d VPA e VPR f HVP continues console ioctls 1075 KDGETLED Get state of LEDs. argp points to a long int. The lower three bits of *argp are set to the state of the LEDs, as follows: LED_CAP 0x04 caps lock LED LEC_NUM 0x02 num lock LED LED_SCR 0x01 scroll lock LED KDSETLED Set the LEDs. The LEDs are set to correspond to the lower three bits of argp. However, if a higher order bit is set, the LEDs revert to normal, displaying the state of the keyboard functions of caps lock, num lock, and scroll lock. Before 1.1.54, the LEDs just reflected the state of the corresponding keyboard flags, and KDGETLED/KDSETLED would also change the keyboard flags. Since 1.1.54 the LEDs can be made to display arbitrary information, but by default they display the keyboard flags. The following two ioctls are used to access the keyboard flags. Get keyboard flags CapsLock, NumLock , ScrollLock (not lights). argp points to a char that is set to the flag state. The low order three bits (mask 0x7) get the current flag state, and the low order bits of the next nibble (mask 0x70) get the default flag state (since 1.1.54). Set keyboard flags CapsLock, NumLock , ScrollLock (not lights). argp has the desired flag state. The low order three bits (mask 0x7 ) have the flag state, and the low order bits of the next nibble (mask 0x70 ) have the default flag state (since 1.1.54). Get keyboard type. This returns the value KB 101 , defined as 0x02. Add I/O port as valid. Equivalent to ioperm(arg,1,1). Delete I/O port as valid. Equivalent to ioperm(arg,1,0). Enable I/O to video board. Equivalent to ioperm(0x3b4, 0x3df-0x3b4+1, 1). Disable I/O to video board. Equivalent to ioperm(0x3b4, 0x3df-0x3b4+ 1, 0). Set text/graphics mode. argp is one of these: KDGKBLED KDSKBLED KDGKBTYPE KDADDIO KDDELIO KDENABIO KDDISABIO KDSETMODE KDGETMODE KDMKTONE KIOCSOUND GIO_CMAP PIO_CMAP GIO_FONT k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 7 w 0 e i 1 v 1 e e g Pr a P KD_TEXT 0x00 KD_GRAPHICS 0x01 Get text/graphics mode. argp points to a long which is set to one of the above values. Generate tone of specified length. The lower 16 bits of argp specify the period in clock cycles, and the upper 16 bits give the duration in msec. If the duration is zero, the sound is turned off. Control returns immediately. For example, argp = (125<<16) + 0x637 would specify the beep normally associated with a ctrl-G. Start or stop sound generation. The lower 16 bits of argp specify the period in clock cycles (that is, argp = 1193180/frequency). argp = 0 turns sound off. In either case, control returns immediately. Get the current default color map from kernel. argp points to a 48-byte array. (Since 1.3.3.) Change the default text-mode color map. argp points to a 48-byte array that contains, in order, the red, green, and blue values for the 16 available screen colors: 0 is off, and 255 is full intensity. The default colors are, in order: black, dark red, dark green, brown, dark blue, dark purple, dark cyan, light grey, dark grey, bright red, bright green, yellow, bright blue, bright purple, bright cyan, and white. (Since 1.3.3.) Gets 256-character screen font in expanded form. argp points to an 8192-byte array. Fails with error code EINVAL if the currently loaded font is a 512-character font, or if the console is not in text mode. Part IV: Special Files 1084 ispell ispell—Format of ispell dictionaries and affix files DESCRIPTION ispell(1) requires two files to define the language that it is spell checking. The first file is a dictionary containing words for the language, and the second is an affix file that defines he meaning of special flags in the dictionary. The two files are combined by buildhash (see spell(1)) and written to a hash file that is not described here. A raw ispell dictionary (either the main dictionary or your own personal dictionary) contains a list of words, one per line. Each word may optionally be followed by a slash (/) and one or more flags, which modify the root word as explained later. Depending on the options with which ispell was built, case may or may not be significant in either the root word or the flags, independently. Specifically, if the compile-time option CAPITALIZATION is defined, case is significant in the root word; if not, case is ignored in the root word. If the compile-time option MASKBITS is set to a value of 32 , case is ignored in the flags; otherwise, case is significant in the flags. Contact your system administrator or ispell maintainer for more information (or use the –vv flag to find out). The dictionary should be sorted with the –f flag of sort(1) before the hash file is built; this is done automatically by unchlist (1), which is the normal way of building dictionaries. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 6 w 1 e i 1 v 1 e e g Pr a P If the dictionary contains words that have string characters (see the affix file documentation, following), they must be written in the format given by the defstringtype statement in the affix file. This will be the case for most non-English languages. Be careful to use this format, rather than that of your favorite formatter, when adding words to a dictionary. If you add words to your personal dictionary during an ispell session, they will automatically be converted to the correct format. This feature can be used to convert an entire dictionary if necessary: echo qqqqq > dummy.dict buildhash dummy.dict affix-file dummy.hash awk ‘fprint “*”gENDfprint “#”g’ old-dict-file \ | ispell -a -T old-dict-string-type \ -d ./dummy.hash -p ./new-dict-file \ > /dev/null rm dummy.* The case of the root word controls the case of words accepted by ispell , as follows: 1. If the root word appears only in lowercase (for example, bob), it will be accepted in lowercase, capitalized, or all capitals. 2. If the root word appears capitalized (for example, Robert), it will not be accepted in all lowercase, but will be accepted capitalized or all in capitals. 3. If the root word appears all in capitals (for example, UNIX), it will only be accepted all in capitals. 4. If the root word appears with a “funny” capitalization (for example, ITCorp), a word will be accepted only if it follows that capitalization, or if it appears all in capitals. 5. More than one capitalization of a root word may appear in the dictionary. Flags from different capitalizations are combined using OR. Redundant capitalizations (for example, bob and Bob) will be combined by buildhash and by ispell (for personal dictionaries), and can be removed from a raw dictionary by munchlist . For example, the dictionary bob Robert UNIX ITcorp ITCorp will accept bob, Bob , BOB, Robert, ROBERT , UNIX, ITcorp , ITCorp, and ITCORP, and will reject all others. Some of the unacceptable forms are bOb, robert , Unix, and ItCorp. ispell 1085 As mentioned, root words in any dictionary may be extended by flags. Each flag is a single alphabetic character, which represents a prefix or suffix that may be added to the root to form a new word. For example, in an English dictionary the D flag can be added to bathe to make bathed. Because flags are represented as a single bit in the hashed dictionary, this results in significant space savings. The munchlist script will reduce an existing raw dictionary by adding flags when possible. When a word is extended with an affix, the affix will be accepted only if it appears in the same case as the initial (prefix) or final (suffix) letter of the word. Thus, for example, the entry UNIX/M in the main dictionary (M means add an apostrophe and an s to make a possessive) would accept UNIX’S but would reject UNIX’s. If UNIX’s is legal, it must appear as a separate dictionary entry, and it will not be combined by munchlist . (In general, you don’t need to worry about these things; munchlist guarantees that its output dictionary will accept the same set of words as its input, so all you have to do is add words to the dictionary and occasionally run munchlist to reduce its size.) k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 7 w 1 e i 1 v 1 e e g Pr a P As mentioned, the affix definition file describes the affixes associated with particular flags. It also describes the character set used by the language. Although the affix-definition grammar is designed for a line-oriented layout, it is actually a free-format grammar and can be laid out weirdly if you want. Comments are started by a pound (sharp) sign (#), and continue to the end of the line. Backslashes are supported in the usual fashion (\nnn, plus specials \n, \r, \t, \v, \f, \b , and the new hex format \xnn ). Any character with special meaning to the parser can be changed to an uninterpreted token by backslashing it; for example, you can declare a flag named asterisk or colon with flag n*: or flag n:: . The grammar will be presented in a top-down fashion, with discussion of each element. An affix-definition file must contain exactly one table: table :[headers][prefixes][suffixes] At least one of prefixes and suffixes is required. They can appear in either order. headers :[options ] char-sets The headers describe options global to this dictionary and language. These include the character sets to be used and the formatter, and the defaults for certain ispell flags. options : { fmtr-stmt | opt-stmt | flag-stmt | num-stmt } The options statements define the defaults for certain ispell flags and for the character sets used by the formatters. fmtr-stmt : { nroff-stmt | tex-stmt } A fmtr-stmt statement describes characters that have special meaning to a formatter. Normally, this statement is not necessary, but some languages may have preempted the usual defaults for use as language-specific characters. In this case, these statements may be used to redefine the special characters expected by the formatter. nroff-stmt : { nroffchars | troffchars } string The nroffchars statement allows redefinition of certain nroff control characters. The string given must be exactly five characters long, and must list substitutions for the left and right parentheses, the period, the backslash, and the asterisk. (The right parenthesis is not currently used, but is included for completeness.) For example, the statement: nroffchars {}.\\* would replace the left and right parentheses with left and right curly braces for purposes of parsing nroff/troff strings, with no effect on the others (admittedly a contrived example). Note that the backslash is escaped with a backslash. tex-stmt : { TeXchars | texchars } string The TeXchars statement allows redefinition of certain TeX/LaTeX control characters. The string given must be exactly thirteen characters long, and must list substitutions for the left and right parentheses, the left and right square brackets, the left and right curly braces, the left and right angle brackets, the backslash, the dollar sign, the asterisk, the period or dot, and the percent sign. For example, the statement: texchars ()\[]<\><\>\\$*.% 1088 Part IV: Special Files A single character-set statement can declare either a single character or a contiguous range of characters. A range is given as in egrep and the shell: [a-z] means lowercase alphabetics; [ˆa-z] means all but lowercase, and so on. All character-set statements are combined (unioned) to produce the final list of characters that may be part of a word. The collating order of the characters is defined by the order of their declaration; if a range is used, the characters are considered to have been declared in ASCII order. Characters that have case are collated next to each other, with the uppercase character first. The character-declaration statements have a rather strange behavior caused by the need to match each lowercase character with its uppercase equivalent. In any given wordchars or boundarychars statement, the characters in each range are first sorted into ASCII collating sequence, then matched one-for-one with the other range. (The two ranges must have the same number of characters). Thus, for example, the two statements: wordchars [aeiou] [AEIOU] wordchars [aeiou] [UOIEA] k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 0 w 2 e i 1 v 1 e e g Pr a P would produce exactly the same effect. To get the vowels to match up “wrong,” you would have to use separate statements: wordchars wordchars wordchars wordchars wordchars a e i o u U O I E A which would cause uppercase e to be O, and lowercase 0 to be e. This should normally be a problem only with languages that have been forced to use a strange ASCII collating sequence. If your uppercase and lowercase letters both collate in the same order, you shouldn’t have to worry about this “feature.” The prefixes and suffixes sections have exactly the same syntax, except for the introductory keyword: prefixes : prefixes flagdef* suffixes : suffixes flagdef* flagdef : flag [*jÚ] char : repl * A prefix or suffix table consists of an introductory keyword and a list of flag definitions. Flags can be defined more than once, in which case the definitions are combined. Each flag controls one or more repls (replacements), which are conditionally applied to the beginnings or endings of various words. Flags are named by a single character char . Depending on a configuration option, this character can be either any uppercase letter (the default configuration) or any 7-bit ASCII character. Most languages should be able to get along with just 26 flags. A flag character may be prefixed with one or more option characters. (If you wish to use one of the option characters as a flag character, simply enclose it in double quotes.) The asterisk (*) option means that this flag participates in cross-product formation. This only matters if the file contains both prefix and suffix tables. If so, all prefixes and suffixes marked with an asterisk will be applied in all cross-combinations to the root word. For example, consider the root fix with prefixes pre and in, and suffixes es and ed. If all flags controlling these prefixes and suffixes are marked with an asterisk, then the single root fix would also generate prefix, prefixes, prefixed, infix, infixes, infixed, fix, fixes, and fixed. Cross-product formation can produce a large number of words quickly, some of which may be illegal, so watch out. If cross-products produce illegal words, munchlist will not produce those flag combinations, and the flag will not be useful. repl : condition* > [ - strip-string , ] append-string The ~ option specifies that the associated flag is only active when a compound word is being formed. This is useful in a language like German, in which the form of a word sometimes changes inside a compound. A repl is a conditional rule for modifying a root word. Up to eight conditions may be specified. If the conditions are satisfied, the rules on the rightside of the repl are applied, as follows: 1. If a strip-string is given, it is first stripped from the beginning or ending (as appropriate) of the root word. 2. The append-string is added at that point. Part IV: Special Files 1092 Byte addresses in mem are interpreted as physical memory addresses. References to non-existent locations cause errors to be returned. Examining and patching is likely to lead to unexpected results when read-only or write-only bits are present. It is typically created by mknod -m 660 /dev/mem c 1 1 chown root.mem /dev/mem The file kmem is the same as mem, except that the kernel virtual memory rather than physical memory is accessed. It is typically created by mknod -m 640 /dev/kmem c 1 2 chown root.mem /dev/kmem port k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 4 w 2 e i 1 v 1 e e g Pr a P is similar to mem, but the IO ports are accessed. It is typically created by mknod -m 660 /dev/port c 1 4 chown root.mem /dev/port FILES /dev/mem /dev/kmem /dev/port SEE ALSO mknod(1), chown (1), ioperm (2) Linux, 21 November 1992 mouse mouse—Serial mouse interface. CONFIG Serial mice are connected to a serial RS232/V24 dialout line; see cua(4) for a description. DESCRIPTION The pinout of the usual 9 pin plug as used for serial mice is Pin Name Used for 2 3 4 7 5 RX TX DTR RTS GND Data -12 V, Imax = 10 mA +12 V, Imax = 10 mA +12 V, Imax = 10 mA Ground This is the specification; in fact, 9 V suffices with most mice. The mouse driver can recognize a mouse by dropping RTS to low. About 14ms later, the mouse will send 0x4D on the data line. After a further 63ms, Microsoft-compatible mice will send 0x33. Other mice send different values. Part IV: Special Files 1102 These replace the screendump ioctls of console(4), so the system administrator can control access using filesystem permissions. The devices for the first eight virtual consoles may be created by for x mknod mknod done chown in 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8; do -m 644 /dev/vcs$x c 7 $x; -m 644 /dev/vcsa$x c 7 $[$x+128]; root.tty /dev/vcs* No ioctl() requests are supported. EXAMPLES k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 4 w 3 e i 1 v 1 e e g Pr a P You can do a screendump on vt3 by switching to vt1 and typing cat /dev/vcs3 >foo . This program displays the character and screen attributes under the cursor of the second virtual console and then changes the background color there: #include <unistd.h> #include <stdio.h> #include <fcntl.h> void main() { int fd; struct {char lines, cols, x, y;} scrn; char ch, attrib; fd = open(“/dev/vcsa2”, O_RDWR); (void)read(fd, &scrn, 4); (void)lseek(fd, 4 + 2*(scrn.y*scrn.cols + scrn.x), 0); (void)read(fd, &ch, 1); (void)read(fd, &attrib, 1); printf(“ch=’%c’ attrib=0x%02x\n”, ch, attrib); attrib ˆ= 0x10; (void)lseek(fd, -1, 1); (void)write(fd, &attrib, 1); } FILES /dev/vcs[0-63] /dev/vcsa[0-63] AUTHOR Andries Brouwer ([email protected]) HISTORY Introduced with version 1.1.92 of the Linux kernel. SEE ALSO console (4), tty (4), ttys (4), selection (1) Linux, 19 February 1995 Part V: File Formats 1106 aliases aliases —Aliases file for sendmail. SYNOPSIS aliases DESCRIPTION This file describes user ID aliases used by . The file resides in and is formatted as a series of lines of the form: name: name_1, name_2, name_3, ... k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 8 w 3 e i 1 v 1 e e g Pr a P The name is the name to alias, and the name_n are the aliases for that name. Lines beginning with whitespace are continuation lines. Lines beginning with # are comments. Aliasing occurs only on local names. Loops cannot occur because no message will be sent to any person more than once. After aliasing has been done, local and valid recipients who have a .forward file in their home directory have messages forwarded to the list of users defined in that file. This is only the raw data file; the actual aliasing information is placed into a binary format in the files and using the program newaliases (1). A newaliases command should be executed each time the aliases file is changed for the change to take effect. SEE ALSO newaliases (1), dbm(3), sendmail(8), Router.” BUGS “Sendmail Installation and Operation Guide,” “Sendmail: An Internetwork Mail Because of restrictions in dbm (3), a single alias cannot contain more than about 1000 bytes of information. You can get longer aliases by “chaining”—that is, making the last name in the alias a dummy name that is a continuation alias. HISTORY The aliases file format appeared in BSD 4.0. BSD 4, 10 May 1991 cfingerd cfingerd —Configurable finger daemon. SYNOPSIS cfingerd [–c|–d|–e|–o|–v] –c –d –e –o –v Check configuration Run as daemon, not inetd Emulate local finger without inetd Turn off all finger queries Request version information –c checks your installed configuration. This makes sure there are no existing errors in the current cfingerd.conf file. –d runs cfingerd as a daemon. Don’t run cfingerd this way if you’re using inetd. –e allows you to emulate a local finger on a user that exists on your system. This makes it so that you can test cfingerd on your system before installing it. Using the –e directive is the same as installing the software, typing finger [email protected] and getting the output. Using –e username does the same. Part V: File Formats 1114 The supported caught signals are as follows: SIGHUP, SIGINT, SIGQUIT , SIGILL, SIGTRAP , SIGABRT, SIGFPE , SIGUSR1 , SIGSEGV, SIGUSR2 , SIGPIPE, SIGALRM , SIGTERM , SIGCONT, SIGTSTP , SIGTTIN, SIGTTOU , SIGIO, SIGXCPU , SIGXFSZ , SIGVTALRM, SIGPROF , SIGWINCH FINGER PROGRAMS FILES SECTION (FILES finger programs) These are the programs that are called when a specific action is take on the finger display. FINGER is the file that is used when a user listing is requested from your machine. This is used in the standard user list and in the sorted user list, so it is wise to use the standard here: /usr/sbin/userlist. WHOIS is the program that is used when a WHOIS request is done on a specific user. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 6 w 4 e i 1 v 1 e e g Pr a P FINGER FAKE USERS FILES SECTION (FILES finger fakeusers) These are the ever–popular fake users that you can create on your system. These users are ones that don’t exist (and should not exist, for that matter). These are, instead, treated as normal scripts that can be called for your use. The format is as follows for fake users: fake_username Script_name SEARCHBOOL script fake_username is the name of the fake user you want to request. Make sure that this is a user that does not exist on your system. Keep in mind that if you create a fake username and that user already exists, the fake username will be shown. Script_name is the standard name of your script. This is used in the display of your services listing. SEARCHBOOL specifies whether parameters can be sent to that specific fake user. If you decide to use the SEARCHBOOL option (TRUE in this case), the passed variables are First passed option Second passed option Third passed option Fourth passed option $1 $2 $3 $4 (If more than four options were passed to this, the request will be ignored, and an error message will be returned to the user who requested the finger request.) script is the location of your script. It should be chmod 700 and readable only by root. If you do not specify any fake users, a fake user called None will be created. This is a fake user that does nothing and calls / for the script. dev/null SERVICES HEADER CONFIGURE SECTION (CONFIG services header) This is the display that is given during a services finger. It should be formatted the same way that you want it to display on the screen. When specifying the finger formatted options, you should specify them as C formatted strings as well, with the standard options. This should always be given last in the display. An example of this is Welcome to this system’s services! User: Service name: Searchable: ——– ——————– ———– %-8s %-20s %-s Remember to keep the format string last or a SIGSEGV will result. SERVICES POSITIONS CONFIGURE SECTION (CONFIG services positions) This specifies where in the preceding display string that the information from a service listing is to appear. These numbers can be anywhere between 1 and 3. expire.ctl 1121 There is a special syntax for creating the entire banks of devices for a hard drive: hd[a-d] 8/64 What this means is as follows: Create hda , and eight partitions on hda (hda1 through hda8), starting with minor number 0. Then create hdb , and eight partitions, starting with minor number 64. Then hdc, and so on, with minor number 64*2 = 128—and so forth. These are automatically placed in the class disk. The necessary groups and batches are created so you can ask MAKEDEV to create hd or hda or hda1 and expect it to do the correct thing. Note that simple arithmetic is permitted for specifying the minor device number, as this often makes things much clearer and less likely to be accidentally broken. SEE ALSO k u . o .c e l a s e environ t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 3 w 5 e i 1 v 1 e e g Pr a P MAKEDEV (8), MAKEDEV.cfg (5) Version 1.4, January 1995 environ —User environment. SYNOPSIS extern char **environ; DESCRIPTION An array of strings called the environment is made available by exec (2) when a process begins. By convention, these strings have the form name=value. Common examples are USER LOGNAME HOME LANG PATH SHELL TERM The name of the logged-in user (used by some BSD-derived programs). The name of the logged-in user (used by some System-V derived programs). A user’s login directory, set by login(1) from the password file passwd (5). The name of a locale to use for locale categories when not overridden by LC_ALL or more specific environment variables. The sequence of directory prefixes that sh(1) and many other programs apply in searching for a file known by an incomplete pathname. The prefixes are separated by :. The filename of the user’s login shell. The terminal type for which output is to be prepared. Further names maybe placed in the environment by the export command and name=value in sh(1) or by the setenv command if you use csh(1). Arguments may also be placed in the environment at the point of an exec(2). It is risky practice to set name=value pairs that conflict with well-known shell variables. Setting these could cause surprising behavior in subshells or system (3) commands. SEE ALSO login(1), sh(1), bash(1), csh(1), tcsh(1), exec(2), system(3) Linux, 21 October 1996 expire.ctl expire.ctl —Control file for Usenet article expiration. Part V: File Formats 1124 Here’s the complete list of mapping options: root_squash no_root_squash squash_uids and squash_gids Map requests from UID/GID 0 to the anonymous UID/GID. Note that this does not apply to any other UIDs that might be equally sensitive, such as user bin. Turn off root squashing. This option is mainly useful for diskless clients. This option specifies a list of UIDs or GIDs that should be subject to anonymous mapping. A valid list of IDs looks like this: squash_uids=0-15,20,25-50 Usually, your squash lists will look a lot simpler, such as squash_uids=0-100 all_squash map_daemon anonuid