ABBE-3L™ Refractometer
User Guide
The information in this publication is provided for reference only. All information contained in this publication is believed to be correct and complete. Thermo Fisher
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269-220200, Rev. A
2 ABBE-3L User Guide
Contents
Introduction.........................................................................................1
Conventions used in this manual .............................................................. 1
Questions or concerns............................................................................... 2
Refractometer Basics ............................................................................3
Refracting prism assembly......................................................................... 4
Prism identification number .................................................................. 4
Prism illumination ................................................................................. 5
Eyepiece.................................................................................................... 5
Compensator system ................................................................................. 6
Measurement scales................................................................................... 6
Operating Procedures...........................................................................7
Setting up the instrument ......................................................................... 8
Instrument calibration............................................................................... 8
Liquid samples ........................................................................................ 10
Solid samples (clear)................................................................................ 11
Opaque samples ...................................................................................... 12
Temperature control ............................................................................... 12
Water bath control.................................................................................. 13
Thin film measurements ......................................................................... 15
Determination of dispersion.................................................................... 15
Dispersion............................................................................................ 15
Nu (v) value......................................................................................... 16
Maintenance.......................................................................................17
Cleaning instrument exterior................................................................... 17
Cleaning the measuring prism................................................................. 17
Lamp Replacement ................................................................................. 19
International Sucrose Tables ..............................................................20
Bibliography.......................................................................................23
ABBE-3L User Guide i
ii ABBE-3L User Guide
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Introduction
The ABBE-3L refractometer is a precision instrument which provides the index of refraction (n
D
) on a wide variety of liquid or solid samples. It has a standard working range of 1.30-1.71 n
D
and can be operated at ambient temperature or with temperature control via an external recirculator. The instrument also furnishes direct readings in Brix from 0-85%. It is supplied with the following parts:
• Thermometer assembly, 0 – 100°C, with guard tube attached to the refractometer
• 1-Bromonaphthalene contact liquid
• NIST traceable certified calibration test piece (glass) 1.5125 n
D nominal
• Calibration hex wrench
• Compensator dial cover, magnetic
• Dispersion table
• Plastic dust cover
• 2 pieces ¼-in clear vinyl tubing
Conventions used in this manual
This manual includes safety precautions and other important information presented in the following format:
Note Notes contain helpful supplementary information.
Notice Follow instructions labeled “Notice” to avoid damaging the system hardware or losing data.
Caution Indicates a hazardous situation which, if not avoided, could result in minor or moderate injury.
Warning Indicates a hazardous situation which, if not avoided, could result in death or serious injury.
Danger Indicates a hazardous situation which, if not avoided, will result in death or serious injury.
ABBE-3L User Guide 1
The following safety symbols may be used on this product:
Symbol Description Indication
Black graphical symbol inside a yellow triangle with a black triangular band
This is a warning symbol. The graphic in this symbol is used to alert the user to potential hazards.
Black graphical symbol inside a red circular band with a red diagonal bar
White graphical symbol inside a blue circle
This is a prohibition symbol. The graphic in this symbol is used to alert the user to actions that shall not be taken or shall be stopped.
This is a mandatory action symbol. It is used to indicate that an action shall be taken to avoid a hazard.
Black graphical symbol inside a yellow triangle with a black triangular band
This is the general warning sign. Failure to heed the safety precautions could result in personal injury.
White graphical symbol inside a blue circle
This is the general data loss or property damage symbol and is not related to personal injury. Failure to heed these precautions can result in irreparable damage to property or permanent data loss.
Questions or concerns
In case of emergency, follow the procedures established by your facility. If you have questions or concerns about safety or need assistance with operation, repairs or replacement parts, you can contact our sales or service representative in your area or use the information at the beginning of this document to
contact us
.
2 ABBE-3L User Guide
Refractometer Basics
The ABBE-3L consists of a refracting prism assembly (with illuminator), an internal measurement scale, and a compensating prism system.
Figure 1 – Prism area
Key: c Sample illuminator lamp d Upper prism case f
Lower prism case g
Hinged light shield j Water inlet fitting
ABBE-3L User Guide 3
Refracting prism assembly
The prism assembly consist of an upper and lower prism case ( d
and
f
Figure 1
), each containing a separate prism. The upper case contains the
illuminating prism and the lower case contains the measuring prism ( e
).
The upper case is opened with the handle on the right-hand side.
The n
D
of liquid samples is measured by introducing a thin layer of sample between the upper and lower prisms; the n
D
of solid samples is measured by opening the upper prism case and placing them in optical contact with the surface of the measuring (lower) prism with a suitable contact liquid.
In both cases, the sample/prism interface generates a borderline which is visually observed through the instrument eyepiece. This borderline is used to determine the n
D
of the sample.
The prism cases are hollow to allow for the optional circulation of constant
temperature liquid. A thermometer ( i
,
Figure 1
) in the input line provides an accurate indication of the liquid temperature. A short, external jumper hose carries the liquid to the upper prism case. The lower prism case has a small, hinged shield (
g
, Figure 1 ) which prevents stray light from entering
the front of the measuring prism. This shield can be swung down for measuring opaque samples.
Prism identification number
The particular series of prism glass used in your ABBE-3L is identified by a number found on the right-hand side of the measuring prism. This number can be seen by opening the upper prism case and shining a light down into the lower prism from above. This number MUST match the scale series number (see
Measurement Scales
) and must be given along with the instrument serial number in all correspondence or parts orders for your instrument.
4 ABBE-3L User Guide
Prism illumination
Figure 2 – View of total reflection
The required illumination (tungsten lamp) is given by the sample illuminator (
c , Figure 1
) located at the end of the adjustable arm. The lamp is housed inside the rotating lens assembly which also contains a lamp shield and diffuser. The arm assembly can be moved up or down and the lens rotated for optimum illumination of the prism. The sample illuminator lamp is turned on when the combined 3-position power/lamp selector switch (e,
Figure 5 ) on the left panel is in the center position.
Figure 3 – View of internal scale
Key: c Total reflection borderline
Eyepiece
c Refractive Index ( n
D
) scale d Total dissolved solids scale
The borderline (c,
Figure 2 ), as seen in the instrument eyepiece, is the
dividing line between a light and a dark sector. The eyepiece provides a 2X magnification and is used to observe both the borderline (when the power/lamp selector switch on the left panel is in the middle position) and the instrument’s measurement scales (when the power/lamp selector switch is in the low position). For best visibility of the scale or borderline the eyepiece should be focused by moving it in or out of its holder.
ABBE-3L User Guide 5
Compensator system
The compensator corrects for the dispersion inherent in the refractometer
optics and the sample, and is adjusted using the large dial ( h
,
Figure 1 ) on
the front of the instrument located just above the prism assembly. When properly set, the borderline seen through the eyepiece will be achromatic in the center (at the cross-hair), with a faint red color at one end, and a faint blue color at the other end.
Note that the dial circumference has two sets of markings with a common zero (0) point. If the compensator is in proper working order, the borderline can be achromatized at two positions of rotation with near identical dial settings. The dial numbers themselves are NOT significant in routine n
D
or % total dissolved solids determinations. They are, however, used in the calculation of dispersion with the tables provided with the instrument (see
Determination of Dispersion , below).
A removable plastic dial cover prevents the entry of foreign material into the inside of the instrument. Keep the cover in place except when adjusting the Compensator Dial.
Measurement scales
The instrument contains two coincident scales which read from 1.30 to
1.7l n
D
and from 0-85% Brix (also called Total Dissolved Solids). The scales (
Figure 3
) are visible through the instrument eyepiece when the power/lamp selector switch is depressed to its lowest position.
The "Total Dissolved Solids" scale is based directly on the 20°C ICUMSA
Tables of 1966 for % by weight of sucrose in water (Brix).
Turning the handwheel on the right-hand side of the instrument moves the scales across the reticle. When the scales are set to their extreme low end, a small 3-digit number will be seen. This number MUST match that found on the side of the measurement prism.
6 ABBE-3L User Guide
Operating Procedures
This chapter provides important information about using your instrument to analyze samples.
Figure 4 – Right side
Key: d Handwheel
ABBE-3L User Guide 7
Setting up the instrument
Caution If the equipment is not used in a manner not specified by the manufacturer, the protection provided by the equipment may be impaired.
1. Place the instrument on a flat, even surface that is:
• As far as possible from any strong electric or magnetic fields and from any electrical device that may generate high frequency fields.
• Free of dust, corrosive gases and strong vibrations.
2. Remove any obstructions or materials that could hinder the flow of air under, behind and around the instrument.
Warning If the voltage shown on the label is not the same as the voltage of your power sources, DO NOT PLUG IN THE INSTRUMENT. Contact your distributor.
3. Plug the power cord into a grounded outlet with the appropriate voltage.
Instrument calibration
Each instrument is supplied with a NIST traceable certified calibration test piece used to check and adjust the accuracy of the index scale reading. To calibrate the instrument:
1. Connect the power cord with external transformer to the
appropriate outlet and press the power/lamp switch (e,
Figure 5
) so that it is in the middle position.