k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 6 w 5 e i 1 v 1 e e g Pr a P and anongid EXAMPLE Map all UIDs and GIDs to the anonymous user. Useful for NFS-exported public FTP directories, newsspool directories, and so on. The opposite option is no_all_squash, which is the default setting. This option turns on dynamic UID/GID mapping. Each UID in an NFS request will be translated to the equivalent server UID, and each UID in an NFS reply will be mapped the other way round. This option requires that rpc.ugidd (8) runs on the client host. The default setting is map_identity, which leaves all UIDs untouched. The normal squash options apply regardless of whether dynamic mapping is requested. These options explicitly set the UID and GID of the anonymous account. This option is primarily useful for PC/NFS clients, where you might want all requests appear to be from one user. As an example, consider the export entry for /home/joe in the section “Example,” which maps all requests to UID 150 (which is supposedly that of user joe). # sample /etc/exports file / master(rw) trusty(rw,no_root_squash) /projects proj*.local.domain(rw) /usr *.local.domain(ro) @trusted(rw) /home/joe pc001(rw,all_squash,anonuid=150,anongid=100) /pub (ro,insecure,all_squash) The first line exports the entire filesystem to machines master and trusty. In addition to write access, all UID squashing is turned off for host trusty . The second and third entry show examples for wildcard hostnames and netgroups (this is the entry @trusted ). The fourth line shows the entry for the PC/NFS client discussed previously. The last line exports the public FTP directory to every host in the world, executing all requests under the nobody account. The insecure option in this entry also allows clients with NFS implementations that don’t use a reserved port for NFS. CAVEATS Unlike other NFS server implementations, this nfsd allows you to export both a directory and a subdirectory thereof to the same host, for instance /usr and /usr/X11R6 . In this case, the mount options of the most specific entry apply. For instance, when a user on the client host accesses a file in /usr/X11R6 , the mount options given in the /usr/X11R6 entry apply. This is also true when the latter is a wildcard or netgroup entry. FILES /etc/exports /etc/passwd Configuration file for nfsd (8) The password file DIAGNOSTICS An error parsing the file is reported using syslogd (8) as level NOTICE from a DAEMON whenever nfsd(8) or mountd(8) is started. Any unknown host is reported at that time, but often not all hosts are not yet known to named (8) at boot time, so as hosts are found, they are reported with the same syslogd (8) parameters. Part V: File Formats 1126 A network filesystem that supports the SMB protocol, used by Windows for Workgroups, Windows NT, and LAN Manager. To use smb, you need a special mount program, which can be found in the ksmbfs package at ftp://sunsite.unc.edu/pub/Linux/system/Filesystems/smbfs. A network filesystem that supports the NCP protocol, used by Novell NetWare. To use ncpfs, you need special programs found at ftp://linux01.gwdg.de/pub/ncpfs. smb ncpfs SEE ALSO proc(5), fsck(8), mkfs(8), mount (8) 25 March 1996 fstab fstab—Static SYNOPSIS k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 8 w 5 e i 1 v 1 e e g Pr a P information about the filesystems. #include <fstab.h> DESCRIPTION The file fstab contains descriptive information about the various filesystems. fstab is only read by programs and not written; it is the duty of the system administrator to properly create and maintain this file. Each filesystem is described on a separate line; fields on each line are separated by tabs or spaces. The order of records in fstab is important because fsck (8), mount(8), and umount (8) sequentially iterate through fstab doing their thing. The first field (fs_spec) describes the block special device or remote filesystem to be mounted. The second field (fs_file ) describes the mount point for the filesystem. For swap partitions, this field should be specified as none. The third field (fs_vfstype ) describes the type of the filesystem. The system currently supports three types of filesystems: minix ext ext2 xiafs msdos hpfs iso9660 nfs swap A local filesystem, supporting filenames of length 14 or 30 characters. A local filesystem with longer filenames and larger inodes. This filesystem has been replaced by the ext2 filesystem and should no longer be used. A local filesystem with longer filenames, larger inodes, and a lot of other features. A local filesystem with longer filenames, larger inodes, and a lot of other features. A local filesystem for MS-DOS partitions. A local filesystem for HPFS partitions. A local filesystem used for CD-ROM drives. A filesystem for mounting partitions from remote systems. A disk partition to be used for swapping. If vfs_fstype is specified as ignore , the entry is ignored. This is useful to show disk partitions that are currently unused. The fourth field (fs_mntops) describes the mount options associated with the filesystem. It is formatted as a comma-separated list of options. It contains at least the type of mount plus any additional options appropriate to the filesystem type. For documentation on the available options for non-NFS file systems, see mount(8). For documentation on all NFS-specific options, take a look at nfs(5). Common for all types of filesystems are the options noauto (do not mount when mount -a is given, such as at boot time) and user (allow a user to mount). For more details, see mount (8). The fifth field (fs_freq ) is used for these filesystems by the dump(8) command to determine which filesystems need to be dumped. If the fifth field is not present, a value of zero is returned and dump will assume that the filesystem does not need to be dumped. groff_out 1129 are in ditroff . The width subfields gives the width of the character. The height subfield gives the height of the character (upwards is positive); if a character does not extend above the baseline, it should be given a zero height, rather than a negative height. The depth subfield gives the depth of the character, that is, the distance below the lowest point below the baseline to which the character extends (downwards is positive); if a character does not extend below above the baseline, it should be given a zero depth, rather than a negative depth. The italic_correction subfield gives the amount of space that should be added after the character when it is immediately to be followed by a character from a roman font. The left_italic_correction subfield gives the amount of space that should be added before the character when it is immediately to be preceded by a character from a roman font. The subscript_correction gives the amount of space that should be added after a character before adding a subscript. This should be less than the italic_correction. A line in the charset section can also have the format name “ k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 1 w 6 e i 1 v 1 e e g Pr a P This indicates that name is just another name for the character mentioned in the preceding line. The word kernpairs starts the kernpairs section. This contains a sequence of lines of the form: c1 c2 n This means that when character c1 appears next to character c2, the space between them should be increased by n. Most entries in kernpairs section will have a negative value for n. FILES /usr/lib/groff/font/dev name/DESC /usr/lib/groff/font/devname/F SEE ALSO Device description file for device name. Font file for font F of device name. groff_out (5), gtroff(1) Groff Version 1.09, 14 February 1994 groff_out groff_out —groff intermediate output format. DESCRIPTION This manual page describes the format output by GNU troff . The output format used by GNU troff is very similar to that used by UNIX device-independent troff . Only the differences are documented here. The argument to the s command is in scaled points (units of points/n , where n is the argument to the sizescale command in the DESC file.) The argument to the x Height command is also in scaled points. The first three output commands are guaranteed to be x T device x res n h v x init If the tcommand line is present in the DESC file, troff will use the following two commands: txxx xxx is any sequence of characters terminated by a space or a newline; the first character should be printed at the current position, the current horizontal position should be increased by the width of the first character, and so on for each character. The width of the character is that given in the font file, appropriately scaled for the current point size and rounded so that it is a multiple of the horizontal resolution. Special characters cannot be printed using this command. Part V: File Formats 1146 time_t sem_ctime; /* last change time */ ushort sem_nsems; /* count of sems in set */ ipc_perm structure that specifies the access permissions on the semaphore set. Time of last semop system call. Time of last semctl system call that changed a member of the above structure or of one semaphore belonging to the set. Number of semaphores in the set. Each semaphore of the set is referenced by a non-negative integer ranging from 0 to sem_nsems–1. sem_perm sem_otime sem_ctime sem_nsems A semaphore is a data structure of type struct sem containing the following members: k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 8 w 7 e i 1 v 1 e e g Pr a P ushort semval; /* semaphore value */ short sempid; /* pid for last operation */ ushort semncnt; /* no. of awaiting semval to increase */ ushort semzcnt; /* no. of awaiting semval = 0 */ semval sempid semncnt semznt Semaphore value: a non-negative integer. ID of the last process that performed a semaphore operation on this semaphore. Number of processes suspended awaiting for semval to increase. Number of processes suspended awaiting for semval to become zero. SHARED MEMORY SEGMENTS A shared memory segment is uniquely identified by a positive integer (its shmid) and has an associated data structure of type struct shmid_ds, defined in <sys/shm.h> , containing the following members: struct ipc_perm shm_perm; int shm_segsz; /* size of segment */ ushort shm_cpid; /* pid of creator */ ushort shm_lpid; /* pid, last operation */ short shm_nattch; /* no. of current attaches */ time_t shm_atime; /* time of last attach */ time_t shm_dtime; /* time of last detach */ time_t shm_ctime; /* time of last change */ ipc_perm structure that specifies the access permissions on the shared memory segment. Size in bytes of the shared memory segment. ID of the process that created the shared memory segment. ID of the last process that executed a shmat or shmdt system call. Number of current alive attaches for this shared memory segment. Time of the last shmat system call. Time of the last shmdt system call. Time of the last shmctl system call that changed shmid_ds . shm_perm shm_segsz shm_cpid shm_lpid shm_nattch shm_atime shm_dtime shm_ctime SEE ALSO ftok(3), msgctl (2), msgget (2), msgrcv(2), msgsnd(2), semctl(2), semget (2), semop (2), shmat(2), shmctl(2), shmget(2), shmdt (2) Linux 0.99.13, 1 November 1993 issue issue—Issue identification file. Part V: File Formats 1152 Here is a sample file: foo.important:[email protected] foo.*:%[email protected] gnu.*:%[email protected] :%[email protected] Using this file, postings to the moderated newsgroup in the left column will be sent to the address shown in the right column: foo.important [email protected] foo.x.announce [email protected] gnu.emacs.sources [email protected] comp.sources.unix [email protected] k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o /etc/modules 4 w 8 e i 1 v 1 e e g Pr a P HISTORY Written by Rich $alz ([email protected]) for InterNetNews. SEE ALSO inews(1), inn.conf(5), libinn(3), wildmat(3) /etc/modules —Kernel modules to load at boot time. DESCRIPTION The /etc/modules file contains the names of kernel modules that are to be loaded at boot time, one per line. Comments begin with a #, and everything on the line after them are ignored. Debian GNU/Linux version 0.93 motd motd—Message of the day. DESCRIPTION The contents of /etc/motd are displayed by login(1) after a successful login but just before it executes the login shell. The motd stands for “message of the day,” and this file has been traditionally been used for exactly that. (It requires much less disk space than mail to all users.) FILES /etc/motd SEE ALSO login(1) issue(5) Linux, 29 December 1992 mtools mtools—Table of DOS devices. mtools 1153 DESCRIPTION /etc/mtools.conf and ~/.mtoolsrc are the configuration files for mtools. These configuration files describe the following items: Global configuration flags and variables Per-drive flags and variables Character translation tables /etc/mtools.conf is the system-wide configuration file, and ~/.mtoolsrc is the user’s private configuration file. GENERAL SYNTAX k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 5 w 8 e i 1 v 1 e e g Pr a P The configuration files is made up of sections. Each section starts with a keyword identifying the section followed by a colon. Then follow variable assignments and flags. Variable assignments take the following form: name=value Flags are lone keywords without an equal sign and value following them. A section either ends at the end of the file or where the next section begins. Lines starting with a hash (#) are comments. Newline characters are equivalent to whitespace (except where ending a comment). The configuration file is case insensitive, except for items enclosed in quotes (such as filenames). DEFAULT VALUES For most platforms, mtools contains reasonable compiled-in defaults. You usually don’t need to bother with the configuration file, if all you want to do with mtools is access your floppy drives. On the other hand, the configuration file is needed if you also want to use mtools to access your hard disk partitions and dosemu image files. GLOBAL VARIABLES Global variables may be set to 1 or to 0. The following global flags are recognized: MTOOLS_SKIP_CHECK MTOOLS_FAT_COMPATIBILITY MTOOLS_LOWER_CASE If this is set to 1, mtools skips most of its sanity checks. This is needed to read some Atari disks that have been made with the earlier ROMs and that would not be recognized otherwise. If this is set to 1, mtools skips the FAT size checks. Some disks have a bigger FAT than they really need. These are rejected if this option is not set. If this is set to 1, mtools displays all-uppercase short filenames as lowercase. This has been done to allow a behavior that is consistent with older versions of mtools, which didn’t know about the case bits. For example, inserting the following line into your configuration file instructs mtools to skip the sanity checks: MTOOLS_SKIP_CHECK=1 . Global variables may also be set via the environment: export MTOOLS_SKIP_CHECK=1. PER-DRIVE FLAGS AND VARIABLES Per-drive flags and values may be described in a drive section. A drive section starts with drive driveletter:. Then follow variable-value pairs and flags. GENERAL PURPOSE DRIVE VARIABLES The following variables are available: file The name of the file or device holding the disk image. This is mandatory. The filename should be enclosed in quotes. Part V: File Formats 1160 G count H count I size N modifiers S size T type W items If this flag is specified, an article will only be sent to the site if it is posted to no more than count newsgroups. If this flag is specified, an article will only be sent to the site if it has count or fewer sites in its Path line. This flag should only be used as a rough guide because of the loose interpretation of the Path header; some sites put the poster’s name in the header, and some sites that might logically be considered to be one hop become two because they put the posting workstation’s name in the header. The default value for count is one. The flag specifies the size of the internal buffer for a file feed. If there are more file feeds than allowed by the system, they will be buffered internally in least recently used order. If the internal buffer grows bigger than size bytes, however, the data will be written out to the appropriate file. The newsgroups that a site receives are modified according to the modifiers, which should be chosen from the following set: m Only moderated groups u Only unmoderated groups If the amount of data queued for the site gets to be larger than size bytes, then the server will switch to spooling, appending to a file specified by the F flag or /news/spool/out.going/ sitename if the F flag is not specified. Spooling usually happens only for channel or exploder feeds. This flag specifies the type of feed for the site. type should be a letter chosen from the following set: c Channel f File l Log entry only m Funnel (multiple entries feed into one) p Program x Exploder. Each feed is described in the section on feed types. The default is Tf. If a site is fed by file, channel, or exploder, this flag controls what information is written. If a site is fed by a program, only the asterisk (*) has any effect. The items should be chosen from the following set: b Size of the article in bytes. f Article’s full pathname. g The newsgroup the article is in; if cross-posted, then the first of the groups this site gets. m Article’s Message-ID. n Article’s pathname relative to the spool directory. p The site that fed the article to the server; from the Path header. s The IP address of the site that sent the article. t Time article was received as seconds since epoch. * Names of the appropriate funnel entries; or all sites that get the article. D Value of the Distribution header; ? if none present. H All headers. N Value of the Newsgroups header. O Overview data. R Information needed for replication. More than one letter can be used; the entries will be separated by a space and written in the order in which they are specified. The default is Wn. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 2 w 9 e i 1 v 1 e e g Pr a P nfs 1165 HISTORY Written by Landon Curt Noll ([email protected]) and Rich $alz ([email protected]) for InterNetNews. SEE ALSO control.ctl (5), ctlinnd(8), expire (8), innd(8), news.daily (8), nntpsend (8), newslog(8) nfs nfs—NFS fstab SYNOPSIS format and options. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 7 w 9 e i 1 v 1 e e g Pr a P /etc/fstab DESCRIPTION The fstab file contains information about which filesystems to mount where and with what options. For NFS mounts, it contains the server name and exported server directory to mount from, the local directory that is the mount point, and the NFS-specific options that control the way the filesystem is mounted. Here is an example from an /etc/fstab file from an NFS mount. server:/usr/local/pub /pub nfs rsize=8192,wsize=8192,timeo=14,intr OPTIONS rsize=n wsize=n timeo=n retrans=n acregmin=n acregmax=n acdirmin=n acdirmax=n actimeo=n The number of bytes NFS uses when reading files from an NFS server. The default value is dependent on the kernel, currently 1024 bytes. (However, throughput is improved greatly by asking for rsize=8192.) The number of bytes NFS uses when writing files to an NFS server. The default value is dependent on the kernel, currently 1024 bytes. (However, throughput is improved greatly by asking for wsize=8192.) The value in tenths of a second before sending the first retransmission after an RPC timeout. The default value is 7 tenths of a second. After the first time-out, the time-out is doubled after each successive time-out until a maximum time-out of 60 seconds is reached or the enough retransmissions have occurred to cause a major time-out. Then, if the filesystem is hard mounted, each new time-out cascade restarts at twice the initial value of the previous cascade, again doubling at each retransmission. The maximum time-out is always 60 seconds. Better overall performance may be achieved by increasing the time-out when mounting on a busy network, to a slow server, or through several routers or gateways. The number of minor time-outs and retransmissions that must occur before a major timeout occurs. The default is 3 time-outs. When a major time-out occurs, the file operation is either aborted or a “server not responding” message is printed on the console. The minimum time in seconds that attributes of a regular file should be cached before requesting fresh information from a server. The default is 3 seconds. The maximum time in seconds that attributes of a regular file can be cached before requesting fresh information from a server. The default is 60 seconds. The minimum time in seconds that attributes of a directory should be cached before requesting fresh information from a server. The default is 30 seconds. The maximum time in seconds that attributes of a directory can be cached before requesting fresh information from a server. The default is 60 seconds. Using actimeo sets all of acregmin , acregmax, acdirmin , and acdirmax to the same value. There is no default value. ppm 1173 pnm pnm—Portable anymap file format. DESCRIPTION The pnm programs operate on portable bitmaps, graymaps, and pixmaps produced by the pbm, pgm , and ppm segments. There is no file format associated with pnm itself. SEE ALSO anytopnm (1), rasttopnm (1), tifftopnm(1), xwdtopnm (1), pnmtops (1), pnmtorast(1), pnmtotiff (1), pnmtoxwd(1), pnmarith (1), pnmcat(1), pnmconvol (1), pnmcrop(1), pnmcut(1), pnmdepth (1), pnmenlarge (1), pnmfile(1), pnmflip (1), pnmgamma (1), pnmindex(1), k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 5 w 0 e i 2 v 1 e e g Pr a P pnminvert (1), pnmmargin (1), pnmnoraw (1), pnmpaste (1), pnmrotate(1), pnmscale (1), pnmshear (1), pnmsmooth(1), pnmtile (1), ppm(5), pgm(5), pbm(5) AUTHOR Copyright 1989, 1991 by Jef Poskanzer. 27 September 1991 ppm ppm—Portable pixmap file format. DESCRIPTION The portable pixmap format is a lowest common denominator color image file format. The definition is as follows: A “magic number” for identifying the file type. A ppm file’s magic number is the two characters P3. Whitespace (blanks, Tabs, CRs, LFs). A width, formatted as ASCII characters in decimal. Whitespace. A height, again in ASCII decimal. Whitespace. The maximum color-component value, again in ASCII decimal. Whitespace. Width * height pixels, each three ASCII decimal values between 0 and the specified maximum value, starting at the top-left corner of the pixmap, proceeding in normal English reading order. The three values for each pixel represent red, green, and blue; a value of 0 means that color is off, and the maximum value means that color is maxed out. Characters from a # to the next end-of-line are ignored (comments). No line should be longer than 70 characters. Here is an example of a small pixmap in this format: P3 # feep.ppm 4 4 15 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 15 0 15 0 0 0 0 15 7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 15 7 0 0 0 15 0 150 0 0 00 0 0 0 0 Programs that read this format should be as lenient as possible, accepting anything that looks remotely like a pixmap. Part V: File Formats 1182 newphrase ::= id word* ; word ::= id | num | string | : Identifiers are case sensitive. Keywords are in lowercase only. The sets of keywords and identifiers can overlap. In most environments, RCS uses the ISO8859/1 encoding: visible graphic characters are codes 041–176 and 240–377, and whitespace characters are codes 010–015 and 040. Dates, which appear after the date keyword, are of the form Y.mm.dd.hh.mm.ss, where Y is the year, mm the month (01–12), dd the day (01–31), hh the hour (00–23), mm the minute (00–59), and ss the second (00–60). Y contains just the last two digits of the year for years from 1900 through 1999, and all the digits of years thereafter. Dates use the Gregorian calendar; times use UTC. The newphrase productions in the grammar are reserved for future extensions to the format of RCS files. No newphrase will begin with any keyword already in use. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 4 w 1 e i 2 v 1 e e g Pr a P The delta nodes form a tree. All nodes whose numbers consist of a single pair (such as 2.3, 2.1, 1.3, and so on) are on the trunk and are linked through the next field in order of decreasing numbers. The head field in the admin node points to the head of that sequence (contains the highest pair). The branch node in the admin node indicates the default branch (or revision) for most RCS operations. If empty, the default branch is the highest branch on the trunk. All delta nodes whose numbers consist of 2n fields (n2) (such as 3.1.1.1, 2.1.2.2, and so on) are linked as follows. All nodes whose first 2n–1 number fields are identical are linked through the next field in order of increasing numbers. For each such sequence, the delta node whose number is identical to the first 2n–2 number fields of the deltas on that sequence is called the branchpoint. The branches field of a node contains a list of the numbers of the first nodes of all sequences for which it is a branchpoint. This list is ordered in increasing numbers. The following diagram shows an example of an RCS file’s organization. Head | | v -------- / \ \ | | / \ / \ / \ / \ | 2.1 | / \ / \ / \ / \ | | / \ / \ /1.2.1.3\ /1.3.1.1\ | | /1.2.2.2\ /1.2.2.1.1.1\ --------------------------------------------ˆ ˆ | ˆ ˆ | | | | | | | v | | / \ | --------/ \ | / \ | \ 1.3 / / \ | / \ --------\ / / \--------/1.2.1.1\ \ / /1.2.2.1\ --------\ / --------ˆ | ˆ | | | | v | | --------| | \ 1.2 / | --------------------------\ /--------\ / \ / | | v --------\ 1.1 / \ / \ / \ / / \ / \ / services 1185 protocol) for its service. The C library routines getservent (3), getservbyname(3), getservbyport(3), setservent (3), and endservent (3) support querying this file from programs. Port numbers are assigned by the IANA (Internet Assigned Numbers Authority), and their current policy is to assign both TCP and UDP protocols when assigning a port number. Therefore, most entries will have two entries, even for TCP-only services. Port numbers below 1024 (so-called low-numbered ports) can only be bound to by root (see bind(2), tcp(7), and udp (7).) This is so that clients connecting to low-numbered ports can trust that the service running on the port is the standard implementation and not a rogue service run by a user of the machine. Well-known port numbers specified by the IANA are normally located in this root-only space. The presence of an entry for a service in the services file does not necessarily mean that the service is currently running on the machine. See inetd.conf(5) for the configuration of Internet services offered. Note that not all networking services are started by inetd(8) and so won’t appear in inetd.conf(5). In particular, news (NNTP) and mail (SMTP) servers are often initialized from the system boot scripts. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 7 w 1 e i 2 v 1 e e g Pr a P The location of the services file is defined by PATH SERVICES in /usr/include/netdb.h. This is usually set to /etc/services. Each line describes one service and is of the form: service-name port/protocol [aliases ...] The friendly name the service is known by and looked up under. It is case sensitive. Often, the client program is named after the service-name. The port number (in decimal) to use for this service. The type of protocol to be used. This field should match an entry in the protocols (5) file. Typical values include tcp and udp. An optional space- or tab-separated list of other names for this service (see the Bugs section below). Again, the names are case sensitive. service-name port protocol aliases Either spaces or tabs may be used to separate the fields. Comments are started by the hash sign (#) and continue until the end of the line. Blank lines are skipped. The service-name should begin in the first column of the file because leading spaces are not stripped. service-names can be any printable characters excluding space and tab; however, a conservative choice of characters should be used to minimize inter-operability problems. For example, a–z, 0–9, and hyphen (–) would seem a sensible choice. Lines not matching this format should not be present in the file. (Currently, they are silently skipped by getservent (3), and getservbyport(3). However, this behavior should not be relied on.) getservbyname (3), As a backwards compatibility feature, the slash (/) between the port number and protocol name can in fact be either a slash or a comma (,). Use of the comma in modern installations is depreciated. This file might be distributed over a network using a network-wide naming service such as Yellow Pages/NIS or BIND/ Hesiod. A sample services file might look like this: netstat qotd msp msp chargen chargen ftp # telnet 15/tcp 17/tcp quote 18/tcp # message send protocol 18/udp # message send protocol 19/tcp ttytst source 19/udp ttytst source 21/tcp 22 - unassigned 23/tcp XF86Config Ramdac “ramdac-type” DacSpeed speed Clocks clock ... 1205 This optional entry specifies the type of RAMDAC used on the graphics board. This is only used by a few of the X servers, and in most cases, it is not required because the X servers will probe the hardware to determine the RAMDAC type where possible. This optional entry specifies the RAMDAC speed rating (which is usually printed on the RAMDAC chip). The speed is in MHz. This is only used by a few of the X servers and only needs to be specified when the speed rating of the RAMDAC is different from the default built in to the X server. Specifies the dotclocks that are on your graphics board. The clocks are in MHz and may be specified as a floating-point number. The value is stored internally to the nearest kHz. The ordering of the clocks is important. It must match the order in which they are selected on the graphics board. Multiple Clocks lines may be specified. For boards with programmable clock chips, the ClockChip entry should be used instead of this. A Clocks entry is not mandatory for boards with non-programmable clock chips but is highly recommended because it prevents the clock probing phase during server startup. This clock probing phase can cause problems for some monitors. This optional entry is used to specify the clock chip type on graphics boards that have a programmable clock generator. Only a few X servers support programmable clock chips. For details, see the appropriate X server manual page. This optional entry runs command to set the clock on the graphics board instead of using the internal code. The command string must consist of the full pathname (and no flags). When using this option, a Clocks entry is required to specify which clock values are to be made available to the server (up to 128 clocks may be specified). The optional textclock value is to tell the server that command must be run to restore the text-mode clock at server exit (or when VT switching). textclock must match one of the values in the Clocks entry. This parameter is required when the clock used for text mode is a programmable clock. The command is run with the real user’s ID with stdin and stdout set to the graphics console device. Two arguments are passed to the command. The first is the clock frequency in MHz as a floating-point number and the second is the index of the clock in the Clocks entry. The command should return an exit status of 0 when successful and something in the range 1–254 otherwise. The command is run when the initial graphics mode is set and when changing screen resolution with the hotkey sequences. If the program fails at initialization, the server exits. If it fails during a mode switch, the mode switch is aborted but the server keeps running. It is assumed that if the command fails, the clock has not been changed. This optional entry allows the user to select certain options provided by the drivers. Multiple Option entries may be given. The supported values for optionstring are given in the appropriate X server manual pages. This optional entry specifies the amount of video RAM that is installed on the graphics board. This is measured in kilobytes. In most cases, this is not required because the X server probes the graphics board to determine this quantity. This optional entry specifies the base address of the video BIOS for the VGA board. This address is usually 0xC0000, which is the default the X servers use. Some systems, particularly those with on-board VGA hardware, have the BIOS located at an alternate address, usually 0xE0000. If your video BIOS is at an address other than 0xC0000, you must specify the base address in the XF86Config file. Note that some X servers don’t access the BIOS at all and those that do only use the BIOS when searching for information during the hardware probe phase. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 7 w 3 e i 2 v 1 e e g Pr a P ClockChip “clockchip-type” ClockProg command [textclock] Option optionstring VideoRam mem BIOSBase baseaddress bootparam 1221 Also note that hd= can be used to refer to the next unspecified drive in the (a , …, h) sequence. For the following discussions, the hd= option will be cited for brevity. See the file README.ide in linux/drivers/block for more details. THE hd=cyls,heads,sects[,wpcom[,irq]] OPTIONS These options are used to specify the physical geometry of the disk. Only the first three values are required. The cylinder, head, and sectors values are those used by fdisk. The write precompensation value is ignored for IDE disks. The IRQ value specified is the IRQ used for the interface that the drive resides on and is not really a drive-specific parameter. THE hd=serialize OPTION The dual IDE interface CMD-640 chip is broken as designed such that when drives on the secondary interface are used at the same time as drives on the primary interface, it will corrupt your data. Using this option tells the driver to make sure that both interfaces are never used at the same time. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 3 w 5 e i 2 v 1 e e g Pr a P THE hd=dtc2278 OPTION This option tells the driver that you have a DTC-2278D IDE interface. The driver then tries to do DTC-specific operations to enable the second interface and to enable faster transfer modes. THE hd=noprobe OPTION Do not probe for this drive. The following line hdb=noprobe hdb=1166,7,17 disables the probe but still specifies the drive geometry so that it is registered as a valid block device and hence usable. THE hd=nowerr OPTION Some drives apparently have the WRERR STAT bit stuck on permanently. This enables a work-around for these broken devices. THE hd=cdrom OPTION This tells the IDE driver that there is an ATAPI compatible CD-ROM attached in place of a normal IDE hard disk. In most cases, the CD-ROM is identified automatically, but if it isn’t, then this might help. STANDARD ST-506 DISK DRIVER OPTIONS (hd=) The standard disk driver can accept geometry arguments for the disks similar to the IDE driver. Note however that it only expects three values (C/H/S ); any more or any less and it will silently ignore you. Also, it only accepts hd= as an argument; hda= and so on are not valid here. The format is as follows: hd=cyls,heads,sects If there are two disks installed, the preceding line is repeated with the geometry parameters of the second disk. XT DISK DRIVER OPTIONS (xd=) If you are unfortunate enough to be using one of these old 8-bit cards that move data at a whopping 125KB/s, then here is the scoop. If the card is not recognized, you must use a boot arg of the form xd=type,irq,iobase,dma_chan The type value specifies the particular manufacturer of the card, and you use one of the following: 0=generic, 1=DTC, 2, 3, 4=Western Digital, 5, 6 , 7=Seagate, or 8=OMTI. The only difference between multiple types from the same manufacturer is the BIOS string used for detection, which is not used if the type is specified. The xd_setup() function does no checking on the values and assumes that you entered all four values. Don’t disappoint it. Here is a sample usage for a WD1002 controller with the BIOS disabled or removed, using the default XT controller parameters: xd=2,5,0x320,3 Part VII: Miscellaneous 1226 Request Initial Value Cause Break Explanation .)x - Yes Yes No End index item. End floating keep. Define paper section. m defines the part of the paper and can be C (chapter), A (appendix), P (preliminary, such as abstract, table of contents, and so on), B (bibliography), RC (chapters renumbered from page one each chapter), or RA (appendix renumbered from page one). Begin chapter (or appendix and so on as set by .++). T is the chapter title. One column format on a new page. Two column format. Equation number is y. Space after equation produced by eqn or neqn. Precede equation; break out and add space. The optional argument x may be I to indent equation (default), L to left-adjust the equation, or C to center the equation. End gremlin picture. Begin gremlin picture. End pic picture. Begin pic picture. End table. End heading section of table. Begin table; if x is H, table has repeated heading. Print x in boldface; if no argument switch to boldface. Augments the base indent by n. This indent is used to set the indent on regular text (like paragraphs). Begin new column. Print x in bold italics (no fill only). Begin bulleted paragraph. Print x in a box (no fill only). Set even footer to x y z. Set even header to x y z. Set footer to x y z . Suppress headers and footers on next page. Set header to x y z. Draw a horizontal line. Italicize x; if x is missing, italic text follows. Start indented paragraph with hanging tag x. Indentation is y ens (default is 5). .)z .++ m H k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 8 w 5 e i 2 v 1 e e g Pr a P - Yes 1 1 - Yes Yes Yes Yes .b x No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes No .ba +n 0 Yes .bc .bx x No No No .ef ‘x’y’z’ “” .eh ‘x’y’z’ “” Yes No Yes No No No No No No Yes No Yes .+c T .1c .2c .EN .EQ x y .GE .GS .PE .PS .TE .TH .TS x .bi x .bu .fo ‘x’y’z’ “” .hx - .he ‘x’y’z’ “” .hl No No .i x .ip x y Part VII: Miscellaneous 1248 SECTIONS Sections are started with .SH followed by the heading name. If the name contains spaces and appears on the same line as .SH, then place the heading in double quotes. Traditional headings include NAME, SYNOPSIS , DESCRIPTION, OPTIONS, FILES , SEE ALSO, DIAGNOSTICS , BUGS, and AUTHOR. The only required heading is NAME, which should be followed on the next line by a one line description of the program: .SH NAME chess \- the game of chess It is extremely important that this format is followed and that there is a backslash before the single dash that follows the command name. This syntax is used by the makewhatis (8) program to create a database of short command descriptions for the whatis(1) and apropos (1) commands. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 0 w 8 e i 2 v 1 e e g Pr a P OTHER MACROS Other macros include the following: .DT .HP .IP .LP .PD .PP .RE .RS .SS Default tabs. Begin hanging indent. Begin paragraph with hanging tag. This is the same as .TP, except the tag is given on the same line, not on the following line. Same as .PP . Set interparagraph distance to argument. Begin a new paragraph. End relative indent (indented paragraph). Start relative indent (indented paragraph). Subheading (like .SH but used for a subsection). Begin paragraph with hanging tag. The tag is given on the next line. This command is similar to .IP. .TP FILES /usr/local/lib/groff/tmac/tmac.an /usr/man/whatis SEE ALSO groff(1), man(1), whatis (1), apropos (1), makewhatis(8) Linux, 25 July 1993 signal signal—List of available signals. DESCRIPTION Linux supports the signals listed in this section. Several signal numbers are architecture dependent. First are the signals described in POSIX.1: abort(3) alarm(1) Next various other signals. (Here, – denotes that a signal is absent; there, where three values are given, the first one is usually valid for alpha and sparc, the middle one for i386 and ppc, the last one for mips. Signal 29 is SIGINFO /SIGPWR on an alpha but SIGLOST on a sparc.) suffixes 1249 The letters in the Action column have the following meanings: A B C D E F G Default action is to terminate the process. Default action is to ignore the signal. Default action is to dump core. Default action is to stop the process. Signal cannot be caught. Signal cannot be ignored. Not a POSIX.1 conformant signal. CONFORMING TO k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 1 w 8 e i 2 v 1 e r e g P a suffixes P POSIX.1 BUGS and SIGLOST have the same value. The latter is commented out in the kernel source, but the build process of some software still thinks that Signal 29 is SIGLOST. SIGIO SEE ALSO kill(1), kill(2), setitimer (2) Linux 1.3.88, 14 April 1996 suffixes —List of file suffixes. DESCRIPTION It is customary to indicate the contents of a file with the file suffix, which consists of a period followed by one or more letters. Many standard utilities, such as compilers, use this to recognize the type of file they are dealing with. The make(1) utility is driven by rules based on file suffixes. Following is a list of suffixes that are likely to be found on a Linux system: Suffix File Type ,v .C .F .S .Z .[0-9]+pk .[1-9] .[1-9][a-z] .a .afm .arc .arj .asc Files for RCS (Revision Control System) Backup file C++ source code FORTRAN source with cpp (1) directives Assembler source with cpp (1) directives File compressed using compress (1) TeX font files Manual page for the corresponding section Manual page for section plus subsection Static object code library PostScript font metrics ARC archive ARJ archive PGP ASCII-armored data continues 1250 Part VII: Miscellaneous Suffix File Type .awk .bak .bm .c .cat .cc .cf .conf .config .cweb .dat .def .def .diff .doc .dvi .el .elc .eps .f .fas .fi .gif .gsf .gz .h .hlp .htm .html .i .idx .icon .image .in .info .java .jpg .l .lib .ln .lsp .m4 .mac AWK language program Backup file Bitmap source C source Message catalog files C++ source Configuration file Configuration file Configuration file Donald Knuth’s WEB for C Data file Modula-2 source for definition modules Other definition files ASCII File differences Documentation file TeX device independent output EMACS lisp source Compiled EMACS lisp Encapsulated PostScript FORTRAN source Precompiled common lisp FORTRAN include files Graphics Interchange Format Ghostscript fonts File compressed using gzip(1) C or C++ header files Help file HTML file imported without renaming from a brain-damaged OS HTML document used with the World Wide Web C source after preprocessing Reference or datum-index file for hypertext or database system Bitmap source Bitmap source Configuration template, especially for GNU autoconf Files for the EMACS info browser A Java source file JPEG compressed picture format lex(1) or flex(1) files Common lisp library Files for use with lint(1) Common lisp source M4(1) source Macro files for various programs k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 2 w 8 e i 2 v 1 e e g Pr a P Unicode 1253 BUGS Many of these bugs are harmless. Most of them cause local errors that can be fixed in the converted manuscript. ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ Some macros and macro arguments are not recognized. Commands that are not separated from their argument by a space are not properly parsed (such as .sp3i ). When some operators (notably over , sub, and sup ) are renamed (via define) and then they are encountered in the text, tr2tex treats them as ordinary macros and does not apply their rules. rpile, lpile , and cpile are treated the same as cpile. rcol and lcol are treated the same as ccol . Math-mode size, gsize , fat, and gfont are ignored. lineup and mark are ignored. The rules are so different. Some troff commands are translated to commands that require delimiters that have to be explicitly put. Because they are sometimes not put in troff, they can create problems. Example: .nf is not closed by .fi. When local motions are converted to nraise or nlower , an nhbox is needed, which must be put manually after the conversion. a sub i sub j is converted to a_i_j , which TeX parses as a_i{}_j} with a complaint that it is vague. a sub {i subj} is parsed correctly and converted to a_{i_j} . Line spacing is not changed within a paragraph in TeX (which is a bad practice anyway). TeX uses the last line spacing in effect in that paragraph. TO DO k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 5 w 8 e i 2 v 1 e e g Pr a P Access registers via the .nr command. SEE ALSO texmatch (9), trmatch (9) AUTHOR Kamal Al-Yahya, Stanford University 1 January 1987 Unicode Unicode—The unified 16-bit super character set. DESCRIPTION The international standard ISO 10646 defines the Universal Character Set (UCS). UCS contains all the characters of all other character-set standards. It also guarantees round-trip compatibility; conversion tables can be built such that no information is lost when a string is converted from any other encoding to UCS and back. UCS contains the characters required to represent almost all known languages. This includes apart from the many languages that use extensions of the Latin script also the following scripts and languages: Greek, Cyrillic, Hebrew, Arabic, Armenian, Gregorian, Japanese, Chinese, Hiragana, Katakana, Korean, Hangul, Devangari, Bengali, Gurmukhi, Gujarati, Oriya, Tamil, Telugu, Kannada, Malayam, Thai, Lao, Bopomofo, and a number of others. Work is going on to include further scripts such as Tibetan, Khmer, Runic, Ethiopian, Hieroglyphics, various Indo-European languages, and many others. For most of these latter scripts, it was not yet clear how they can be encoded best when the standard was published in 1993. In addition to the characters required by these scripts, also a large number of graphical, typographical, mathematical, and scientific symbols such as those provided by TeX, PostScript, MS-DOS, Macintosh, Videotext, OCR, and many word processing systems have been included, as well as special codes that guarantee round-trip compatibility to all other existing character-set standards. Part VIII: Administration and Privileged Commands 1258 intro intro—Introduction to administration and privileged commands. DESCRIPTION This chapter describes commands that either can be or are only used by the superuser, such as daemons and machine or hardware-related commands. AUTHORS Look at the header of the manual page for the authors and copyright conditions. Note that these can be different from page to page. k u . o .c e l adduser, addgroup a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 0 w 9 e i 2 v 1 e e g Pr a P Linux, 24 July 1993 adduser, addgroup—Add a user or group to the system. SYNOPSIS adduser [--system [--home directory] [--group]] [--quiet] [--force-badname] [--help] [--version] [--debug] username adduser [--quiet] [--force-badname] [--help] [--version] [--debug] username group adduser [--group] [--quiet] [--force-badname] [--help] [--version] [--debug] group DESCRIPTION and addgroup add users and groups to the system according to information provided in the configuration file /etc/ and addgroup automatically determine the UID or GID and place the entity in the password or group file as appropriate. adduser adduser.conf. adduser If necessary, adduser creates a home directory for the new user, copies “skeletal” user files to it from /etc/skel, and allows the system administrator to set an initial password and finger information for the user. Because it needs to be able to write to such files as /etc/passwd, adduser can only be run as root. Generally, there are two types of users and groups on a system: those users that log into the system and those “non-user” accounts and groups that exist for various system tasks and projects. Henceforth, user will refer to the login type and system user or group will refer to the type used for system maintenance and projects. By default, each user in Debian GNU/Linux is given a corresponding group with the same name and ID, allowing people easily to give access to their home directories to others. This option can be turned off in the configuration file, in which case each user is, by default, added to a group called users. Under Debian GNU/Linux, IDs less than or equal to 100 are allocated by the base system maintainer for various purposes. IDs from 101 to the value specified in the configuration file (1000, by default) are used for system users and groups. IDs greater than 1000 are reserved for users and their corresponding groups. When invoked with a single name, adduser creates a user with that name. When given two names, adduser assumes that the first name represents an existing user and that the second name represents an existing group. In this case, the user is added to the group. Part VIII: Administration and Privileged Commands 1266 DESCRIPTION cfdisk is a curses-based program for partitioning a hard disk drive. The device can be any one of the following: /dev/hda [default] /dev/hdb /dev/sda /dev/sdb /dev/sdc /dev/sdd cfdisk first tries to read the geometry of the hard disk. If it fails, an error message is displayed and cfdisk exits. This should only happen when partitioning a SCSI drive on an adapter without a BIOS. To correct this problem, you can set the cylinders, heads, and sectors-per-track on the command line. Next, cfdisk tries to read the current partition table from the disk drive. If it is unable to figure out the partition table, an error is displayed and the program exits. This might also be caused by incorrect geometry information and can be overridden on the command line. Another way around this problem is with the -z option. This will ignore the partition table on the disk. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 8 w 9 e i 2 v 1 e e g Pr a P The main display is composed of four sections, from top to bottom: the header, the partitions, the command line, and a warning line. The header contains the program name and version number followed by the disk drive and its geometry. The partitions section always displays the current partition table. The command line is the place where commands and text are entered. The available commands are usually displayed in brackets. The warning line is usually empty except when there is important information to be displayed. The current partition is highlighted with reverse video (or an arrow if the -a option is given). All partition-specific commands apply to the current partition. The format of the partition table in the partition’s section is, from left to right: Name, Flags, Partition Type, Filesystem Type, and Size. The name is the partition device name. The flags can be Boot, which designates a bootable partition or NC, which stands for “Not Compatible with DOS or OS/2.” DOS, OS/2, and possibly other operating systems require the first sector of the first partition on the disk and all logical partitions to begin on the second head. This wastes the second through the last sector of the first track of the first head (the first sector is taken by the partition table itself). cfdisk allows you to recover these “lost” sectors with the maximize command (m). Note that fdisk(8) and some early versions of DOS create all partitions with the number of sectors already maximized. For more information, see the maximize command later in this chapter. The partition type can be Primary or Logical. For unallocated space on the drive, the partition type can also be Pri/Log or empty (if the space is unusable). The filesystem type section displays the name of the filesystem used on the partition, if known. If it is unknown, then Unknown and the hex value of the filesystem type are displayed. A special case occurs when there are sections of the disk drive that cannot be used (because all the primary partitions are used). When this is detected, the filesystem type is displayed as Unusable. The size field displays the size of the partition in megabytes (by default). It can also display the size in sectors and cylinders (see the change units command later in this chapter). If an asterisks (*) appears after the size, this means that the partition is not aligned on cylinder boundaries. DOS 6.X WARNING The DOS 6.x FORMAT command looks for some information in the first sector of the data area of the partition and treats this information as more reliable than the information in the partition table. DOS FORMAT expects DOS FDISK to clear the first 512 bytes of the data area of a partition whenever a size change occurs. DOS FORMAT looks at this extra information even if the /U flag is given; we consider this a bug in DOS FORMAT and DOS FDISK. The bottom line is that if you use cfdisk or fdisk to change the size of a DOS partition table entry and then you must also use dd to zero the first 512 bytes of that partition before using DOS FORMAT to format the partition. For example, if you were using cfdisk to make a DOS partition table entry for /dev/hda1, then (after exiting fdisk or cfdisk and rebooting Linux so that the partition table information is valid), you use the command dd if=/dev/zero of=/dev/hda1 bs=512 count=1 to zero the first 512 bytes of the partition. Be extremely careful if you use the dd command because a small typo can make all of the data on your disk useless. For best results, you should always use an OS-specific partition table program. For example, you should make DOS partitions with the DOS FDISK program and Linux partitions with the Linux fdisk or Linux cfdisk program. cfdisk 1267 COMMANDS cfdisk commands can be entered by pressing the desired key (pressing Enter after the command is not necessary). Here is a list of the available commands: b d g h m n p r s t Toggle bootable flag of the current partition. This allows you to select which primary partition is bootable on the drive. Delete the current partition. This will convert the current partition into free space and merge it with any free space immediately surrounding the current partition. A partition already marked as free space or marked as unusable cannot be deleted. Change the disk geometry (cylinders, heads, or sectors-per-track). Warning: This option should only be used by people who know what they are doing. A command-line option is also available to change the disk geometry. While at the change disk geometry command line, you can choose to change cylinders (d), heads (h), and sectors per track (s). The default value will be printed at the prompt, which you can accept by simply pressing the Enter key or you can exit without changes by pressing the Esc key. If you want to change the default value, simply enter the desired value and press Enter. The altered disk parameter values do not take effect until you return to the main menu (by pressing Enter or Esc at the change disk geometry command line. If you change the geometry such that the disk appears larger, the extra sectors are added at the end of the disk as free space. If the disk appears smaller, the partitions that are beyond the new last sector are deleted and the last partition on the drive (or the free space at the end of the drive) is made to end at the new last sector. Print the help screen. Maximize disk usage of the current partition. This command will recover the the unused space between the partition table and the beginning of the partition, at the cost of making the partition incompatible with DOS, OS/2, and possibly other operating systems. This option will toggle between maximal disk usage and DOS, OS/2, and so on compatible disk usage. The default when creating a partition is to create DOS, OS/2, and so on compatible partitions. Create new partitions from free space. If the partition type is Primary or Logical, a partition of that type will be created, but if the partition type is Pri/Log, you will be prompted for the type you want to create. Be aware that there are only four slots available for primary partitions and because there can be only one extended partition that contains all of the logical drives, all of the logical drives must be contiguous (with no intervening primary partition). cfdisk next prompts you for the size of the partition you want to create. The default size, equal to the entire free space of the current partition, is displayed in megabytes. You can either press the Enter key to accept the default size or enter a different size at the prompt. cfdisk accepts size entries in megabytes (M) (default), kilobytes (K), cylinders (d), and sectors (S) when you enter the number immediately followed by M, K, C, or S. If the partition fills the free space available, the partition is created and you are returned to the main command line. Otherwise, the partition can be created at the beginning or the end of the free space, and cfdisk will ask you to choose where to place the partition. After the partition is created, cfdisk automatically adjusts the other partition’s partition types if all of the primary partitions are used. Print the partition table to the screen or to a file. There are several different formats for the partition that you can choose from: Raw data format (exactly what would be written to disk). Partition table in sector order format. Partition table in raw format. The raw data format will print the sectors that would be written to disk if a write command is selected. First, the primary partition table is printed, followed by the partition tables associated with each logical partition. The data is printed in hex byte-by-byte with 16 bytes per line. The partition table in sector order format will print the partition table ordered by sector number. The fields, from left to right, are the number of the partition, the partition type, the first sector, the last sector, the offset from the first sector of the partition to the start of the data, the k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 9 w 9 e i 2 v 1 e e g Pr a P chat 1271 This sequence will expect nothing and then send the string ATZ. The expected response to this is the string OK. When it receives OK, the string ATDT5551212 dials the telephone. The expected string is CONNECT. If the string CONNECT is received, the remainder of the script is executed. However, if the modem finds a busy telephone, it sends the string BUSY. This causes the string to match the abort character sequence. The script then fails because it found a match to the abort string. If it received the string NO CARRIER, it aborts for the same reason. Either string may be received. Either string will terminate the chat script. REPORT STRINGS A report string is similar to the ABORT string. The difference is that the strings and all characters to the next control character such as a carriage return, are written to the report file. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 3 w 0 e i 3 v 1 e e g Pr a P The report strings may be used to isolate the transmission rate of the modem’s connect string and return the value to the chat user. The analysis of the report string logic occurs in conjunction with the other string processing such as looking for the expect string. The use of the same string for a report and abort sequence is probably not very useful; however, it is possible. The report strings do not change the completion code of the program. These “report” strings may be specified in the script using the REPORT sequence. It is written in the script as in the following example: REPORT CONNECT ABORT BUSY “ ATDT5551212 CONNECT “ ogin: account This sequence expects nothing and then sends the string ATDT5551212 to dial the telephone. The expected string is CONNECT. If the string CONNECT is received, the remainder of the script is executed. In addition, the program writes to the expect-file the string CONNECT plus any characters that follow it such as the connection rate. TIME-OUT The initial time-out value is 45 seconds. This may be changed using the -t parameter. To change the time-out value for the next expect string, the following example may be used: ATZ OK ATDT5551212 CONNECT TIMEOUT 10 ogin:–ogin: TIMEOUT 5 password:: hello2u2 This changes the time-out to 10 seconds when it expects the login: prompt. The time-out is then changed to 5 seconds when it looks for the password prompt. The time-out, once changed, remains in effect until it is changed again. SENDING EOT The special reply string of EOT indicates that the chat program should send an EOT character to the remote. This is usually the End-of-file character sequence. A return character is not sent following the EOT. The EOT sequence may be embedded into the send string using the sequence ^D. GENERATING BREAK The special reply string of BREAK causes a break condition to be sent. The break is a special signal on the transmitter. The normal processing on the receiver is to change the transmission rate. It may be used to cycle through the available transmission rates on the remote until you are able to receive a valid login prompt. The break sequence may be embedded into the send string using the \K sequence. ESCAPE SEQUENCES The expect and reply strings may contain escape sequences. All the sequences are legal in the reply string. Many are legal in the expect. Those that are not valid in the expect sequence are so indicated. ‘’ \\b Expects or sends a null string. If you send a null string, it will still send the return character. This sequence may either be a pair of apostrophe or quote characters. Represents a backspace character. crond 1275 HISTORY The command appeared in BSD 4.2. BSD 4.2, 16 March 1991 crond crond—cron daemon (Dillon’s Cron). SYNOPSIS k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 7 w 0 e i 3 v 1 e e g Pr a P crond [-l#] [-d[#]] [-f] [-b] [-c directory] OPTIONS crond is a background daemon that parses individual crontab files and executes commands on behalf of the users in question. -lloglevel -d[debuglevel] -f -b -c directory Set logging level; default is 8. Set debugging level; default is 0. If no level is specified with the -d option, the default is 1. This option also sets the logging level to 0 and causes crond to run in the foreground. Run crond in the foreground. Run crond in the background (the default unless -d is specified). Specify directory containing crontab files. DESCRIPTION crond is responsible for scanning the crontab files and running their commands at the appropriate time. The crontab program communicates with crond through the cron.update file, which resides in the crontabs directory, usually /var/ spool/cron/crontabs. This is accomplished by appending the filename of the modified or deleted crontab file to cron.update, which crond then picks up to resynchronize or remove its internal representation of the file. has a number of built-in limitations to reduce the chance of it being ill-used. Potentially infinite loops during parsing are dealt with via a failsafe counter, and user crontabs are generally limited to 256 crontab entries. crontab lines may not be longer than 1024 characters, including the newline. crond Whenever crond must run a job, it first creates a daemon-owned temporary file O_EXCL and O_APPEND to store any output, and then it fork()s and changes its user and group permissions to match that of the user the job is being run for. Then, it executes /bin/sh -c to run the job. The temporary file remains under the ownership of the daemon to prevent the user from tampering with it. Upon job completion, crond verifies the secureness of the mail file and, if it has been appended to, mails to the file to user. The sendmail program is run under the user’s UID to prevent mail-related security holes. Unlike crontab, the crond program does not leave an open descriptor to the file for the duration of the job’s execution because this might cause crond to run out of descriptors. When the crontab program allows a user to edit his crontab, it copies the crontab to a user-owned file before running the user’s preferred editor. The suid crontab program keeps an open descriptor to the file, which it later uses to copy the file back, thereby ensuring the user has not tampered with the file type. crond always synchronizes to the top of the minute, checking the current time against the list of possible jobs. The list is stored such that the scan goes very quickly, and crond can deal with several thousand entries without taking any noticeable amount of CPU. AUTHOR Matthew Dillon ([email protected]) 1 May 1994 cytune 1283 the state of the FIFO. The maximum number of characters in the FIFO when an interrupt occurred, the instantaneous count of characters in the FIFO, and how many characters are now in the FIFO are reported. This output might look like this: /dev/cubC0: 830 ints, 9130 chars; fifo: 11 threshold, 11 max, 11 now 166.259866 interrupts/second, 1828.858521 characters/second This output indicates that for this monitoring period, the interrupts were always being handled within one character time because max never rose above threshold. This is good, and you can probably run this way, provided that a large number of samples come out this way. You will lose characters if you overrun the FIFO because the Cyclades hardware does not seem to support the RTS RS-232 signal line for hardware flow control from the DCE to the DTE. cytune will in changed. query mode produce a summary report when ended with a SIGINT or when the threshold or time-out is k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 5 w 1 e i 3 v 1 e e g Pr a P There may be a responsiveness versus throughput tradeoff. The Cyclades card, at the higher speeds, is capable of putting a very high interrupt load on the system. This will reduce the amount of CPU time available for other tasks on your system. However, the time it takes to respond to a single character may be increased if you increase the threshold. This might be noticed by monitoring ping(8) times on a SLIP link controlled by a Cyclades card. If your SLIP link is generally used for interactive work such as telnet(1), you might want to leave the threshold low so that characters are responded to as quickly as possible. If your SLIP link is generally used for file transfer, WWW, and the like, setting the FIFO to a high value is likely to reduce the load on your system while not significantly affecting throughput. Alternatively, see the -t or -T options to adjust the time that the Cyclades waits before flushing its buffer. Units are 5ms. If you are running a mouse on a Cyclades port, it is likely that you want to maintain the threshold and time-out at a low value. OPTIONS -s value -t value -g -T value -G -q -i interval Set the current threshold to value characters. Note that if the tty is not being held open by another process, the threshold will be reset on the next open. Only values between 1 and 12, inclusive, are permitted. Set the current flush time-out to value units. Note that if the tty is not being held open by another process, the threshold will be reset on the next open. Only values between 0 and 255, inclusive, are permitted. Setting value to 0 forces the default, currently 0x20 (160ms) but soon to be 0x02 (10ms). Units are 5ms. Get the current threshold and time-out. Set the default flush time-out to value units. When the tty is next opened, this value is used instead of the default. If value is 0, then the value defaults to 0x20 (160ms), soon to be 0x02 (10ms). Get the default threshold and flush time-out values. Gather statistics about the tty. The results are only valid if the Cyclades driver has been compiled with ENABLE MONITORING defined. This is probably not the default. Statistics will be gathered every interval seconds. BUGS If you run two copies of cytune at the same time to report statistics about the same port, the ints, chars, and max values will be reset and not reported correctly. cytune(8) should prevent this but does not. AUTHOR Nick Simicich ([email protected]), with modifications by Rik Faith ([email protected]) Part VIII: Administration and Privileged Commands 1284 FILES /dev/ttyC[0-8] /dev/cubC[0-8] SEE ALSO setserial(8) 4 March 1995 debugfs k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 6 w 1 e i 3 v 1 e e g Pr a P debugfs—ext2 SYNOPSIS filesystem debugger. debugfs [[-w ]device] DESCRIPTION debugfs is a filesystem debugger. It can be used to examine and change the state of an ext2 filesystem. device is the special file corresponding to the device containing the ext2 filesystem (such as /dev/hdXX). OPTIONS Specify that the filesystem should be open in read-write mode. Without this option, the filesystem is open in read-only mode. -w COMMANDS debugfs is an interactive debugger. It understands a number of commands: cd file chroot file close clri file expand_dir, file find_free_block [goal] find_free_inode [dir [mode]] freeb block freei file Close the currently open filesystem. Clear the contents of the inode corresponding to file . Expand a directory. Find the first free block, starting from goal, and allocate it. Find a free inode and allocate it. Mark the block as not allocated. Free the inode corresponding to file. help iname inode initialize device blocksize kill_file file ln source_file dest_file ls [pathname] Modify_inode file mkdir file open [-w] device Print the filename corresponding to inode (currently not implemented). Create an ext2 file system on device. Remove a file and deallocate its blocks. Create a link. Emulate the ls(1) command. Modify the contents of the inode corresponding to file. Make a directory. Open a filesystem. pwd quit Quit debugfs. Part VIII: Administration and Privileged Commands 1288 wait $ 30 if $errlvl != 0 goto error loggedin: # We are now logged in. Start the ‘sliplogin’ program, # as this is not automatically done for me. send sliplogin\n wait SOME-STRING 15 # Set up the SLIP operating parameters. get $mtu 1500 # Set Destination net/address as type ‘default’ (vice an address). # This is used by the ‘route’ command to set the kernel routing table. # Some machines seem to require this be done for SLIP to work properly. default # Say hello and fire up! done: print CONNECTED to $remote with address $rmtip mode SLIP goto exit error: print SLIP to $remote failed. exit: k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 0 w 2 e i 3 v 1 e e g Pr a P This script causes dip to dial up a host, log in, and get a SLIP interface channel going (in the same manner as with incoming connections). When all is set up, it simply goes into the background and waits for a hangup (or just a lethal signal), at which it hangs up and exits. FILES /etc/passwd /etc/diphosts AUTHORS Fred N. van Kempen ([email protected]), Paul Mossip ([email protected]), Jeff Uphoff ([email protected]), Jim Seagrave ([email protected]), Olaf Kirch ([email protected]). Version 3.3.7, 13 December 1993 dmesg dmesg—Print or control the kernel ring buffer. SYNOPSIS dmesg [ -c ] [ -n level ] DESCRIPTION dmesg is used to examine or control the kernel ring buffer. The program helps users to print their bootup messages. Instead of copying the messages by hand, the user need only dmesg > boot.messages and mail the boot.messages file to whoever can debug their problem. fdformat There are also –a and –r options, which do nothing at all except allow you to say fastrm –user. These happen to often be convenient sets of options to use. –usa, fastrm –ussr, 1295 or fastrm fastrm exits with a status of 0 if there were no problems or 1 if something went wrong. Attempting to remove a file that does not exist is not considered a problem. If the program exits with a nonzero status, it is probably a good idea to feed the list of files into an xargs rm pipeline. fdformat fdformat—Low-level SYNOPSIS formats a floppy disk. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 7 w 2 e i 3 v 1 e e g Pr a P fdformat [ -n ] device DESCRIPTION does a low-level format on a floppy disk. device is usually one of the following (for floppy devices, the major is 2, and the minor is shown for informational purposes only): fdformat (minor = 4) (minor = 8) /dev/fd0D360 (minor = 12) /dev/fd0H360 (minor = 12) /dev/fd0D720 (minor = 16) /dev/fd0H720 (minor = 16) /dev/fd0h360 (minor = 20) /dev/fd0h720 (minor = 24) /dev/fd0H1440 (minor = 28) /dev/fd1d360 (minor = 5) /dev/fd1h1200 (minor = 9) /dev/fd1D360 (minor = 13) /dev/fd1H360 (minor = 13) /dev/fd1D720 (minor = 17) /dev/fd1H720 (minor = 17) /dev/fd1h360 (minor = 21) /dev/fd1h720 (minor = 25) /dev/fd1H1440 (minor = 29) /dev/fd0d360 /dev/fd0h1200 The generic floppy devices, /dev/fd0 and /dev/fd1, will fail to work with fdformat when a non-standard format is being used or if the format has not been autodetected earlier. In this case, use setfdprm(8) to load the disk parameters. OPTIONS -n SEE ALSO fd(4), setfdprm(8), mkfs(8), emkfs(8) No verify. This option will disable the verification that is performed after the format. Part VIII: Administration and Privileged Commands 1298 For each line of input, filechan writes the initial fields, separated by whitespace and followed by a newline, to each of the files named in the filename fields. When writing to a file, filechan opens it in append mode and tries to lock it and change the ownership to the user and group who owns the directory where the file is being written. By default, filechan writes its arguments into the directory /news/spool/out.going. The –d flag may be used to specify a directory the program should change to before starting. If the –p flag is used, the program will write a line containing its process ID (in text) to the specified file. If filechan is invoked with –f 2 and given the following input: news/software/b/132 <[email protected]>foo uunet news/software/b/133 <[email protected]> uunet munnari comp/sources/unix/2002 <[email protected]>foo uunet munnari k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 0 w 3 e i 3 v 1 e e g Pr a P Then the file foo will have these lines: news/software/b/132 <[email protected]> comp/sources/unix/2002 <[email protected]> The file munnari will have these lines: news/software/b/133 <[email protected]> comp/sources/unix/2002 <[email protected]> The file uunet will have these lines: news/software/b/132 <[email protected]> news/software/b/133 <[email protected]> comp/sources/unix/2002 <[email protected]> Because the time window in which a file is open is very small, complicated flushing and locking protocols are not needed; a mv(1) followed by a sleep(1) for a couple of seconds is sufficient. A map file may be specified by using the –m flag. Blank lines and lines starting with a number sign (#) are ignored. All other lines should have two hostnames separated by a colon. The first field is the name that may appear in the input stream; the second field names the file to be used when the name in the first field appears. For example, the following map file may be used to map the short names to the full domain names: # This is a comment uunet:news.uu.net foo:foo.com munnari:munnari.oz.au HISTORY Written by Robert Elz ([email protected]); flags added by Rich $alz ([email protected]). SEE ALSO buffchan(8), innd(8), newsfeeds(5) fsck fsck—Check and repair a Linux filesystem. SYNOPSIS fsck [ -AVRTN ][-s ][-t fstype ][fs-options ] filesys [ ... ] Part VIII: Administration and Privileged Commands 1302 Available options: Debugging information is written to the syslog. Each FTP 1 session is logged in the syslog. The inactivity timeout period is set to timeout seconds. (The default is 15 minutes.) A client can also request a different timeout period; the maximum period allowed can be set to timeout seconds with the -T option. The default limit is 2 hours. -d -l -t -T The FTP server currently supports the following FTP requests; case is not distinguished. Request ABOR ACCT ALLO APPE CDUP CWD DELE HELP LIST MKD MDTM MODE NLST NOOP PASS PASV PORT PWD QUIT REST RETR RMD RNFR RNTO SITE SIZE STAT STOR STOU STRU SYST TYPE USER XCUP Description k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 4 w 3 e i 3 v 1 e e g Pr a P Abort previous command Specify account (ignored) Allocate storage (vacuously) Append to a file Change to parent of current working directory Change working directory Delete a file Give help information Give list files in a directory (‘’ ls -lgA ‘’) Make a directory Show last modification time of file Specify data transfer mode Give name list of files in directory Do nothing Specify password Prepare for server-to-server transfer Specify data connection port Print the current working directory Terminate session Restart incomplete transfer Retrieve a file Remove a directory Specify rename-from filename Specify rename-to filename Nonstandard commands (see next section) Return size of file Return status of server Store a file Store a file with a unique name Specify data transfer structure show operating system type of server system specify data transfer type specify username change to parent of current working directory (deprecated) ftpd Request Description XCWD change working directory (deprecated) make a directory (deprecated) print the current working directory (deprecated) remove a directory (deprecated) XMKD XPWD XRMD 1303 The following non-standard or UNIX-specific commands are supported by the SITE request: Request Description Example UMASK Change umask Set idle timer Change mode of a file Give help information SITE UMASK 002 IDLE CHMOD HELP k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 5 w 3 e i 3 v 1 e e g Pr a P SITE IDLE 60 SITE CHMOD 755 SITE HELP The remaining FTP requests specified in Internet RFC 959 are recognized but not implemented. MDTM and SIZE are not specified in RFC 959 but will appear in the next updated FTP RFC. The FTP server will abort an active file transfer only when the ABOR command is preceded by a Telnet “Interrupt Process” (IP) signal and a Telnet “Synch” signal in the command Telnet stream, as described in Internet RFC 959. If a STAT command is received during a data transfer, preceded by a Telnet IP and Synch, transfer status will be returned. interprets filenames according to the globbing conventions used by csh (1). This allows users to utilize the metacharacters Li &*?