2. Open the top prism and thoroughly clean the measurement prism
and the test piece (see Cleaning in the
Maintenance section).
Notice Use care not to scratch the glass surface.
3. Apply a small drop of 1-bromonaphthalene contact liquid to the prism.
Note Refer to the Material Safety Data Sheet, located on the documentation
CD, for the correct use and handling of 1-bromonaphthalene.
8 ABBE-3L User Guide
4. Drop the calibration test piece from a height of 0.25 cm or so, onto the contact liquid, with the polished end toward the illuminator
The 1-bromonaphthalene should spread out to fill the space between the test piece and the prism. Do not allow any excess
1-bromonaphthalene to "bead" at the edges (if so, too much
1-bromonaphthalene has been used).
5. Press the power/lamp switch to its lowest position and use the
handwheel ( d, Figure 4
) to set the index scale (visible through the
eyepiece) to the value engraved on the test piece.
Focus the eyepiece for the best definition of the reticle and scale.
6. Release the switch and position the field lamp arm and shield for the best contrast and definition at the borderline.
Note It may help to rotate the lamp lens to the diffused position.
7. Rotate the compensator dial (
h, Figure 1 ) until the borderline is
achromatic on the spot where the reticle marks cross.
8. Use the handwheel to center the achromatic section of the borderline.
9. Depress the switch and note the index value.
The value must coincide with the value engraved on the test piece.
10. Repeat the measurement several times, centering the borderline from above and below the crosshair intersection.
If the index displayed does not coincide with the test piece, insert the calibration hex wrench (included with the instrument) into the calibration screw (
c, Figure 4
) on the right-hand side near the handwheel, and adjust the scale to the calibration test piece value.
ABBE-3L User Guide 9
Liquid samples
1. Ensure that the prisms are absolutely clean and refer to the
Temperature Control
section.
2. Turn on the instrument.
3. Open the top prism case and apply the sample directly to the measurement prism with a dropper.
Notice Use care not to touch the prism surface with the dropper.
If the sample is very viscous, use a wooden or plastic applicator. Ensure that sufficient sample has been loaded to completely fill the space between prisms.
4. Close the prism case.
Note If bubbles form in the sample, they may sometimes be eliminated by slightly opening and closing the prism case. If this is not effective, re-clean the prism surface.
5. Adjust both the height and rotation of the illuminator for the best contrast in the reflection borderline.
6. Using the handwheel, set the borderline on the crosshair intersection, and achromatize it with the compensator dial.
7. Depress the contact switch and read the sample value in index of refraction (n
D
) or % total dissolved solids.
10 ABBE-3L User Guide
Solid samples (clear)
To accurately measure the index of a solid by transmission of light through the sample, it must meet the following requirements:
• The contacting surface must be flat to a few wavelengths
(approximately 0.0002 in).
• It must have a sharp right angle edge.
• The material must be homogeneous (no haze or light scattering properties).
• It must not react chemically with the contact liquid. If so, find another contact liquid.
Measure the index of refraction.
1. Open the top prism case and ensure that the measurement prism is absolutely clean.
2. Using a suitable contact liquid, place the sample on the measurement prism with the sharp edge toward the illuminator and flat side down.
Note 1-Bromonaphthalene is suitable for samples with an index up to 1.64 n
D
.
For samples with a higher index, use methylene iodide.
3. Adjust both the height and the rotation of the illuminator for the best contrast in the reflection borderline.
4. Using the handwheel, set the borderline on the crosshair intersection and achromatize it with the compensator dial.
5. Depress the contact switch and read the sample value in index of refraction (n
D
).
In general, the change in refractive index due to temperature change is so small in solid materials that temperature control is not required.
However, with some plastics, this may not be true, and if in doubt, the temperature coefficient should be checked.
ABBE-3L User Guide 11
Opaque samples
Refractive index measurements are seldom required on opaque materials, but when it is necessary to obtain such a reading the ‘reflection’ method must be used. When measuring by reflection, the sample is attached to the prism with the usual contact liquid, the light shield on the measuring prism is swung down, and the light from the illuminator is directed toward the opening. The illuminator arm and shield are then adjusted for the most favorable reflection borderline. In the reflection method, the borderline is not as distinct as in the transmission method because of the lack of contrast between the two halves of the field. This is inherent in any ABBE-type instrument and cannot be avoided. Sometimes the line can be seen only when it is in motion across the field. Then it may help to move the borderline past the crosshairs with a constantly decreasing motion until it can no longer be distinguished. In using this method, take a number of readings, approaching the crosshairs from above and below. The reflection borderline will be the reverse of a liquid sample. The dark field will be on top when viewed.