[]. ftpd ftpd authenticates users according to four rules: The username must be in the password database and not have a null password. In this case, a password must be provided by the client before any file operations may be performed. The username must not appear in the file (see ftpusers (5)). The user must have a standard shell returned by getusershell(3). If the username is anonymous or FTP, an anonymous FTP account must be present in the password file (user FTP). In this case, the user is allowed to log in by specifying any password. (By convention, this is given as the client host’s name.) In the last case, ftpd takes special measures to restrict the client’s access privileges. The server performs a chroot(2) command to the home directory of the FTP user. So that system security is not breached, it is recommended that the FTP subtree be constructed with care; the following rules are recommended: ~ftp ~ftp/bin ~ftp/etc Pa ~ftp/pub Make the home directory owned by root and unwritable by anyone. Make this directory owned by root and unwritable by anyone. The program ls (1) must be present to support the list command. This program should have mode 111. Make this directory owned by root and unwritable by anyone. The files passwd (5) and group (5) must be present for the ls command to be able to produce owner names rather than numbers. The password field in passwd is not used and should not contain real encrypted passwords. These files should be mode 444 and owned by root. Don’t use the system’s /etc/passwd file as the password file or the system’s /etc/group file as the group file in the ~ftp/etc directory. Make this directory mode 755 and owned by root. Create a subdirectory in ~ftp/pub with the appropriate mode (777 or 733 ) if you want to allow normal users to upload files. SEE ALSO ftp(1), getusershell (3), ftpusers(5), syslogd(8) BUGS The anonymous account is inherently dangerous and should avoided when possible. Part VIII: Administration and Privileged Commands 1304 The server must run as the super-user to create sockets with privileged port numbers. It maintains an effective user ID of the logged-in user, reverting to the super-user only when binding addresses to sockets. The possible security holes have been extensively scrutinized but are possibly incomplete. HISTORY The command appeared in BSD 4.2. BSD 4.2, 16 March 1991 ifconfig k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 6 w 3 e i 3 v 1 e e g Pr a P ifconfig —Configure SYNOPSIS a network interface. ifconfig [interface] ifconfig interface [aftype] options | address ... DESCRIPTION ifconfig is used to set up (and maintain thereafter) the kernel-resident network interfaces. It is used at boot time to configure most of them to a running state. After that, it is usually only needed when debugging or when system tuning is needed. If no arguments are given, ifconfig just displays the status of the currently defined interfaces. If the single interface argument is given, it displays the status of the given interface only. Otherwise, it assumes that things have to be set up. ADDRESS FAMILIES If the first argument after the interface name is recognized as the name of a supported address family, that address family is used for decoding and displaying all protocol addresses. Currently supported address families include inet (TCP/IP, default) and ax25 (AMPR Packet Radio.) OPTIONS interface up down [-]arp [-]trailers [-]allmulti metric N mtu N dstaddr addr The name of the NET interface. This usually is a name such as wd0, sl3, or something like that: a device driver name followed by a unit number. This flag causes the interface to be activated. It is implicitly specified if the interface is given a new address (see below). This flag causes the driver for this interface to be shut down and is useful when things start going wrong. Enable or disable the use of the ARP protocol on this interface. If the minus (–) sign is present, the flag is turned OFF. Enable or disable the use of trailers on Ethernet frames. This is not used in the current implementation of NET. Enable or disable the promiscuous mode of the interface. This means that all incoming frames get sent to the network layer of the system kernel, allowing for networking monitoring. This parameter sets the interface metric. It is not used at present, but we implement it for the future. This parameter sets the Maximum Transfer Unit (MTU) of an interface. For Ethernet, this is a number in the range of 1000-2000 (default is 1500). For SLIP, use something between 200 and 4096. Note that the current implementation does not handle IP fragmentation yet, so you’d better make the MTU large enough! Set the “other end’s” IP address in case of a point-to-point link, such as PPP. This keyword is obsoleted by the new pointopoint keyword. innd, inndstart 1309 DIAGNOSTICS If /sbin/init finds that it is continuously respawning an entry more than ten times in two minutes, it will assume that there is an error in the command string, generate an error message on the system console, and refuse to respawn this entry until either five minutes has elapsed or it receives a signal. This prevents it from eating up system resources when someone makes a typographical error in the /etc/inittab file or the program for the entry is removed. AUTHOR Miquel van Smoorenburg ([email protected]); initial manual page by Michael Haardt ([email protected]). SEE ALSO k u . o .c e l a s e t innd, inndstart o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 1 w 4 e i 3 v 1 e e g Pr a P getty(1), login (1), sh(1), who(1), shutdown (1), kill (2), inittab (5), utmp(5) 19 January 1994 innd, inndstart —InterNetNews daemon. SYNOPSIS innd [ -a ][-c days ][-d ][-f ][-i count ][-o count ][-l size ] [-m mode ][-n flag ] [ -p port ][-r ][-s ][-S host ][-t timeout ][-u ][-x ] inndstart [ flags ] DESCRIPTION innd, the InterNetNews daemon, handles all incoming NNTP feeds. It reads the active(5), newsfeeds (5), and hosts.nntp (5) files into memory. It then opens the NNTP port to receive articles from remote sites, a UNIX-domain stream socket to receive articles from local processes such as nnrpd(8) and rnews(1), and a UNIX-domain datagram socket for use by ctlinnd (8) to direct the server to perform certain actions. It also opens the history(5) database and two log files to replace its standard output and standard error. If the –p flag is used, then the NNTP port is assumed to be open on the specified descriptor. (If this flag is used, then innd assumes it is running with the proper permissions and it does not call chown (2) on any files or directories it creates.) Once the files and sockets have been opened, innd waits for connections and data to be ready on its ports by using select (2) and non-blocking I/O. If no data is available, then it flushes its in-core data structures. The default number of seconds to time out before flushing is 300 . This timeout may be changed by using the –t flag. To limit the number of incoming NNTP connections, use the –i flag. A value of 0 suppresses this check. To limit the number of files that are kept open for outgoing file feeds, use the –o flag. The default is the number of available descriptors minus some reserved for internal use. To limit the size of an article, use the –l flag. If this flag is used, then any article bigger than size bytes is rejected. The default is no checking, which can also be obtained by using a value of 0. rejects articles that are too old. Although this behavior can be controlled by the history database, occasionally a site dumps a batch of very old news back onto the network. Use the –c flag to specify a cutoff. For example, –c21 rejects any articles that were posted more than 21 days ago. A value of 0 suppresses this check. innd usually puts itself into the background, sets its standard output and error to log files, and disassociates itself from the terminal. Using the –d flag instructs the server to not do this, whereas using the –f flag just leaves the server running the foreground. The logs are usually buffered; use the –u flag to have them unbuffered. innd To start the server in a paused or throttled state (see ctlinnd(8)) use the –m flag to set the initial running mode. The argument should start with a single letter g, p, or t to emulate the go, pause , or throttle commands. Part VIII: Administration and Privileged Commands 1326 BUGS All generic options must precede and not be combined with filesystem-specific options. Some filesystem-specific programs do not support the -v (verbose) option nor return meaningful exit codes. Also, some filesystem-specific programs do not automatically detect the device size and require the blocks parameter to be specified. AUTHORS David Engel ([email protected]), Fred N. van Kempen ([email protected]), and Ron Sommeling ([email protected]). The manual page was shamelessly adapted from Remy Card’s version for the ext2 filesystem. SEE ALSO k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 8 w 5 e i 3 v 1 e e g Pr a P fsck(8), mkfs.minix (8), mkfs.ext(8), mkfs.ext2 (8), mkfs.xiafs(8) Version 1.9, June 1995 mkfs mkfs—Make SYNOPSIS a Linux MINIX filesystem. mkfs [ -c ] [ -nnamelength ] [ –i inodecount ] device size-in-blocks mkfs [ -l filename ] device size-in-blocks DESCRIPTION mkfs creates a Linux MINIX filesystem on a device (usually a disk partition). The device is usually of the following form: /dev/hda[1-8] /dev/hdb[1-8] /dev/sda[1-8] /dev/sdb[1-8] The size-in-blocks parameter is the desired size of the filesystem in blocks. This information can be determined from the fdisk(8) program. Only block counts strictly greater than 10 and strictly less than 65,536 are allowed. OPTIONS -c -nnamelength -i inodecount -l filename Check the device for bad blocks before creating the filesystem. If any are found, the count is printed. Specify the maximum length of filenames. No space is allowed between the -n and the namelength . Currently, the only allowable values are 14 and 30. 30 is the default. Specify the number of inodes for the filesystem. Read the bad blocks list from filename. The file has one bad block number per line. The count of bad blocks read is printed. EXIT CODES The exit code returned by mkfs.minix is one of the following: 0 8 16 No errors Operational error Usage or syntax error SEE ALSO fsck(8), mkefs (8), efsck (8), reboot(8) mklost+found 1327 AUTHOR Linus Torvalds ([email protected]). Error code values by Rik Faith ([email protected]). Inode request feature by Scott Heavner ([email protected]). Support for the filesystem valid flag by Dr. Wettstein (greg%[email protected]). Check to prevent mkfs of mounted filesystem and boot sector clearing by Daniel Quinlan ([email protected]). Linux 0.99, 10 January 1994 mklost+found mklost+found —Create SYNOPSIS a lost+found directory on a mounted Linux second extended filesystem. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 9 w 5 e i 3 v 1 e e g Pr a P mklost+found DESCRIPTION mklost+found mklost+found OPTIONS is used to create a lost+found directory in the current working directory on a Linux second extended filesystem. pre-allocates disk blocks to the directory to make it usable by e2fsck. There are none. AUTHOR mklost+found BUGS was written by Remy Card ([email protected]), the developer and maintainer of the ext2 fs. There are none. :-) AVAILABILITY mklost+found is available for anonymous FTP from ftp.ibp.fr and tsx-11.mit.edu in /pub/linux/packages/ext2fs. SEE ALSO e2fsck(8), mke2fs (8) Version 0.5b, November 1994 mkswap mkswap—Set up a Linux swap area. SYNOPSIS mkswap [ -c ] device [size-in-blocks] DESCRIPTION mkswap sets up a Linux swap area on a device or in a file. The device is usually of the following form: /dev/hda[1-8] /dev/hdb[1-8] /dev/sda[1-8] /dev/sdb[1-8] mount, unmount 1329 DESCRIPTION The mount command calls the mount (2) system call to prepare and graft a special device onto the filesystem tree at the point node. If either special or node are not provided, the appropriate information is taken from the fstab(5) file. The special keyword none can be used instead of a path or node specification. This is useful when mounting the proc filesystem. The system maintains a list of currently mounted filesystems. If no arguments are given to mount, this list is printed. Options available for the mount command: -f -o async auto defaults dev exec noauto nodev noexec Causes everything to be done except for the actual system call; if it’s not obvious, this “fakes” mounting the filesystem. This option is useful in conjunction with the -v flag to determine what the mount command is trying to do. Options are specified with a -o flag followed by a comma-separated string of options. Note that many of these options are only useful when they appear in the /etc/fstab file. The following options apply to any filesystem that is being mounted: All I/O to the filesystem should be done asynchronously. Can be mounted with the -a option. Use default options: rw, suid, dev , exec, auto, nouser, and async . Interpret character or block special devices on the filesystem. Permit execution of binaries. Can only be mounted explicitly (that is, the -a option does not cause the filesystem to be mounted). Do not interpret character or block special devices on the filesystem. This option is useful for a server that has filesystems containing special devices for architectures other than its own. Do not allow execution of any binaries on the mounted filesystem. This option is useful for a server that has filesystems containing binaries for architectures other than its own. Do not allow set-user-identifier or set-group-identifier bits to take effect. Forbid an ordinary (that is, non-root) user to mount the filesystem. Attempt to remount an already-mounted filesystem. This is commonly used to change the mount flags for a filesystem, especially to make a read-only filesystem writable. Mount the filesystem read-only. Mount the filesystem read-write. Allow set-user-identifier or set-group-identifier bits to take effect. All I/O to the filesystem should be done synchronously. Allow an ordinary user to mount the filesystem. Ordinary users always have the following options activated: noexec , nosuid, and nodev (unless overridden by the superuser by using, for example, the following option line: user,exec,dev,suid. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 1 w 6 e i 3 v 1 e e g Pr a P nosuid nouser remount ro rw suid sync user The following options apply only to certain filesystems: case=value check=value none normal strict check=value For the hpfs filesystem, specify case as lower or asis. Tells the ext2 filesystem kernel code to do some more checks while the filesystem is mounted. Currently (0.99.15), the following values can be specified with this option: No extra check is performed by the kernel code. The inodes and blocks bitmaps are checked when the filesystem is mounted (this is the default). In addition to the normal checks, block deallocation checks that the block to free is in the data zone. For the msdos filesystem, three different levels of specificity can be chosen: netstat 1339 DESCRIPTION This command allows the nameserver administrator to send various signals to the nameserver or to restart it. Zero or more directives may be given from the following list: Displays the current status of named as shown by ps(1). Causes named to dump its database and cache to /var/tmp/named_dump.db (uses the INT signal.) Causes named to check the serial numbers of all primary and secondary zones and to reload those that have changed (uses the HUP signal.) Causes named to dump its statistics to /var/tmp/named.stats (uses the IOT or ABRT signal.) Causes named to increment its “tracing level” by one. Whenever the tracing level is nonzero, trace information is written to /var/tmp/named.run. Higher tracing levels result in more detailed information (uses the USR1 signal). Causes named to set its “tracing level” to zero, closing /var/tmp/named.run if it is open (uses the USR2 signal). Causes named to toggle the “query logging” feature, which results in a syslog(3) of each incoming query (uses the WINCH signal). Note that query logging consumes quite a lot of log file space. This directive may also be given as qrylog. Causes named to be started as long as it isn’t already running. Causes named to be stopped if it is running. Causes named to be killed and restarted. status dumpdb reload stats trace notrace querylog start stop restart BUGS k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 1 w 7 e i 3 v 1 e e g Pr a P Arguments to named are not preserved by restart or known by start . Some mechanism for controlling the parameters and environment should exist. Implemented as a sh (1) script. AUTHOR Paul Vixie (Internet Software Consortium) SEE ALSO named(8), named.reload (8), named.restart (8) 27 November 1994 netstat netstat —Display active network connections SYNOPSIS netstat [[-a | [-t | -u | -w]] [-n | -o] | -x] [-c] netstat -r [-c] [-n] netstat -v DESCRIPTION displays the status of network connections on either TCP, UDP, or RAW sockets to the system. By default, netstat only displays status on those TCP sockets that are not in the LISTEN state (that is, connections to active processes). To obtain information about the kernel routing table, netstat may be invoked with the option -r. A listing of internal UNIX connections can be obtained by invoking netstat with the option -x. netstat netstat LISTENING UNCONNECTED CONNECTING CONNECTED DISCONNECTING UNKNOWN Path The socket is listening for a connection request. The socket is not connected to another one. The socket is about to establish a connection. The socket is connected. The socket is disconnecting. This state should never happen. This displays the pathname that the corresponding processes attached to the socket. The network routing table (invoked with netstat Destination net/address -r ) shows up the following information: The destination address of a resolved host or hand-entered network is displayed. Unless the option -n is given, the hosts or nets are resolved. An entry named default shows up the default route for the kernel. If there is no asterisk (*) displayed, any data is routed to the dedicated gateway. Possible routing flags are U This route is usable. G Destination is a gateway. H Destination is a host entry. N Destination is a Net entry. R Route will be reinstated after timeout. D This one is created dynamically (by redirection). M This one is modified dynamically (by redirection). k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 3 w 7 e i 3 v 1 e e g Pr a P Gateway address Flags RefCnt Use Iface 1341 Reference count for this route. How many times this route was used yet. This is the name of the interface where this route belongs. OPTIONS -a -c -n -o -r -t -u -v -w -x Display information about all Internet sockets, such as TCP, UDP, and RAW, including those sockets that are listening only. Generate a continuous listing of network status: network status is displayed every second until the program is interrupted. Causes netstat not to resolve hostnames and service names when displaying remote and local address and port information. Display timer states, expiration times, and backoff state. Display kernel routing table. Display information about TCP sockets only, including those that are listening. Display information about UDP sockets only. Print version information. Display information about raw sockets. Display information about UNIX domain sockets. FILES /proc/net/tcp TCP socket information /proc/net/udp UDP socket information /proc/net/raw RAW socket information /proc/net/unix UNIX domain socket information news.daily nostat noexpire noexplog flags=’expire\args’ nologs norotate nomail This keyword disables the status report generated by innstat (see newslog(8)). Without this keyword, the status report is the first function performed, just prior to obtaining the news.daily lock. By default, expire is invoked to remove old news articles. Using this keyword disables this function. expire usually appends information to /var/log/news/expire.log (see newslog(5)). Using this keyword causes the expire output to be handled as part of news.daily ’s output. It has no effect if the noexpire keyword is used. By default, expire is invoked with the an argument of –v1. Using this keyword changes the arguments to those specified. Be careful to use quotes if multiple arguments are needed. This keyword has no effect if the noexpire keyword is used. After expiration, scanlogs (8) is invoked to process the log files. Using this keyword disables all log processing functions. By default, log processing includes rotating and cleaning out log files. Using this keyword disables the rotating and cleaning aspect of the log processing. The log files are only scanned for information and no contents are altered. This keyword has no effect if the nologs keyword is used. This keyword disables the ctlinnd(8) renumber operation. Usually, the low watermark for all newsgroups (see active (5)) is reset. By default, any socket ctlinnd socket that has not been modified for two days is removed. Using this keyword disables this function. news.daily usually sends a mail message containing the results to the administrator. Using this keyword causes this message to be sent to stdout and stderr instead. Usually, all utilities invoked by the script have their stdout and stderr redirected into a file. If the file is empty, no message is sent. The expireover program is called after expiration to purge the overview databases. If the expireover keyword is used, this keyword may be used to specify the flags to be passed to expireover. If the delayrm keyword is used, then the default value is –z and the list of deleted files; otherwise, the default value is –s. The program specified by the given path is executed just before any expiration is done. A typical use is to specify an alternate expiration program and use the noexpire keyword. Multiple programs may be specified; they are invoked in order. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 7 w 7 e i 3 v 1 e e g Pr a P norenumber norm 1345 expireover expireoverflags=’expireovernargs’ /full/path The norotate keyword is passed on to scanlogs if it is invoked. expirerm is a script that removes a list of files. The specified file lists the files. It is sorted and then fed into a pipeline responsible for doing the removal, usually fastrm (8). If there seemed to be a problem removing the files, then mail is sent to the news administrator. If there were no problems, then file is renamed to /var/log/news/expire.list where it is kept (for safety) until the next day’s expiration. is a script that can be started at news boot time. It periodically—every sleeptime seconds— examines the load average and the number of free blocks and inodes on the spool partition, as described by its control file, innwatch.ctl(5). If the load gets too high or the disk gets too full, it throttles the server. When the condition restores, it unblocks the server. In addition, on each pass through the loop, it checks the specified log file to see if it has been modified and sends mail to the news administrator if so. It is usually a good idea to set this to the syslog(3) file that receives critical news messages. Upon receipt of an interrupt signal, innwatch reports its status in the file /news/lib/innwatch.status. innwatch is a perl(1) script that verifies the syntax and permissions of all InterNetNews configuration files. If no files are specified, it checks all files. A filename may be followed by an equal sign and a path to indicate the pathname to use for the file. For example, newsfeeds=/tmp/nf checks the syntax of a new newsfeeds (5) without requiring it to be installed. If the –v flag is used, it prints status information as it checks each file. If the –pedantic flag is used, it checks the files for omissions that are not strictly errors but might indicate a configuration error. inncheck If any file is specified, only the permissions on those files are checked. The –noperms flag suppresses this check. If the –perms flag is used, the script verifies the ownership and permissions of all files. The –fix flag can also be used so that the output can be executed as a shell script. nntpsend 1349 HISTORY Written by Rich $alz ([email protected]) for InterNetNews. Overview support added by Rob Robertston ([email protected]) and Rich in January 1993. SEE ALSO ctlinnd (8), innd (8), inn.conf (5), nnrp.access (5), signal (2), wildmat (3) nntpsend nntpsend —Send Usenet articles to remote site. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 1 w 8 e i 3 v 1 e e g Pr a P SYNOPSIS nntpsend [ -d ][-p ][-r ][-S ][-s size ][-t timeout ] [-T timelimit ][sitename fqdn ] ... DESCRIPTION nntpsend is a front end that invokes innxmit(1) to send Usenet articles to a remote NNTP site. The sites to be fed may be specified by giving sitename fqdn pairs on the command line. If no such pairs are given, nntpsend defaults to the information given in the nntpsend.ctl(5) config file. The sitename should be the name of the site as specified in the newsfeeds(5) file. The fqdn should be the hostname or IP address of the remote site. An innxmit is launched for sites with queued news. All innxmit processes are spawned in the background and the script waits for them all to finish before returning. Output is sent to the file /var/log/news/nntpsend.log. To avoid overwhelming the local system, nntpsend waits five seconds before spawning each child. The flag –a is always given as a flag to innxmit . nntpsend expects that the batchfile for a site is named /news/spool/out.going/sitename. To prevent batchfile corruption, is used to “lock” these files. shlock(1) The –p, –r, –S, -t , and -T flags are passed on to the child innxmit program. Note that if the –p flag is used then no connection is made and no articles are fed to the remote site. It is useful to have cron(8) invoke nntpsend with this flag in case a site cannot be reached for an extended period of time. If the –s flag is used, then shrinkfile (1) is invoked to perform a tail truncation on the batchfile and the flag is passed to it. When sitename fqdn pairs are given on the command line, any flags given on the command completely describe how innxmit and shrinkfile operate. When no such pairs are given on the command line, then the information found in nntpsend.ctl becomes the default flags for that site. Any flags given on the command line override the default flags for the site. For example, with the following control file: nsavax:erehwon.nsavax.gov::-S -t60 group70:group70.org:: walldrug:walldrug.com:1m:-T1800 -t300 The command nntpsend will result in the following: Sitename nsavax group70 walldrug Truncation (none) (none) 1m Innxmit flags -a -S -t60 -a -t180 -a -T1800 -t300 Part VIII: Administration and Privileged Commands 1352 The MIT Athena Hesiod class. Wildcard (any of the above). The class specifies the protocol group of the information. (Default = IN, abbreviation = cl.) Turn debugging mode on. A lot more information is printed about the packet sent to the server and the resulting answer. (Default = nodebug , abbreviation = [no]deb .) Turn exhaustive debugging mode on. Essentially, all fields of every packet are printed. (Default = nod2.) Change the default domain name to name. The default domain name is appended to a lookup request depending on the state of the defname and search options. The domain search list contains the parents of the default domain if it has at least two components in its name. For example, if the default domain is CC.Berkeley.EDU, the search list is CC.Berkeley.EDU and Berkeley.EDU . Use the set srchlist command to specify a different list. Use the set all command to display the list. (Default = value from hostname, /etc/resolv.conf, or LOCALDO-MAIN , abbreviation = do.) Change the default domain name to name1 and the domain search list to name1 , name2, and so on. A maximum of six names separated by slashes (/) can be specified. For example, set srchlist=lcs.MIT.EDU/ai.MIT.EDU/MIT.EDU sets the domain to lcs.MIT.EDU and the search list to the three names. This command overrides the default domain name and search list of the set domain command. Use the set all command to display the list. (Default = value based on hostname, /etc/resolv.conf, or LOCAL-DOMAIN, abbreviation = srchl .) If set, append the default domain name to a single-component lookup request (that is, one that does not contain a period). (Default = defname , abbreviation = [no]def .) If the lookup request contains at least one period but doesn’t end with a trailing period, append the domain names in the domain search list to the request until an answer is received. (Default = search, abbreviation = [no]sea .) Change the default TCP/UDP nameserver port to value. (Default = 53, abbreviation = po.) Change the type of information query to one of the following: A The host’s Internet address. CNAME The canonical name for an alias. HINFO The host CPU and operating system type. MINFO The mailbox or mail list information. MX The mail exchanger. NS The nameserver for the named zone. PTR The host name if the query is an Internet address; otherwise, the pointer to other information. SOA The domain’s “start-of-authority” information. TXT The text information. UINFO The user information. WKS The supported well-known services. Other types (ANY, AXFR, MB, MD , MF, NULL) are described in the RFC-1035 document. (Default = A, abbreviations = q, ty.) Tell the nameserver to query other servers if it does not have the information. (Default = recurse , abbreviation = [no]rec.) Set the number of retries to number. When a reply to a request is not received within a certain amount of time (changed with set timeout), the timeout period is doubled and the request is resent. The retry value controls how many times a request is resent before giving up. (Default = 4, abbreviation = ret .) HESIOD ANY [no]debug [no]d2 domain=name k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 4 w 8 e i 3 v 1 e e g Pr a P srchlist=name1/name2/... [no]defname [no]search port=value querytype=value, type=value [no]recurse retry=number powerd portmap 1359 must be started before any RPC servers are invoked. Usually, portmap forks and dissociates itself from the terminal like any other daemon. Portmap then logs errors using syslog(3). Option available: (debug) prevents portmap from running as a daemon and causes errors and debugging information to be printed to the standard error output. -d SEE ALSO inetd.conf (5), rpcinfo(8), inetd(8) k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 1 w powerd 9 e i 3 v 1 e e g Pr a P BUGS If portmap crashes, all servers must be restarted. HISTORY The portmap command appeared in BSD 4.3. BSD 4.3, 16 March 1991 powerd—Monitor a serial line connected to a UPS. SYNOPSIS /etc/powerd serial-device DESCRIPTION is a daemon process that sits in the background and monitors the state of the DCD line of the serial device. It is meant that this line is connected to a UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supply) so that it knows about the state of the UPS. As soon as powerd senses that the power is failing (it sees that DCD goes low) it notifies init(8) and init executes the powerwait and powerfail entries. If powerd senses that the power has been restored, it notifies init again and init executes the powerokwait entries. powerd ARGUMENTS serial-device Some serial port that is not being used by some other device and does not share an interrupt with any other serial port. DIAGNOSTICS regularly checks the DSR line to see if it’s high. DSR should be directly connected to DTR and powerd keeps that line high, so if DSR is low, something is wrong with the connection. powerd notifies you about this fact every two minutes. When it sees that the connection is restored, it will say so. powerd IMPLEMENTATION It’s pretty simple to connect your UPS to the Linux machine. The steps are easy: 1. Make sure you have an UPS with a simple relais output: it should close its connections (make) if the power is gone, and it should open its connections (break) if the power is good. 2. Buy a serial plug. Connect the DTR line to the DSR line directly. Connect the DTR line and the DCD line with a 10 kilo ohm resistor. Connect the relais-output of the UPS to GROUND and the DCD line. If you don’t know what pins DSR, DTR, DCD and GROUND are, you can always ask at the store where you bought the plug. 3. You’re all set. Part VIII: Administration and Privileged Commands 1362 bsdcomp nr,nt -bsdcomp +chap -chap k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 4 w 9 e i 3 v 1 e e g Pr a P chap-interval n chap-max-challenge n chap-restart n -crtscts -d debug Request that the peer compress packets that it sends, using the BSD-Compress scheme, with a maximum code size of nr bits and agree to compress packets sent to the peer with a maximum code size of nt bits. If nt is not specified, it defaults to the value given for nr. Values in the range 9 to 15 may be used for nr and nt; larger values give better compression but consume more kernel memory for compression dictionaries. Alternatively, a value of 0 for nr or nt disables compression in the corresponding direction. Disables compression; pppd does not request or agree to compress packets using the BSD-Compress scheme. Require the peer to authenticate itself using CHAP (Cryptographic Handshake Authentication Protocol) authentication. Don’t agree to authenticate using CHAP. If this option is given, pppd rechallenges the peer every n seconds. Set the maximum number of CHAP challenge transmissions to u (default is 10). Set the CHAP restart interval (retransmission timeout for challenges) to n seconds (default is 3). Disable hardware flow control (RTS/CTS) on the serial port. If neither the crtscts nor the -crtscts option is given, the hardware flow control setting for the serial port is left unchanged. Increase debugging level (same as the debug option). Increase debugging level (same as -d ). If this option is given, pppd logs the contents of all control packets sent or received in a readable form. The packets are logged through syslog with facility daemon and level debug. This information can be directed to a file by setting up /etc/syslog.conf appropriately (see syslog.conf(5)). Disable the defaultroute option. The system administrator who wants to prevent users from creating default routes with pppd can do so by placing this option in the /etc/ppp/options file. Don’t fork to become a background process (otherwise, pppd will do so if a serial device other than its controlling terminal is specified). This option sets the IP address or addresses for the Domain Name Server. It is used by Microsoft Windows clients. The primary DNS address is specified by the first instance of the dns-addr option. The secondary is specified by the second instance. Append the domain name d to the local hostname for authentication purposes. For example, if gethost-name() returns the name porsche , but the fully qualified domain name is porsche.Quotron.COM, you use the domain option to set the domain name to Quotron.COM. Disable IP address negotiation. If this option is used, the remote IP address must be specified with an option on the command line or in an options file. Enable the IPCP and IP protocols. This is the default condition. This option is only needed if the default setting is -ip-protocol. Disable the IPCP and IP protocols. This should only be used if you know you are using a client that only understands IPX and you don’t want to confuse the client with the IPCP protocol. Enable the IPXCP and IPX protocols. This is the default condition if your kernel supports IPX. This option is only needed if the default setting is -ipx-protocol. If your kernel does not support IPX, this option has no effect. -defaultroute -detach dns-addr n domain d -ip +ip-protocol -ip-protocol +ipx-protocol quotacheck 1371 mv history.n history mv history.n.pag history.pag mv history.n.dir history.dir else echo ‘Problem rebuilding history; old file not replaced’ fi ctlinnd go “Rebuilding history database” Note that this keeps no record of expired articles. HISTORY Written by Rich $alz ([email protected]) for InterNetNews. k u . o .c e l a s e quotacheck t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 3 w 0 e i 4 v 1 e e g Pr a P SEE ALSO dbz(3), history(5), innd(8) quotacheck —Scan a filesystem for disk usages. SYNOPSIS quotacheck [-g] [-u] [-v] -a quotacheck [-g] [-u] [-v] filesys ... DESCRIPTION performs a filesystem scan for usage of files and directories, used by either user or group. The output is the quota file for the corresponding filesystem. By default, the names for these files are quotacheck A user scan A group scan quota.user quota.group The resulting file consists of a struct dqblk for each possible ID up to the highest existing UID or GID and contains the values for the disk file and block usage and possibly excess time for these values. (For definitions of struct dqblk, see linux/quota.h .) should be run each time the system boots and mounts non-valid filesystems. This is most likely to happen after a system crash. quotacheck The speed of the scan decreases with the amount of directories increasing. The time needed doubles when disk usage is doubled as well. A 100MB partition used for 94 percent is scanned in one minute; the same partition used for 50 percent is done in 25 seconds. OPTIONS -v -d -u -g This way, the program will give some useful information about what it is doing, plus some fancy stuff. This means debug. It will result in a lot of information that can be used in debugging the program. The output is very verbose and the scan will not be fast. This flag tells the program to scan the disk and to count the files and directories used by a certain UID. This is the default action. This flag forces the program to count the files and directories used by a certain GID. NOTE should only be run as superuser. Non-privileged users are presumably not allowed to read all the directories on the given filesystem. checkquota Part VIII: Administration and Privileged Commands 1376 HISTORY The renice command appeared in BSD 4.0. BSD 4, 9 June 1993 repquota repquota —Summarize quotas for a filesystem. SYNOPSIS k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 8 w 0 e i 4 v 1 e e g Pr a P /usr/etc/repquota [ -vug ] filesystem... /usr/etc/repquota [ -avug ] DESCRIPTION repquota prints a summary of the disk usage and quotas for the specified filesystems. For each user, the current number of files and amount of space (in kilobytes) is printed, along with any quotas created with edquota (8). OPTIONS -a -v -g -u Report on all filesystems indicated in /etc/fstab to be read-write with quotas. Report all quotas even if there is no usage. Report quotas for groups. Report quotas for users. This is the default. Only the superuser can view quotas that are not their own. FILES Quota file at the filesystem root Default filesystems quotas /etc/fstab SEE ALSO quota(1), quotactl (2), edquota (8), quotacheck (8), quotaon (8) 8 June 1993 rexecd rexecd—Remote execution server. SYNOPSIS rexecd DESCRIPTION rexecd is the server for the rexec(3) routine. The server provides remote execution facilities with authentication based on usernames and passwords. rexecd listens for service requests at the port indicated in the exec service specification; see services (5). When a service request is received, the following protocol is initiated: 1. The server reads characters from the socket up to a null \0 byte. The resultant string is interpreted as an ASCII number, base 10. routed 1381 When a request packet is received, routed formulates a reply based on the information maintained in its internal tables. The response packet generated contains a list of known routes, each marked with a “hop count” metric (a count of 16, or greater, is considered “infinite”). The metric associated with each route returned provides a metric relative to the sender. Response packets received by routed are used to update the routing tables if one of the following conditions is satisfied: No routing table entry exists for the destination network or host, and the metric indicates the destination is “reachable” (the hop count is not infinite). The source host of the packet is the same as the router in the existing routing table entry. That is, updated information is being received from the very internetwork router through which packets for the destination are being routed. The existing entry in the routing table has not been updated for some time (defined to be 90 seconds) and the route is at least as cost effective as the current route. The new route describes a shorter route to the destination than the one currently stored in the routing tables; the metric of the new route is compared against the one stored in the table to decide this. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 3 w 1 e i 4 v 1 e e g Pr a P When an update is applied, routed records the change in its internal tables and updates the kernel routing table. The change is reflected in the next response packet sent. In addition to processing incoming packets, routed also periodically checks the routing table entries. If an entry has not been updated for three minutes, the entry’s metric is set to infinity and marked for deletion. Deletions are delayed an additional 60 seconds to ensure the invalidation is propagated throughout the local Internet. Hosts acting as internetwork routers gratuitously supply their routing tables every 30 seconds to all directly connected hosts and networks. The response is sent to the broadcast address on nets capable of that function, to the destination address on point-to-point links, and to the router’s own address on other networks. The normal routing tables are bypassed when sending gratuitous responses. The reception of responses on each network is used to determine that the network and interface are functioning correctly. If no response is received on an interface, another route may be chosen to route around the interface, or the route may be dropped if no alternative is available. Options supported by routed : -d -g -s -q -t Enable additional debugging information to be logged, such as bad packets received. This flag is used on internetwork routers to offer a route to the “default” destination. This is typically used on a gateway to the Internet or on a gateway that uses another routing protocol whose routes are not reported to other local routers. Supplying this option forces routed to supply routing information whether it is acting as an internetwork router or not. This is the default if multiple network interfaces are present or if a point-to-point link is in use. This is the opposite of the -s option. If the -t option is specified, all packets sent or received are printed on the standard output. In addition, routed will not divorce itself from the controlling terminal so that interrupts from the keyboard will kill the process. Any other argument supplied is interpreted as the name of file in which routed ’s actions should be logged. This log contains information about any changes to the routing tables and, if not tracing all packets, a history of recent messages sent and received that are related to the changed route. In addition to the facilities described previously, routed supports the notion of “distant” passive and active gateways. When is started, it reads the file to find gateways that might not be located using only information from the SIOGIFCONFioctl (2). Gateways specified in this manner should be marked passive if they are not expected to exchange routing information, whereas gateways marked active should be willing to exchange routing information (that is, they should have a routed process running on the machine). Routes through passive gateways are installed in the kernel’s routing tables once upon startup. Such routes are not included in any routing information transmitted. Active gateways are treated equally to network interfaces. Routing information is distributed to the gateway, and if no routing information is received for a period of the time, the associated route is deleted. Gateways marked external are also passive but are not placed in the kernel routing table routed setserial auto_irq ^auto_irq skip_test baud_base baud_base spd_vhi spd_cust During autoconfiguration, try to determine the IRQ. This feature is not guaranteed to always produce the correct result; some hardware configurations will fool the Linux kernel. It is generally safer not to use the auto_irq feature but rather to specify the IRQ to be used explicitly, using the irq parameter. During autoconfiguration, do not try to determine the IRQ. During autoconfiguration, skip the UART test. Some internal modems do not have National Semiconductor compatible UARTs but have cheap imitations instead. Some of these cheesy imitation UARTs do not fully support the loopback detection mode, which is used by the kernel to make sure there really is a UART at a particular address before attempting to configure it. For certain internal modems, you will need to specify this parameter so Linux can initialize the UART correctly. During autoconfiguration, do not skip the UART test. This option sets the base baud rate, which is the clock frequency divided by 16. Usually, this value is 115200, which is also the fastest baud rate, which the UART can support. Use 57.6KB when the application requests 38.4KB. This parameter can be specified by a non-privileged user. Use 115KB when the application requests 38.4KB. This parameter can be specified by a non-privileged user. Use the custom divisor to set the speed when the application requests 38.4KB. In this case, the baud rate is the baud_base divided by the divisor. This parameter can be specified by a non-privileged user. Use 38.4KB when the application requests 38.4KB. This parameter can be specified by a non-privileged user. This option sets the custom divisor. This divisor will be used when the spd_cust option is selected and the serial port is set to 38.4KB by the application. This parameter can be specified by a non-privileged user. Set the break key at the Secure Attention Key. Disable the Secure Attention Key. Configure the port as an AST Fourport card. Disable AST Fourport configuration. Specify the amount of time, in hundredths of a second, that DTR should remain low on a serial line after the callout device is closed before the blocked dial-in device raises DTR again. The default value of this option is 50, or a half-second delay. Lock out callout port (/dev/cuaXX) accesses across different sessions. That is, once a process has opened a port, do not allow a process with a different session ID to open that port until the first process has closed it. Do not lock out callout port accesses across different sessions. Lock out callout port (/dev/cuaXX) accesses across different process groups. That is, once a process has opened a port, do not allow a process in a different process group to open that port until the first process has closed it. Do not lock out callout port accesses across different process groups. Notify a process blocked on opening a dial-in line when a process has finished using a callout line (either by closing it or by the serial line being hung up) by returning EAGAIN to the open. The application of this parameter is for gettys that are blocked on a serial port’s dial-in line. This allows the getty to reset the modem (which may have had its configuration modified by the application using the callout device) before blocking on the open again. Do not notify a process blocked on opening a dial-in line when the callout device is hung up. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 5 w 2 e i 4 v 1 e e g Pr a P ^skip_test spd_hi 1393 spd_normal divisor divisor sak ^sak fourport ^fourport close_delay delay Session_lockout ^session_lockout pgrp_lockout ^pgrp_lockout hup_notify ^hup_notify sliplogin 1399 BUGS This program is called simpleinit to distinguish it from the System V compatible versions of init that are starting to appear in the Linux community. simpleinit should be linked to, or made identical with, init for correct functionality. AUTHOR Peter Orbaek ([email protected]), version 1.20, with patches for single-user mode by Werner Almesberger. Linux 0.99, 20 November 1993 slattach k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 1 w 3 e i 4 v 1 e e g Pr a P slattach —Attach a SYNOPSIS network interface to a serial line. slattach [-v] [-p proto] [-s speed] [tty] DESCRIPTION is a little program that can be used to put a normal terminal (“serial”) line into one of several “network” modes, thus allowing you to use it for point-to-point links to other computers. slattach OPTIONS [-v] Enable debugging output. Useful when determining why a given setup doesn’t work. Set a specific kind of protocol to use on the line. The default is set to cslip, compressed SLIP. Other possible values are slip (normal SLIP), ppp (Point-to-Point Protocol), and kiss (AX.25 TNC protocol). Set a specific line speed other than the default. If no arguments are given, the current terminal line (usually the login device) is used. Otherwise, an attempt is made to claim the indicated terminal port, lock it, and open it. [-p proto] [-s speed] FILES /dev/cua* BUGS None so far. AUTHOR Fred N. van Kempen ([email protected]) 20 September 1993 sliplogin sliplogin —Attach a serial line network interface. SYNOPSIS sliplogin [loginname] DESCRIPTION is used to turn the terminal line on standard input into a serial line IP SLIP link to a remote host. To do this, the program searches the file for an entry matching loginname (which defaults to the current login name if omitted). If a sliplogin sysklogd 1403 This may take some acclimatization for those individuals used to the pure BSD behavior, but testers have indicated that this syntax is somewhat more flexible than the BSD behavior. Note that these changes should not affect standard syslog.conf files. You must specifically modify the configuration files to obtain the enhanced behavior. SUPPORT FOR REMOTE LOGGING These modifications provide network support to the syslogd facility. Network support means that messages can be forwarded from one node running syslogd to another node running syslogd where they will be actually logged to a disk file. The strategy is to have syslogd listen on a UNIX domain socket for locally generated log messages. This behavior will allow to interoperate with the syslog found in the standard C library. At the same time, syslogd listens on the standard syslog port for messages forwarded from other hosts. To have this work correctly, the services files (typically found in /usr/etc/inet ) must have the following entry: syslogd k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 5 w 3 e i 4 v 1 e e g Pr a P syslog 514/udp To cause messages to be forwarded to another host, replace the normal file line in the syslog.conf file with the name of the host to which the messages is to be sent prepended with an @. For example, to forward all messages to a remote host, use the following syslog.conf entry: # Sample syslogd configuration file to # messages to a remote host forward all. .* @hostname To forward all kernel messages to a remote host, the configuration file is # Sample configuration file to forward all kernel # messages to a remote host. kern.