If one is forced to use the reflection method, experimental readings may be made using paraffin oil. With it, the borderline may be set by the usual transmission method and then observed in reflection. This will aid in recognizing the characteristics of a reflection borderline.
Temperature control
Various materials differ greatly in the effect of temperature on their refractive index. The degree of temperature control required depends on the nature of the sample and the desired accuracy of the reading. Most of the vegetable and mineral oils and fats, for example, have temperature coefficients in the order of 0.0004 to 0.0005 n
D
per degree centigrade and must have close temperature control for accurate and consistent results.
Correction tables can be prepared for many materials whose refractive index is commonly determined. If so, readings may be made at any normal ambient temperature, and the values at a standard temperature can be computed using the correction factor obtained from the table.
12 ABBE-3L User Guide
Water bath control
The International Sucrose Tables in this manual are published with correction factors related to the 20°C standard temperature. When a correction table is available, instrument temperature control to a predetermined value is not needed. However, the room ambient temperature would have to remain constant for a reasonable period of time to allow the prism temperature to stabilize to that temperature.
Note The sucrose correction tables are the only tables furnished. Since water is
0% sucrose, this table includes a temperature correction table for water.
Using a water sample, the known Brix value at a specific temperature from the table allows you to check the setting on your water circulator.
Note The built-in thermometer may not agree exactly with the thermometer supplied with an external water circulator. This is because the thermometers are in two different locations. Neither of these will be exactly the same as the sample location. For greatest accuracy, the user may wish to make a correlation between one of these thermometers and the actual temperature at the sample location as measured by use of a small, accurately calibrated thermistor placed directly between the closed prisms.
For those applications which require very close temperature control, an external water/heater circulator is recommended. Models are available which provide heating only, or a combination of heating/cooling.
ABBE-3L User Guide 13
Figure 5 – Hose connections
14 ABBE-3L User Guide
Key: e
3-position power/lamp selector switch
Use an external circulator.
1. Follow the instructions supplied with the unit.
2. Connect the circulator water outlet to the connector on the
ABBE-3L thermometer elbow using ¼ in. I.D. tubing.
Refer to Figure 5
for the jumper hose and outlet hose connections.
Allow time for the prisms to stabilize at the water temperature.
Use caution when operating at elevated temperatures. At extreme temperatures, the water temperature must be raised and lowered slowly to prevent cracking the prism.
The ABBE-3L refractometer is designed only for use up to 80°C.
Instrument operation cannot be guaranteed at temperatures above
80°C.
Note In high-humidity environments where the prism temperature is lower than the ambient temperature, condensation may appear underneath the lower prism. This may make measurements difficult to determine, until prisms are brought closer to the ambient temperature.
Thin film measurements
The ABBE-3L refractometer can be used to determine both the thickness and refractive index of a thin film coating if it meets the following criteria:
1. A thickness of 0.0001 mm to 0.05 mm, nominal.
2. The refractive index must be within the range of the instrument.
3. The coating must be flat and uniform in thickness.
4. The coating must have a lower refractive index than the backing.
Determination of dispersion
The ABBE-3L can be used to determine the dispersion and v (nu value or
ABBE number).
In these applications, it is essential that the compensator be in good working order; i.e., the two positions of the compensator dial which produce an achromatic reflection borderline must occur at identical dial settings on each side of the dial zero mark.
Dispersion
Dispersion is measured as n
F
– n
C
using the instructions and values given in the Dispersion Table furnished with the instrument.
Note The series number of the Dispersion Table MUST match the series number of the instrument prism and scale.
ABBE-3L User Guide 15
Nu (
v
) value
The nu (v) value is determined from the equation: v
= n n
D
−
F
−
1 n
C
Due to the use of compensator prisms, dispersion measurements are relative to the Sodium D line (589.3 nm).
16 ABBE-3L User Guide
Maintenance
The ABBE-3L is a rugged, trouble-free instrument that needs a minimum of routine maintenance. Customer repairs are limited to lamp and thermometer replacements and prism assembly replacements ONLY. Do not attempt to make any repairs or adjustments on the internal components of the instrument.
Cleaning instrument exterior
The exterior and sample compartment of the instrument can be cleaned periodically as follows:
Caution Do not allow moisture to leak into the instrument.
1. Switch off the instrument and disconnect from AC power source.
2. Using a lint free cloth dampened with a weak solution of detergent and water, wipe the exterior surface of the instrument as necessary.