* @hostname OUTPUT TO NAMED PIPES (FIFOS) This version of syslogd has support for logging output to named pipes (FIFOs). A FIFO or named pipe can be used as a destination for log messages by prepending a | to the name of the file. This is handy for debugging. Note that the FIFO must be created with the mkfifo command before syslogd is started. The following configuration file routes debug messages from the kernel to a FIFO: # Sample configuration to route kernel debugging # messages ONLY to /usr/adm/debug which is a # named pipe. kern.=debug |/usr/adm/debug INSTALLATION CONCERNS There is probably one important consideration when installing this version of syslogd . This version of syslogd is dependent on proper formatting of messages by the syslog function. The functioning of the syslog function in the shared libraries changed somewhere in the region of libc.so.4.[2-4].n. The specific change was to null-terminate the message before transmitting it to the /dev/log socket. Proper functioning of this version of syslogd is dependent on null-termination of the message. This problem will typically manifest itself if old statically linked binaries are being used on the system. Binaries using old versions of the syslog function will cause empty lines to be logged, followed by the message with the first character in the message removed. Relinking these binaries to newer versions of the shared libraries will correct this problem. SECURITY THREATS There is the potential for the syslogd daemon to be used as a conduit for a denial of service attack. Thanks go to John Morrison ([email protected]) for alerting me to this potential. A rogue programmer could very easily flood the syslogd daemon with syslog messages resulting in the log files consuming all the remaining space on the filesystem. Part VIII: Administration and Privileged Commands 1408 to which it is connected, except as modified by the options. It requests synchronization service from the first master server located. If permitted by the -M flag, it provides synchronization service on any attached networks on which no current master server is detected. Such a server propagates the time computed by the top-level master. The -n flag, followed by the name of a network that the host is connected to (see networks (5)), overrides the default choice of the network addresses made by the program. Each time the -n flag appears, that network name is added to a list of valid networks. All other networks are ignored. The -i flag, followed by the name of a network to which the host is connected (see networks(5)), overrides the default choice of the network addresses made by the program. Each time the -i flag appears, that network name is added to a list of networks to ignore. All other networks are used by the time daemon. The -n and -i flags are meaningless if used together. timed checks for a master time server on each network to which it is connected, except as modified by the -n and -i options. If it finds masters on more than one network, it chooses one network on which to be a “slave” and then periodically checks the other networks to see if the masters there have disappeared. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 0 w 4 e i 4 v 1 e e g Pr a P One way to synchronize a group of machines is to use an NTP daemon to synchronize the clock of one machine to a distant standard or a radio receiver and -F hostname to tell its timed daemon to trust only itself. Messages printed by the kernel on the system console occur with interrupts disabled. This means that the clock stops while they are printing. A machine with many disk or network hardware problems and consequent messages cannot keep good time by itself. Each message typically causes the clock to lose a dozen milliseconds. A time daemon can correct the result. Messages in the system log about machines that failed to respond usually indicate machines that crashed or were turned off. Complaints about machines that failed to respond to initial time settings are often associated with “multi-homed” machines that looked for time masters on more than one network and eventually chose to become a slave on the other network. WARNING If two or more time daemons, whether timed, NTP, try to adjust the same clock, temporal chaos will result. If both this and another time daemon are run on the same machine, ensure that the -F flag is used, so that timed never attempts to adjust the local clock. The protocol is based on UDP/IP broadcasts. All machines within the range of a broadcast that are using the TSP protocol must cooperate. There cannot be more than a single administrative domain using the -F flag among all machines reached by a broadcast packet. Failure to follow this rule is usually indicated by complaints concerning “untrusted” machines in the system log. FILES /var/log/timed.log tracing file for timed /var/log/timed.masterlog log file for master timed SEE ALSO date(1), adjtime (2), gettimeofday (2), icmp(4), timedc (8), “TSP: The Time Synchronization Protocol for UNIX 4.3 BSD,” R. Gusella, S. Zatti. HISTORY The timed daemon appeared in BSD 4.3. BSD 4.3, 11 May 1993 timedc timedc—Timed control program. SYNOPSIS timedc [command] [argument ...] Part VIII: Administration and Privileged Commands 1412 9 *** 10 * * * 11 * * * 12 * * * 13 rip.Berkeley.EDU (128.32.131.22) ! 59 ms ! 39 ms ! 39 ms Notice that there are 12 “gateways” (13 is the final destination) and exactly the last half of them are “missing.” What’s really happening is that rip (a Sun-3 running Sun OS3.5) is using the ttl from our arriving datagram as the ttl in its ICMP reply. The reply will time out on the return path (with no notice sent to anyone because ICMPs aren’t sent for ICMPs) until we probe with a ttl that’s at least twice the path length. That is, rip is really only seven hops away. A reply that returns with a ttl of 1 is a clue this problem exists. traceroute prints a ! after the time if the ttl is less than or equal to 1. Because vendors ship a lot of obsolete (DEC Ultrix, Sun 3.x) or non-standard HPUX software, expect to see this problem frequently or take care picking the target host of your probes. Other possible annotations after the time are !H, !N, !P (got a host, network, or protocol unreachable), !S, or !F (source route failed or fragmentation needed—neither of these should ever occur and the associated gateway is busted if you see one). If almost all the probes result in some kind of unreachable, traceroute will give up and exit. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 4 w 4 e i 4 v 1 e e g Pr a P This program is intended for use in network testing, measurement, and management. It should be used primarily for manual fault isolation. Because of the load it could impose on the network, it is unwise to use traceroute during normal operations or from automated scripts. AUTHOR Implemented by Van Jacobson from a suggestion by Steve Deering. Debugged by a cast of thousands with particularly cogent suggestions or fixes from C. Philip Wood, Tim Seaver, and Ken Adelman. SEE ALSO netstat (1), ping (8) BSD 4.3, 6 June 1993 tune2fs tune2fs —Adjust tunable filesystem parameters on second extended filesystems. SYNOPSIS tune2fs [ -l ][-c max-mount-counts ][-e errors-behavior ] [-i interval-between-checks ][ -m reserved-blocks-percentage ] [-r reserved-blocks-count ][-u user ][-g group ]device DESCRIPTION tune2fs adjusts tunable filesystem parameters on a Linux second extended filesystem. Never use tune2fs on a read/write mounted filesystem to change parameters! OPTIONS -c max-mount-counts -e errors-behavior Adjust the maximal mounts count between two filesystem checks. Change the behavior of the kernel code when errors are detected. errors-behavior can be one of the following: continue Continue normal execution. remount-ro Remount the filesystem read-only. panic Causes a kernel panic. Part VIII: Administration and Privileged Commands 1414 you don’t care how fast your printer goes or are printing text on a slow printer with a buffer, then 500 (5 seconds) should be fine and will give you very low system load. This value generally should be lower for printing graphics than text, by a factor of approximately 10, for best performance. The number of times to try to output a character to the printer before sleeping for -t <TIME>. It is the number of times around a loop that tries to send a character to the printer. 120 appears to be a good value for most printers. 250 is the default because there are some printers that require a wait this long, but feel free to change this. If you have a very fast printer like an HP Laserjet 4, a value of 10 might make more sense. If you have a really old printer, you can increase this. Setting -t <TIME> to 0 is equivalent to setting -c <CHARS> to infinity. The busy loop counter for the strobe signal. Although most printers appear to be able to deal with an extremely short strobe, some printers demand a longer one. Increasing this from the default 0 might make it possible to print with those printers. This can also make it possible to use longer cables. This is whether to abort on printer error; the default is not to. If you are sitting at your computer, you probably want to be able to see an error and fix it and have the printer go on printing. On the other hand, if you aren’t, you might rather that your printer spooler find out that the printer isn’t ready, quit trying, and send you mail about it. The choice is yours. This option is much like -a . It makes any open() of this device check to see that the device is online and not reporting any out-of-paper or other errors. This is the correct setting for most versions of lpd. This option adds extra (“careful”) error checking. When this option is on, the printer driver will ensure that the printer is online and not reporting any out-of-paper or other errors before sending data. This is particularly useful for printers that usually appear to accept data when turned off. This option returns the current printer status, both as a decimal number from 0 to 255 and as a list of active flags. When this option is specified, -q off , turning off the display of the current IRQ, is implied. -o, -C, and -s all require a Linux kernel version of 1.1.76 or later. This option resets the port. It requires a Linux kernel version of 1.1.80 or later. This option sets printing the display of the current IRQ setting. -c <CHARS> -w <WAIT> -a [on|off] -o [on|off] -C [on|off] k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 6 w 4 e i 4 v 1 e e g Pr a P -s -r -q [on|off] Cohesive Systems, 26 August 1992 update_state update_state —Update system state. SYNOPSIS update_state DESCRIPTION update_state updates a bunch of system states. It takes a long time to execute and would be suitable for execution in a cron job. Currently, update_state performs the following functions: updates the locate database (in /usr/lib/locate), updates the whatis database(in /usr/man , /usr/local/man, /usr/X386/man , and /usr/interviews/man), and updates the TeX ls-R cache file (in /usr/lib/texmf). Part VIII: Administration and Privileged Commands 1422 Leap YEAR MONTH DAY HH:MM:SS CORR R/S For example: Leap 1974 Dec 31 23:59:60 + S The YEAR, MONTH , DAY, and HH:MM:SS fields tell when the leap second happened. The CORR field should be + if a second was added or – if a second was skipped. The R/S field should be (an abbreviation of) Stationary if the leap second time given by the other fields should be interpreted as GMT or (an abbreviation of) Rolling if the leap second time given by the other fields should be interpreted as local wall clock time. NOTE For areas with more than two types of local time, you may need to use local standard time in the AT field of the earliest transition time’s rule to ensure that the earliest transition time recorded in the compiled file is correct. FILE k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 4 w 5 e i 4 v 1 e e g Pr a P /usr/local/etc/zoneinfo SEE ALSO standard directory used for created files. newctime (3), tzfile (5), zdump(8) Part IX: Kernel Reference Guide 1424 add_timer, del_timer, init_timer add_timer , del_timer , init_timer—Manage event timers. SYNOPSIS #include <asm/param.h> #include <linux/timer.h> extern void add_timer(struct timer_list * timer); extern int del_timer(struct timer_list * timer); extern inline void init_timer(struct timer_list * timer); DESCRIPTION k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 6 w 5 e i 4 v 1 e e g Pr a P add_timer schedules an event, adding it to a linked list of events maintained by the kernel. del_timer deletes a scheduled event. timer points to a struct timer_list { struct timer_list *next; struct timer_list *prev; unsigned long expires; unsigned long data; void (*function)(unsigned long); }; sets next and prev to NULL. This is required for the argument of add_timer. expires is the desired duration of the timer in jiffies, where there are HZ (typically 100) jiffies per second. When the timer expires, function is called with data as its argument. It is the responsibility of function to delete the event. If the same function is managing several timers, the argument can be used to distinguish which one expired. init_timer RETURN VALUE del_timer returns zero on error—if next or prev are not NULL, but the timer was not found. del_timer also sets expires to the time remaining before the timer expires and sets next and prev to NULL. Thus, calling del_timer followed immediately by add_timer is a no-op provided a kernel tick does not occur between the two calls. AUTHOR Linus Torvalds Linux 1.2.8, 31 May 1995 adjust_clock adjust_clock —Adjusts startup time counter to tick in GMT. SYNOPSIS linux/kernel/sys.c void adjust_clock(); DESCRIPTION This routine adjusts the startup time by adding the time zone information to it. The goal is to get the startup time ticking in GMT time. NOTES This routine is called from settimeofday(2) when the time-zone information is first set. Part IX: Kernel Reference Guide 1426 struct file_operations *f_op; }; From linux/fs/file_table.c struct file *first_file; int nr_files = 0; DESCRIPTION The file table is fundamentally important to any UNIX system. It is where all open files (Linux includes closed files as well) are stored and managed by the kernel. For Linux, you can hardly do anything without referencing it in some way. Linux stores its file table as a double circular linked list. The root pointer to the “head” of this list is first_file . Also, a count of how many entries are in the file table is maintained, called nr_files . Under this scheme, the file table for Linux could be as large as memory could hold. Unfortunately, this would be unmanageable in most cases. Your computer would be in the kernel most of the time when processes are more important. To keep this from happening, nr_files is tested against NR_FILE to limit the number of file table entries. k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 8 w 5 e i 4 v 1 e e g Pr a P UNDERSTANDING THE STRUCTURE OF THE FILE TABLE The file table is organized as a double circular linked list. Imagine a circle of people with everyone facing the same direction. Each person is facing so that one arm is in the circle and the other arm is outside the circle. Now, if each person put his or her right hand on the shoulder of the person in front of him or her and if each person touched the person behind him or her with his or her left hand. You have formed two circles of arms, one inside and the other outside. The right arms represent pointers to the next entry (or person). The left arms represent pointers to the previous entry (or person). THE FILE STRUCTURE, A FILE TABLE ENTRY At first glance, a table entry looks quite simple. An entry contains how a file was opened, what tty device, a reference count, pointers to other entries, pointer to v-node (the vfs i-node) filesystem-specific i-node information, and so on. f_mode 00 01 10 11 f_rdev f_pos f_flags f_count f_reada f_next, f_prev f_inode f_op After ANDing with O ACCMODE , this is what bits 0 and 1 mean: No permissions needed Read-permission Write-permission Read-write It is used only with tty lines. It contains the major and minor numbers of the tty device. The current position in a file, if meaningful. Storage for the flags from open() and fcntl() Reference counter This is a Boolean variable where True means that an actual read is needed. Pointers to other entries Pointer to v-node and filesystem-specific i-node information Pointer to a file’s operations AUTHOR Linus Torvalds SEE ALSO insert_file_free(9), remove_file_free(9), put_last_free (9) grow_files(9), file_table_init(9), get_empty_filp(9) Linux 0.99.10, 11 July 1993 environment variables edquota, 1291-1292 egrep, 224-226 bugs, 226 diagnostics, 226 options, 224-225 regular expressions, 225-226 $else parser directive (readline), 29 elvis, 126-128 bugs, 128 environment, 127-128 files, 127 options, 127 ref interaction, 455 tag files, 135-137 elvprsv, 128-129 elvrec, 129-130 emacs, 130-133 bugs, 133 distributing, 133 files, 132-133 function key/mouse support, 134-135 manuals, 132 mouse button bindings, 132 options, 130 tag files, 135-137 using emacstool with, 135 X Window System, 131-132 EMACS user interface, cvsbug, 1281 emacstool, 134-135 bugs, 135 environment variables, 135 files, 135 options, 134 using with emacs, 135 enable (shell command), 37 encoded files, uuencode format, 1200 encryption crypt function, 908-909 memory areas, 980-981 endgrent( ) function, 932-933 $endif parser directive (readline), 29 endmntent( ) function, 935-936 endnetent subroutine, 936-937 endprotoent( ) function, 941-942 endpwent( ) function, 943 endservent( ) function, 946 endusershell( ) function, 946-947 endutent( ) function, 947 ENV variable (bash), 16 environ, 1121 environ command (telnet), 511 environment variables adding/changing, 996-997, 1017 bash, 25-26 ci, 68 co, 75 cvs, 105-106 CVS_IGNORE _REMOTE_ROOT, 105 CVS_RSH, 106 CVS_SERVER, 106 CVSEDITOR, 105 CVSREAD, 105 CVSROOT, 105 CVSWRAPPERS, 106 RCSBIN, 105 cvsbug, 1280 dig, 117 editres, 126 elvis, 127-128 emacstool, 135 fsinfo, 145 fslsfonts, 146 fstobdf, 146 ftp, 154 gawk, 172 getopt( ) function, 939 getting, 932 groff, 229 gtroff, 248 gzip, 251 ■ imake, 267 info, 270 ld, 291 lkbib, 293 locate, 295 lpq, 299 lpr, 300 lprm, 302 more, 328 nslookup, 1353 rcs, 443 rcsclean, 444 rcsdiff, 445 rcsmerge, 450 ref, 455 rlog, 459 rlogin, 461 script, 475 startx, 497 tcal, 506 telnet, 512 tin, 528-530 ADD_ADDRESS, 529 AUTOSUBSCRIBE, 529 AUTOUNSUBSCRIBE, 530 BUG_ADDRESS, 529 DISTRIBUTION, 529 MAILER, 529 NNTPSERVER, 529 ORGANIZATION, 529 REPLYTO, 529 TI_ACTIVEFILE, 529 TI_NOVROOTDIR, 529 TIN_HOMEDIR, 528 TIN_INDEXDIR, 529 TIN_LIBDIR, 529 TIN_SPOOLDIR, 529 TINRC, 528 VISUAL, 529 tset, 541 twm, 557 TZ, 987 ul, 559 xauth, 589, 592 xclipboard, 597 xclock, 595 xcmsdb, 593 1447 k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 9 w 7 e i 4 v 1 e e g Pr a P 1452 ■ files swapping enabling/disabling, 1401 starting/stopping, 866-867 symbolic links, 867-869 synchronizing in-core data, 756-757 in-core state, 758-759 with memory maps, 811 tag emacs, 135-137 vi, 135-137 tags, generating, 87-88 temporary creating, 983, 1053-1054 naming, 1049, 1054 text converting for printing, 429-430 creating gcal resource files from, 558 sorting, 492-493 TIFF, converting to portable anymaps, 515-516 time zone information, 1197-1198 timestamps (changing), 536 transfer parameters, 153 TrueVision Targa, converting to portable pixmaps, 515 truncating, 879-880 UNIX copying between systems, 563-565 copying to MS-DOS, 335 restoring filenames, 324325 Usenix FaceSaver, converting to portable graymaps, 147 user group, 1131 UUCP transfer requests, processing, 1415-1417 uuencode, format, 1200 XFree86, 638-639, 1201-1208 Device sections, 1204-1206 Files section, 1201 Keyboard section, 1202 Monitor sections, 1203-1204 Pointer section, 1202-1203 Screen sections, 1206-1208 ServerFlags section, 1201 XIM, converting to portable pixmaps, 654 YUV, converting to portable pixmaps, 730-731 Z, recompressing to GZ, 734-735 Zeiss confocal, converting to portable anymaps, 732 filesystem checks group identity (setting), 843-844 user identity (setting), 844 filesystem description file, accessing, 935-936 filesystems, 1125-1126 buffers, flushing, 1401-1402 building, 1325-1326 checking, 1298-1300 debugger, 1284-1285 commands, 1284-1285 options, 1284 deleting names from, 1008 device entries, maintaining, 1320-1321 dumping information, 1289 ext, 1125 ext2, 1125 hierarchy, description of, 1236-1238 High Sierra, 1125 hpfs, 1125 iso9660, 1125 MINIX, 1125 consistency checker, 1300-1301 creating, 1326-1327 mounting/dismounting, 802-804, 1328-1332 msdos, 1125 names, deleting, 882 ncpfs, 1126 nfs, 1125 export list, 1123-1125 proc, 1125 quotas summarizing, 1376 turning on/off, 1372-1373 repairing, 1298-1299 Rock Ridge, 1125 root, mounting, 849 scanning, 1371-1372 second extended checking, 1289-1291 creating, 1324-1325 lost+found directory, 1327 tunable parameters (adjusting), 1412-1413 setup, 849 smb, 1126 static information, 1126-1127 statistics, getting, 883-884, 865-866 sysv, 1125 table of, 1427-1428 type information, getting, 871 umsdos, 1125 vfat, 1125 xiafs, 1125 filesystems command, 1427-1428 filters Laplacian relief, running on portable pixmaps, 413 more, 327-328 commands, 328 environment, 328 options, 327-328 nonlinear (pnmnlfilt), 390-391 nroff output, 77 reverse line feeds, 76 k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 4 w 8 e i 4 v 1 e e g Pr a P 1454 ■ fstat fstat, 863-864 fstatfs, 865-866 fstobdf, 146-147 fstopgm, 147 fsync, 758-759 ftell function, 927-928 ftime function, 928-929 ftok function, 929-930 FTP (File Transfer Protocol), DARPA server, 1301-1304 ftp, 147-154 aborting transfer, 152 bugs, 154 commands, 148-152 !, 148 $, 148 ?, 152 account, 148 append, 148 ascii, 148 bell, 148 binary, 148 bye, 148 case, 148 cd, 148 cdup, 148 chmod, 148 close, 148 cr, 148 debug, 149 delete, 148 dir, 149 disconnect, 149 form, 149 get, 149 glob, 149 hash, 149 help, 149 idle, 149 lcd, 149 ls, 149 macdef, 149 mdelete, 149 mdir, 150 mget, 150 mkdir, 150 mls, 150 mode, 150 modtime, 150 mput, 150 newer, 150 nlist, 150 nmap, 150 ntrans, 150-151 open, 151 prompt, 151 proxy ftp, 151 put, 151 pwd, 151 quit, 151 quote, 151 recv, 151 reget, 151 remotehelp, 151 remotestatus, 151 rename, 151 reset, 151 restart, 151 rmdir, 152 runique, 152 send, 152 sendport, 152 site, 152 size, 152 status, 152 struct, 152 system, 152 trace, 152 type, 152 umask, 152 user, 152 verbose, 152 environment variables, 154 file naming conventions, 153 file transfer parameters, 153 .netrc file, 153-154 options, 147-148 tenex, sendport, 152 ftpd, 1301-1304 bugs, 1303 FTP requests supported, 1302-1303 options, 1302 ftruncate, 879-880 ftw( ) function, 930 full-duplex connections, shutting down, 855 function bindings, displaying, 35 functions calling at termination, 897-898, 988 headers, displaying, 455-456 library, undocumented, 1060 portable pixmap programs, 973-974 color names, 974 memory management, 973 reading files, 974 writing files, 974 fuser, 154-155 fwrite function, 926-927 k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 6 w 8 e i 4 v 1 e e g Pr a G P g++, 155-160, 174-201 bugs, 160 copying, 160, 201 filename suffixes, 174-175 files, 159-160, 200 options, 155-159, 175-178 assembler, 181 code generation, 198-199 debugging, 186-187 directory, 182-183 language, 178-180 linker, 181-182 machine-dependent, 191-198 optimization, 188-190 preprocessor, 180-181 target, 190-191 warning, 183-186 pragmas, 159, 200 g3topbm, 160-161 games, 1210 gawk, 161-173 actions, 165-166 arithmetic functions, 168-169 1462 ■ libpbm routines file management, 967 initialization, 968 keyword matching, 967 memory management, 968 messages, 967 reading files, 968 types, 968 writing files, 968-969 libpgm routines, 969-970 constants, 969 initialization, 969 memory management, 969 reading files, 970 types, 969 writing files, 970 libpnm routines, 970-972 constants, 970 format promotion, 972 initialization, 971 memory management, 971 reading files, 971 types, 970 writing files, 971-972 XEL manipulation, 972 XEL manipulations, 971 libppm, 973-974 color names, 974 memory management, 973 reading files, 974 writing files, 974 libraries shared, selecting, 883 standard I/O, 1025-1027 library functions, undocumented, 1060 LILO, 1216 configuration file, 1147-1151 global options, 1148-1149 kernel options, 1150-1151 per-image section, 1149-1150 line buffered streams, 1016 line printer control program, 1317-1318 devices, 1090-1091 ioctl( ) calls, 1090-1091 spooler daemon, 1318-1320 linear searches, arrays, 975-976 LINENO variable (bash), 15 link, 791-792 linkers, ld (GNU linker), 287-291 copying, 291 environment, 291 options, 288-291 linking files, 293-294, 791792 Lisp Machine bitmap files, converting to portable graymaps, 292 lispmtopgm, 292 list bash command, 13 xauth command, 591 listen, 792-793 lists bash, 12-13 columnating, 78 variable argument (declaring), 1023-1024 lkbib, 292-293 llseek, 793 ln, 293-294 lndir, 294 loadable modules installing, 271-272 support, 800-802 unloading, 462-463 viewing, 305 loadlin program, 1216 local (shell command), 39 local descriptor table, reading/ writing, 800 local variables, creating, 39 locale, 1243-1244 setting, 1018-1019 localeconv, 974-975 localtime, 909-910, 984-986 locate, 295 lock files, creating for shell scripts, 487 LockFile routine, 965 locking memory mlock, 796-797 mlockall, 797-798 locks (advisory), applying/ removing open files, 757 log (cvs command), 100 log( ) function, 918 log10( ) function, 918 log1p( ) function, 918 logarithms, 918 1 plus argument, 918 base-10, 918 logger, 295-296 logging innd, 1311-1312 kernel, 1402 system, 1402-1404 configuration file, 1402-1403 FIFOs, 1403 messages, 1404-1405 remote, 1403 Usenet, log file maintenance, 1346-1347 login, 296-297 login shells, 45 changing, 63 exiting, 39 logins changing groups, 336-337 displaying last, 285-286 login command, 296-297 login record files, 1198-1200 preventing, 1168 remote, 460-461 Kerberos authentication, 461 root, tty lines (listing), 1184 shells, pathnames, 1186 logout (shell command), 39 logs system making entries, 295-296 sending messages to, 1045-1046 xinetd, 661-663 k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 4 w 9 e i 4 v 1 e e g Pr a P 1464 ■ memcmp( ) function memcmp( ) function, 901, 979-980 memcpy( ) function, 901, 980 memfrob( ) function, 901, 980-981 memmem( ) function, 901, 981 memmove( ) function, 901, 981 memory access, controlling, 804-805 allocating, 894, 976 displaying amount, 144 freeing, 976 kernel, 1091-1092 locking mlock, 796-797 mlockall, 797-798 mapping/unmapping files to, 799-800 reallocating, 976 scanning for characters, 979 shared allocating, 851-853 controlling, 849-851 operations, 853-854 system, 1091-1092 unlocking munlock, 811-812 munlockall, 812-813 virtual remapping addresses, 805-806 reports, 1417-1418 virtual console, 1101-1102 memory areas comparing, 979-980 copying, 978-981 encrypting, 980-981 filling with constant bytes, 982 locating substrings in, 981 memset( ) function, 901, 982 merge, 320 merge command (xauth), 591 merging files, three-way, 320 mesg, 321 message catalogs getting messages from, 902-903 opening/closing, 903-904 message queue identifier, retrieving, 807-808 messages control, 1310 control operations, 806-807 displaying, 321 log (RCS files), printing, 458-460 message of the day file, 1152 receiving, from sockets, 826-828 sending/receiving, 808-811 sending from sockets, 842-843 to system logger, 1045-1046 to users, 473, 576-577 signal, printing, 996 system console, monitoring with X, 597-598 system error, printing, 990-991 systems, logging, 1404-1405 Usenet control, handling, 1115-1116 writing to users, 574, 1383 meta characters (bash), 12 meta-flag variable (readline), 28 mformat, 321-322, 330 bugs, 322 options, 321-322 mget (ftp command), 150 MGR bitmaps, converting to portable bitmaps, 322-323 mgrtopbm, 322-323 MINIX filesystems, 1125 consistency checker, 1300-1301 creating, 1326-1327 mkdir, 150, 323, 794-795 bugs, 795 errors, 795 options, 323 return value, 795 mkdirhier, 323 mke2fs, 1324-1325 mkfifo, 323-324, 982-983 errors, 982-983 options, 324 mkfs, 1325-1327 mklost+found, 1327 mkmanifest, 324-325 mknod, 325, 795-796 bugs, 796 errors, 796 options, 325 return value, 796 mkstemp( ) function, 983 mkswap, 1327-1328 mktemp( ) function, 983-984 mktime, 910, 984-986 mlabel, 325-326, 330 mlock, 796-797 mlockall, 797-798 mls (ftp command), 150 mmap, 799-800 mmd, 326, 330 mmount, 326-327, 330 mmove, 327, 330 /mnt directory, 1236 mode (ftp command), 150 mode command (telnet), 508 mode parameter, values, 1374 modems, conversational exchanges, 1269-1273 abort strings, 1270-1271 chat script, 1270 escape sequences, 1271-1272 report strings, 1271 termination codes, 1272 time-out value, 1271 moderators, 1151-1152 modf( ) function, 984 modify_ldt, 800 modprobe, 109-112 configuration, 110-111 files, 111 strategy, 111 k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 6 w 9 e i 4 v 1 e e g Pr a P portable anymaps pbmtoplot, 365-366 pbmtoptx, 366 pbmtox10bm, 366 pbmtoxbm, 367 pbmtoybm, 367 pbmtozinc, 367-368 pbmupc, 368 pclose( ), 991-992 pcnfsd, 1355-1357 authentication, 1355-1356 file, 1357 printing, 1356 reconfiguration, 1357 PCX files, converting to portable pixmaps, 368-369 pcxtoppm, 368-369 peers, getting names, 765 permissions file changing, 748-749 setting, 272-273 port input/output, setting, 788 perror, 990-991 personality, 817-818 pfbtops, 369 pgm, 1171-1172 pgmbentley, 369 pgmcrater, 370-371 pgmedge, 371 pgmenhance, 371-372 pgmhist, 372 pgmkernel, 372-373 pgmnoise, 373 pgmnorm, 373-374 pgmoil, 374 pgmramp, 374-375 pgmtexture, 375-376 pgmtofs, 376 pgmtolispm, 376-377 pgmtopbm, 377 pgmtoppm, 378 Photo-CD files, converting to portable pixmaps, 260-261 phys, 818 physical addresses, accessing, 818 pi3topbm, 379 pic, versus gpic, 212-215 commands, 212-213 expressions, 213-214 mode, 212 picttoppm, 379-380 bugs, 379 fontdir file format, 380 ping, 1358 pipe, 818-819 pipelines (|), bash, 12 pipes, creating, 818-819 pjtoppm, 381 pktopbm, 381 PLIP devices, tuning parameters, 1357 plipconfig, 1357 pnm, 1173 pnmalias, 381-382 pnmarith, 382-383 pnmcat, 383 pnmcomp, 383-384 pnmconvol, 384 pnmcrop, 385 pnmcut, 385 pnmdepth, 385-386 pnmenlarge, 386 pnmfile, 386-387 pnmflip, 387 pnmgamma, 387 pnmhistmap, 388 pnmindex, 388-389 pnminvert, 389 pnmmargin, 389-390 pnmnlfilt, 390-391 alpha-trimmed mean filter, 390 bugs, 391 combining modes, 391 edge enhancement, 391 optimal estimation smoothing, 390 pnmnoraw, 391-392 pnmpad, 392 pnmpaste, 392-393 pnmrotate, 393 ■ pnmscale, 393-394 pnmshear, 394-395 pnmsmooth, 395 pnmtile, 395 pnmtoddif, 396 pnmtofits, 396-397 pnmtoiff, 399-400 pnmtops, 397 pnmtorast, 398 pnmtosgi, 398-399 pnmtosir, 399 pnmtoxwd, 400 popd (shell command), 39-40 popen( ) function, 991-992 popup-menu( ) action (xterm), 713 port, 1091-1092 portable anymaps antialiasing, 381-382 bordering, 389-392 changing maxval, 385-386 compositing, 383-384 concatenating, 383 converting to DDIF format, 396 to FITS format, 396-397 to PostScript, 397 to red/blue 3D glasses, 400-401 to SGI image file, 398-399 to Solitaire format, 399 to Sun raster files, 398 to TIFF files, 399, 400 to X11 window dumps, 400 convolving, 384 creating index of, 388, 389 cropping, 385 cutting rectangles from, 385 describing, 386, 387 drawing histograms from, 388 enlarging, 386 file format, 1173 flipping, 387 gamma correction, 387 1469 k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 1 w 0 e i 5 v 1 e e g Pr a P rawtoppm types, 970 writing files, 971-972 XEL manipulations, 971-972 portable bitmap, functions supporting, 966-969 portable graymap constants, 969 functions supporting, 969-970 initialization, 969 memory management, 969 reading files, 970 types, 969 writing files, 970 recompiling, make utility, 310-312 running, in new session, 1395 terminating abort( ) function, 892 assert( ) function, 895-896 exit( ) function, 917 promoting directories, 39-40 prompt (ftp command), 151 PROMPT_COMMAND variable (bash), 17 prompting (bash), 26 properties, consoles, 1067 protocols protocols definition file, 1180-1181 RPC, rpcgen compiler, 464-466 Telnet, interface, 507-512 XIE, testing, 645-654 proxy ftp (ftp command), 151 proxy servers, LBX, 286-287 PRT ray tracers, converting output to portable pixmaps, 333 prunehistory, 1370-1371 ps, 430-433 bugs, 433 field descriptions, 432 options, 430-431 sort keys, 431-432 updating, 432, 436 PS1 variable (bash), 16 PS2 variable (bash), 16 PS3 variable (bash), 17 PS4 variable (bash), 17 psbb, 433 pseudo-filesystems, /proc, 1174-1180 bugs, 1180 hierarchy outline, 1174-1180 pseudo-random numbers, generating, 912-913 psidtopgm, 433-434 pstopnm, 434-435 pstree, 435-436 psupdate, 436 ptrace, 820 pushd (shell command), 40 put (ftp command), 151 put_file_last, 1431 putc( ) function, 997-999 putchar( ) function, 997-999 putenv, 996-997 errors, 996 putpwent( ) function, 997 errors, 997 puts( ) function, 997-999 pututline( ) function, 948 putw function, 948 pwd (ftp command), 151 pwd (shell command), 40 PWD variable (bash), 15 ■ question marks (?) bash special parameters, 15 ftp command, 152 queues, inserting/removing items, 957 quit command ftp command, 151 telnet, 508 xauth, 591 quit( ) action (xterm), 714 quota, 437 quotacheck, 1371-1372 quotactl, 821-822 quotaoff, 1372-1373 quotaon, 1372-1373 quotas disk, manipulating, 821-822 remote machines, 1012 quote (ftp command), 151 quoting (bash), 14 1473 k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 5 w 0 e i 5 v 1 e e g Pr a R P Q qio, 998 QRT ray tracer, converting output to portable pixmaps, 436-437 qsort, 1000 quantizing colors (pixmaps), 411 8-plane quantization, 412-413 multiple files, 412 Radix32 routine, 966 raise function, 1000 ram, 1094-1095 rand( ) function, 1001 random numbers, generating, 1001-1002 RANDOM variable (bash), 15 random( ) function, 1001-1002 randomizing strings, 1032 ranlib, 437-438 rarp, 1373 RARP table, manipulating, 1373 rasttopnm, 438 raw grayscale bytes, converting to portable graymaps, 439 raw RGB bytes, converting to portable pixmaps, 439-440 rawtopgm, 439 rawtoppm, 439-440 1474 ■ ray tracers ray tracers converting output to portable pixmaps, 333 QRT, converting output to portable pixmaps, 436-437 rcp, 440-441 RCS (Revision Control System), 447-449 automatic identification, 449 commands, 447-449 directories, creating, 447-449 files changing attributes, 441-443 cleaning, 443-445 comparing revisions, 445-446 freezing configuration, 446-447 functions, 447 revisions, merging, 449-451 rcs, 441-443 bugs, 443 compatibility, 443 diagnostics, 443 environment, 443 files, 443 options, 441-443 RCS files controlling access, 67 format, 1181-1183 modes, 67 organization (diagram), 1182 printing log messages, 458-460 retrieving revisions, 71-75 specifying, 66-67 storing revisions, 64-69 setuid privileges, 67-68 temporary files, 67 RCS keyword strings, identifying, 262-263 RCSBIN environment variable, 105 rcsclean, 443-445 rcsdiff, 445-446 rcsfile, 1181-1183 organization (diagram), 1182 rcsfreeze, 446-447 rcsintro, 447-449 automatic identification, 449 RCS functions, 447 rcsmerge, 449-451 rdev, 1373-1375 rdiff (cvs command), 101 rdist, 451-454 bugs, 454 diagnostics, 454 files, 453 options, 451-452 re_comp function, 1005 re_exec function, 1005 read (shell command), 40 read( ), file descriptors, 822 readdir, 823 readdir( ) calls, setting position, 1015-1016 readdir( ) function, 1002-1003 ReadInDescriptor routine, 966 ReadInFile routine, 966 readline library, 27-32 commands, 29-32 controlling key bindings, 27 customizing, 27 denoting keystrokes, 27 macro definitions, 28 parser directives, 28-29 $else, 29 $endif, 29 $if, 28-29 variables, 28 bell-style, 28 comment-begin, 28 completion-query-items, 28 convert-meta, 28 editing-mode, 28 expand-tilde, 28 horizontal-scroll-mode, 28 keymap, 28 mark-modified-lines, 28 meta-flag, 28 output-meta, 28 show-all-if-ambiguous, 28 readlink, 823-824 readonly (shell command), 40 readv, 824-825 readv( ) function, 1003-1004 realloc( ) function, 976-977 realpath, 1004-1005 reboot, 825-826 recompiling programs, make utility, 310-312 recompressing Z files, 734-735 reconfig, 454 recv, 151, 826-828 recvfrom, 826-828 recvmsg, 826-828 redirection, 21-23 duplicating file descriptors, 23 here-documents, 22-23 input, 22 opening file descriptors, 23 operators, 21 output, 22 redraw( ) action (xterm), 714 ref, 455-456 elvis interaction, 455 environment, 455 files, 455 options, 455 search method, 455 refreshing screen (X), 684-685 refs files, generating, 87-88 regcomp function, 1005-1007 regerror function, 1005-1007 reget (ftp command), 151 regex functions, 1005 POSIX, 1005-1007 compiling, 1005-1006 error reporting, 1006 matching, 1006 pattern buffer freeing, 1007 k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 6 w 0 e i 5 v 1 e e g Pr a P 1476 ■ routines GetFileConfigValue, 965 GetFQDN, 965 GetModeratorAddress, 965 GetResourceUsage, 965 GetTimeInfo, 965 HeaderFind, 964 INNVersion, 966 LockFile, 965 NNTPcheckarticle, 965 NNTPconnect, 965 NNTPlocalopen, 965 NNTPremoteopen, 965 NNTPsendarticle, 966 NNTPsendpassword, 966 Radix32, 966 ReadInDescriptor, 966 ReadInFile, 966 SetNonBlocking, 965 libpbm, 966-969 constants, 968 endian i/o, 967 errors, 967 file management, 967 initialization, 968 keyword matching, 967 memory management, 968 messages, 967 reading files, 968 types, 968 writing files, 968-969 libpgm, 969-970 constants, 969 initialization, 969 memory management, 969 reading files, 970 types, 969 writing files, 970 libpnm, 970-972 constants, 970 format promotion, 972 initialization, 971 memory management, 971 reading files, 971 types, 970 writing files, 971-972 XEL manipulation, 972 XEL manipulations, 971 routing, pppd, 1367 RPC program numbers, converting to DARPA port numbers, 1358-1359 protocol compiler, see rpcgen services, reporting information, 1383-1384 rpc.rquotad, 1384 rpc.rusersd, 1382-1383 rpc.rwalld, 1383 rpcgen, 464-466 options, 465-466 preprocessor symbols, 465 rpcinfo, 1383-1384 rquota( ) protocol, 1012 rquotad, 1384 rsh, 466-467 rshd, 1385-1386 rstart, 467-468 rstartd, 468-471 configuring, 469 keywords, 470 installing, 469 options, 469 rtag (cvs command), 102 runique (ftp command), 152 rup, 472 rusers, 472-473 rwall, 473 rwho, 474 rwhod, 1386-1387 sched_get_priority_min, 830-831 sched_getparam, 832 sched_getscheduler, 833-835 errors, 834 policies, 833 SCHED_FIFO, 833-834 SCHED_OTHER, 834 SCHED_RR, 834 response time, 834 sched_rr_get_interval, 831 sched_setparam, 832 sched_setscheduler, 833-835 errors, 834 policies, 833 SCHED_FIFO, 833-834 SCHED_OTHER, 834 SCHED_RR, 834 response time, 834 sched_yield, 835 scheduling algorithm, getting/setting, 833-835 parameters, getting/setting, 832 policies, 833 first in - first out, 833-834 round-robin, 834 time-sharing, 834 priorities getting/setting, 766-767 value ranges, 830-831 yielding processor, 835 screen, clearing, 70-71 screen savers, beforelight, 47-48 script, 474-475 scripts, chat, 1270 scroll-back( ) action (xterm), 714 scroll-forw( ) action (xterm), 714 SCSI drivers disk drives, 1095-1096 tape devices, 1096-1100 sd, 1095-1096 k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 8 w 0 e i 5 v 1 e e g Pr a P S saving stack context, 1018 /sbin directory, 1237 sbrk, 746 scandir( ) function, 1012-1013 scanf functions, 1013-1015 bugs, 1015 conversions, 1014-1015 flags, 1014 return values, 1015 sched_get_priority_max, 830-831 1478 ■ servers SOA record, 1336-1337 stopping/restarting, 1338 synchronizing database, 1338 Internet superserver, 1305-1307 LBX proxy server, 286-287 logged-in users, 1382-1383 news, sending Usenet articles to, 267-269 NFS authentication/print request, 1355-1357 mount information, 1396 NNTP, 1347-1349 getting lists from, 206-207 passwords, 1170 retrieving Usenet articles from, 340-341 portmap, 1358-1359 remote execution, 1376-1377 remote login, 1377-1378 remote quota, 1384 remote shell, 1385-1386 remote user communication, 1405-1406 specifying, xdm, 607-608 system status, 1386-1387 message format, 1386-1387 X Window System access control program, 643-645 display server, 685-690 file utility, 587-592 font server, 641-643 information utility, 614 killing clients, 666-667 starting, 664-666 virtual framebuffer, 717-718 X11 performance comparison program, 585-586 performance test program, 577-585 XF86_8514, 615 XF86_Accel, 614-623 configuration, 615-616 files, 622 options, 616 setup, 616-622 XF86_AGX, 615 XF86_Mach32, 615 XF86_Mach64, 615 XF86_Mach8, 615 XF86_Mono, 624-627 configuration, 624 files, 626 setup, 624-626 XF86_P9000, 615 XF86_S3, 615 XF86_SVGA, 627-631 configuration, 627-628 files, 630-631 options, 628 setup, 628-630 XF86_VGA16, 631-633 configuration, 631 files, 633 options, 632 setup, 632 XF86_W32, 615 XFree86, 636-641 configuration, 636 environment variables, 637 files, 638-639 key combinations, 638 network connections, 636-637 options, 637-638 setup, 638 services, 1184-1186 bugs, 1186 files, 1186 Internet, listing, 1184-1186 NFS, daemon, 1347 RPC, reporting information, 1383-1384 Session Manager Proxy, see smproxy sessions creating, setsid, 848 IDs, getting, 768 typescripts, creating, 474-475 X Session Manager, 694-698 default startup applications, 695 options, 695-698 proxy, 698 remote applications, 698 Session menu, 695-696 SM_SAVE_DIR environment variable, 695 starting, 695 tester, 698-699 .xsession file, 695 xdm, 600 sessreg, 480-481 set shell command, 40-42 telnet command, 509-510 set-allow132( ) action (xterm), 715 set-altscreen( ) action (xterm), 715 set-appcursor( ) action (xterm), 715 set-appkeypad( ) action (xterm), 715 set-autolinefeed( ) action (xterm), 715 set-autowrap( ) action (xterm), 715 set-cursesemul( ) action (xterm), 715 set-jumpscroll( ) action (xterm), 715 set-marginbell( ) action (xterm), 715 set-reverse-video( ) action (xterm), 715 set-reversewrap( ) action (xterm), 715 set-scroll-on-key( ) action (xterm), 715 k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 0 w 1 e i 5 v 1 e e g Pr a P tin temporary files creating, 983, 1053-1054 naming, 1049, 1054 tenex (ftp command), 152 termcap, 1188-1197 Boolean capabilities, 1189 numeric capabilities, 1189-1190 string capabilities, 1190-1197 control codes, 1195-1196 terminals attributes, 1049-1053 getting, 876 setting, 482-483, 876 baud rate, 1049-1053 capability database, 1188-1197 Boolean capabilities, 1189 numeric capabilities, 1189-1190 string capabilities, 1190-1197 controlling terminal, 1100-1101 creating typescript of sessions, 474-475 displaying last login, 285-286 foreground processes, group ID, 1049-1053 initializing, 539-542 line control, 1049-1053 name and device list, 1197 names (returning), 1058 resetting, 456 serial lines, 1101 termios functions, 874-878 type mapping, 540-541 type, setting in shell environment, 540 virtual hangups, 885 window size, setting, 456-457 terminating processes, 283-284 terminating programs abort( ) function, 892 assert( ) function, 895-896 termios functions, 874 flag constants, 874-876 termios structure c_cflag flag constants, 1051 c_iflag flag constants, 1050 c_lflag flag constants, 1051 c_oflag flag constants, 1050-1051 test expr (shell command), 43 text compressed, viewing, 733-734 filters, more, 327-328 formatting line lengths, 143 rendering to bitmaps, 355-356 sorting, 492-493 editors, elvis, 126-128 files converting for printing, 429-430 creating gcal resource files from, 558 tfind, 1056-1058 tfmtodit, 513 TFTP (Trivial File Transfer Protocol), 1407 DARPA server, 1407 tftp, 514-515 TFTP (Trivial File Transfer Protocol), 514 tftpd, 1407 tgatoppm, 515 TI_ACTIVEFILE environment variable, 529 TI_NOVROOTDIR environment variable, 529 TIFF files, converting to portable anymaps, 515-516 tifftopnm, 515-516 tilde expansion (bash), 19 time calculating differences, 911 getting/setting, 772-773 in seconds, 878 ■ returning current, 928-929 setting, 866 startup adjusting to GMT, 1424-1425 converting, 1430 time functions, 878 awk, 169 time server daemon, 1407-1408 time zones compiling, 1419-1422 printing, 1419 time-sharing scheduling, 834 timed, 1407-1409 control program, 1408-1409 files, 1408 timedc, 1408-1409 timers (event), managing, 1424 times binary, converting to ASCII, 909-911 converting to ASCII, 984-986 initializing conversion information, 986-988, 1058-1060 strings to numbers, 989-990 to tm structure, 1036-1037 formatting, strftime( ) function, 1032-1034 process, getting, 878-879 time zone information files, 1197-1198 user/system, printing, 43 times (shell command), 43 times function, 878-879 timestamps, changing, 536 tin, 516-533 articles automatic mailing, 528 autoselect/autokill, 526-527 crossposting, 527 1485 k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 7 w 1 e i 5 v 1 e e g Pr a P twm twm, 542-557 bindings, 552-553 bugs, 557 customizing, 543-544 environment, 557 files, 557 functions, 554-556 !, 554 f.autoraise, 554 f.backiconmgr, 554 f.beep, 554 f.bottomzoom, 554 f.circledown, 554 f.circleup, 554 f.colormap, 554 f.deiconify, 554 f.delete, 554 f.deltastop, 554 f.destroy, 554 f.downiconmgr, 554 f.exec, 554 f.focus, 554 f.forcemove, 555 f.forwiconmgr, 555 f.fullzoom, 555 f.function, 555 f.hbzoom, 555 f.hideiconmgr, 555 f.horizoom, 555 f.htzoom, 555 f.hzoom, 555 f.iconify, 555 f.identify, 555 f.lefticonmgr, 555 f.leftzoom, 555 f.lower, 555 f.menu, 555 f.move, 555 f.nexticonmgr, 555 f.nop, 555 f.previconmgr, 555 f.priority, 555 f.quit, 555 f.raise, 555 f.raiselower, 555 f.refresh, 555 f.resize, 555 f.restart, 555 f.righticonmgr, 555 f.rightzoom, 556 f.saveyourself, 556 f.showiconmgr, 556 f.sorticonmgr, 556 f.title, 556 f.topzoom, 556 f.unfocus, 556 f.upiconmgr, 556 f.vlzoom, 556 f.vrzoom, 556 f.warpring, 556 f.warpto, 556 f.warptoiconmgr, 556 f.warptoscreen, 556 f.winrefresh, 556 f.zoom, 556 icons, 557 menus, 556-557 options, 543 starting, 543 startup files, 543-544 variables, 544-552 AutoRaise, 544 AutoRelativeResize, 544-545 BorderColor, 545 BorderTileBackground, 545 BorderTileForeground, 545 BorderWidth, 545 ButtonIndent, 545 ClientBorderWidth, 545 Color, 545-546 ConstrainedMoveTime, 546 Cursors, 546 DecorateTransients, 546 DefaultBackground, 546 DefaultForeground, 547 DefaultFunction, 552 DontIconifyByUnmapping, 547 DontMoveOff, 547 DontSqueezeTitle, 547 ■ ForceIcons, 547 FramePadding, 547 Grayscale, 547 IconBackground, 547 IconBorderColor, 547 IconBorderWidth, 547 IconDirectory, 547 IconFont, 547 IconForeground, 547 IconifyByUnmapping, 547 IconManagerBackground, 547 IconManagerDontShow, 547 IconManagerFont, 548 IconManagerForeground, 548 IconManagerGeometry, 548 IconManagerHighlight, 548 IconManagers, 548 IconManagerShow, 548 IconRegion, 548 Icons, 548-549 InterpolateMenuColors, 549 MakeTitle, 549 MaxWindowSize, 549 MenuBackground, 549 MenuFont, 549 MenuForeground, 549 MenuShadowColor, 549 MenuTitleBackground, 549 MenuTitleForeground, 549 Monochrome, 549 MoveDelta, 549 NoBackingStore, 549 NoCaseSensitive, 549 NoDefaults, 549 NoGrabServer, 549 NoHighlight, 550 NoIconManagers, 550 NoMenuShadows, 550 1487 k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 9 w 1 e i 5 v 1 e e g Pr a P 1490 ■ variables MAIL_WARNING, 16 MAILCHECK, 16 MAILPATH, 16 no_exit_on_failed_exec, 18 noclobber, 18 nolinks, 18 notify, 17 OLDPWD, 15 OPTARG, 16 OPTERR, 17 OPTIND, 16 OSTYPE, 16 PATH, 16 PPID, 15-17 PROMPT_COMMAND, 17 PS1, 16 PS2, 16 PS3, 17 PS4, 17 PWD, 15 RANDOM, 15 REPLY, 15 SECONDS, 15 SHLVL, 15 TMOUT, 17 UID, 15 declaring, 36 local, creating, 39 readline, 28 bell-style, 28 comment-begin, 28 completion-query-items, 28 convert-meta, 28 editing-mode, 28 expand-tilde, 28 horizontal-scroll-mode, 28 keymap, 28 mark-modified-lines, 28 meta-flag, 28 output-meta, 28 show-all-if-ambiguous, 28 string, configurationdependent, 906-907 vcs, 1101-1102 vcsa, 1101-1102 vectors, reading/writing, 824-825 verbose (ftp command), 152 vfat filesystem, 1125 case sensitivity (mtools and), 332 vfork, 758 vfprintf function, 992-996 vfscanf function, 1013-1015 vhangup, 885 vi, see elvis video hardware, identifying, 501-503 video mode tuner (XFree86), 719-720 buttons, 719 moving display, 719 options, 720 vidr, 303-304 view, see elvis vipw, 1418-1419 virtual 8086 mode, entering, 885-886 virtual consoles, 1066 memory, 1101-1102 virtual framebuffer X server, 717-718 virtual memory addresses, remapping, 805-806 reports, 1417-1418 VISUAL environment variable, 529 visual-bell( ) action (xterm), 716 vm86, 885-886 vmstat, 1417-1418 volume labels (MS-DOS), creating, 325-326 vprintf function, 992-996 vscanf function, 1013-1015 vsnprintf function, 992-996 vsprintf function, 992-996 vsscanf function, 1013-1015 W w, 573 wait, 886-888 errors, 887 shell command, 45 status macros, 887 wait3, 888-889 wait4, 888-889 waitpid, 886-888 wall, 574 wc, 574 wcstomb( ) function, 1061-1062 wcstombs( ) function, 1061 Web sites, Unicode, 1065 whereis, 575-576 while (bash command), 13 wide character strings, converting to multibyte character strings, 1061 wide characters, converting to multibyte characters, 1061-1062 widgets bitmap application, 54-57 editres, 125-126 xclipboard, 596 xclock, 595 xconsole, 598 xcutsel, 599 xdm authentication widget, 609-610 actions supported, 610 resources, 609-610 xfd, 634-635 xlogo, 668 xmag, 671 windows, X dumping utility, 721-722 information utility, 722-724 word splitting (bash), 21 words bash, 12 finding first bit set, 921 input/output, 948 k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 2 w 2 e i 5 v 1 e e g Pr a P xlogo DisplayManager.errorLogFile, 602 DisplayManager.exportList, 603 DisplayManager.greeterLib, 603 DisplayManager.keyFile, 602 DisplayManager.lockPidFile, 602 DisplayManager.pidFile, 602 DisplayManager.randomFile, 603 DisplayManager.remove Domainname, 602 DisplayManager.requestPort, 601 DisplayManager.servers, 601 resources file, 608 server control, 612-613 session program, 611-612 sessions, 600 setup program, 608-609 startup program, 610-611 XDMCP service access control, 606-607 XDMCP service, access control, 606-607 xdpyinfo, 614 XF86_8514 server, 615 XF86_Accel, 614-623 bugs, 623 configuration, 615-616 files, 622 options, 616 setup, 616-622 XF86_AGX server, 615 XF86_Mach32 server, 615 XF86_Mach64 server, 615 XF86_Mach8 server, 615 XF86_Mono, 624-627 configuration, 624 files, 626 options, 624 setup, 624-626 XF86_P9000 server, 615 XF86_S3 server, 615 XF86_SVGA, 627-631 configuration, 627-628 files, 630-631 options, 628 setup, 628-630 XF86_VGA16, 631-633 configuration, 631 files, 633 options, 632 setup, 632 XF86_W32 server, 615 XF86Config, 1201-1208 Device sections, 1204-1206 Files section, 1201 Keyboard section, 1202 Monitor sections, 1203-1204 Pointer section, 1202-1203 Screen sections, 1206-1208 ServerFlags section, 1201 xf86config, 633 xfd, 633-636 application-specific resources, 635 bugs, 636 fontgrid resources, 635 options, 634 widgets, 634-635 XFree86, 636-641 configuration, 636 configuration file, 1201-1208 Device sections, 12041206 Files section, 1201 Keyboard section, 1202 Monitor sections, 1203-1204 Pointer section, 1202-1203 Screen sections, 1206-1208 ServerFlags section, 1201 environment variables, 637 key combinations, 638 ■ network connections, 636-637 options, 637-638 setup, 638 video mode tuner, 719-720 buttons, 719 moving display, 719 options, 720 xfs, 641-643 bugs, 643 configuration, 642 naming, 643 options, 641 signals, 641 xhost, 643-645 bugs, 644 diagnostics, 644 environment, 644 files, 644 names, 644 options, 643-644 xiafs filesystem, 1125 XIE protocol, testing, 645-654 xieperf, 645-654 bugs, 654 options, 646-654 XIM files, converting to portable pixmaps, 654 ximtoppm, 654 xinetd, 655-664 bugs, 664 configuration file, 656-660 editing signal responses, 660-661 files, 663 internal services, 660 log format, 661-663 options, 655-656 xinit, 664-666 environment variables, 666 examples, 665-666 files, 666 xkill, 666-667 xlogo, 667-668 environment variables, 668 resources, 668 widgets, 668 1493 k u . o .c e l a s e t o 7 N 2 5 m 1 o f r f o 5 w 2 e i 5 v 1 e e g Pr a P
* Your assessment is very important for improving the work of artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
advertisement
© 2021