3. Wipe over with a cloth dampened with plain water.
4. Dry the surface with another cloth.
Cleaning the measuring prism
To maintain its performance, the ABBE-3L refractometer must be kept clean at all times. The care of the measuring prism is as follows:
Use a non-ionic detergent (e.g., Alconox, Alcojet or Detergent 8) to clean the top and bottom prisms after each sample, then rinse with water and dry. You may use a lint-free non-abrasive cloth to dry prism; however, we recommend to air dry.
Notice Keep the upper prism closed when not in use. The prism glass is quite soft and easily scratched.
ABBE-3L User Guide 17
Clean the upper and lower prism with non-ionic solution after each use to maintain its performance.
The sealer around the prism is not resistant to most chemicals. Solvents which are known to attack the sealer and must not be used with the instrument are:
• Ethers
• Chromic acid
• Strong mineral acids (e.g., nitric sulphuric, etc.)
• Strong basic solutions (e.g., sodium hydroxide)
All organic and inorganic liquids will, over time, have an effect on the sealer. Therefore, we suggest that, to increase the longevity of your system, place only one drop of the sample in the middle of the prism to reduce contact with the sealer. Also clean the prism immediately after every sample. This will reduce the effect of the chemicals on the sealer.
Notice Strong mineral acids and bases will quickly fog the prisms and must not be used.
18 ABBE-3L User Guide
Lamp Replacement
The lamp gets very hot during operation. Before removing the lamp, turn off the instrument and allow the lamp to cool down for 10 minutes.
Turn off and unplug the instrument before opening the lamp door.
Prism field lamp
To replace the prism field lamp, pull off the plastic lens assembly from the arm and unlock the old lamp.
Scale illumination lamp
To replace the scale illumination lamp, open the access door on the bottom of the instrument by removing the two screws in the door corners ONLY.
Figure 6 – Bottom view
Key: c Scale illumination lamp
ABBE-3L User Guide 19
International Sucrose Tables
The Brix or the “Total Dissolved Solids” scale, visible in the instrument eyepiece along with the refractive index scale, is based directly on the
International Sucrose Tables as agreed upon the Fourteenth Session of the
International Commission for Uniform methods of Sugar Analysis
(ICUMSA), held in Copenhagen in 1966.
These tables are based on the index values of pure sucrose solutions. When substances other than sucrose are in the solution, the refractometer reads the combined index as “% total dissolved solids” and not as % (by weight) of the sucrose (or Brix).
The instrument scale is based on the 20°C tables. This manual contains the
20°C tables along with correction factors for other temperatures. calibrated to the 1936 ICUMSA scale. These instruments will read 1.5033 on the n
D
scale when the “Total Dissolved Solids” scale is at 85%.
Instruments with 1966 ICUMSA scales will read 1.5041 at the 85% setting.
20 ABBE-3L User Guide
International Scale (1966) of Refractive Indices of Sucrose
Solutions at 20°C
Index Percent
1.3330 0
1.3344 1
1.3359 2
1.3373 3
1.3388 4
Index Percent Index Percent Index Percent
1.3723 25 1.4200 50 1.4778 75
1.3740 26 1.4221 51 1.4803 76
1.3758 27 1.4243 52 1.4829 77
1.3775 28 1.4264 53 1.4855 78
1.3793 29 1.4286 54 1.4881 79
1.3403 5
1.3418 6
1.3433 7
1.3448 8
1.3463 9
1.3811 30 1.4308 55 1.4907 80
1.3829 31 1.4329 56 1.4933 81
1.3847 32 1.4351 57 1.4960 82
1.3866 33 1.4374 58 1.4987 83
1.3884 34 1.4396 59 1.5013 84
1.3478 10 1.3903 35 1.4419 60 1.5041 85
1.3494 11 1.3922 36 1.4441 61
1.3509 12 1.3941 37 1.4464 62
1.3525 13 1.3960 38 1.4487 63
1.3541 14 1.3979 39 1.4511 64
1.3557 15 1.3998 40 1.4534 65
1.3573 16 1.4018 41 1.4558 66
1.3589 17 1.4037 42 1.4582 67
1.3605 18 1.4057 43 1.4605 68
44 14630
1.3638 20 1.4097 45 1.4654 70
1.3655 21 1.4118 46 1.4678 71
1.3672 22 1.4138 47 1.4703 72
1.3689 23 1.4159 48 1.4728 73
1.3706 24 1.4179 49 1.4753 74
ABBE-3L User Guide 21
International Temperature Correction Table for the normal model of refractometer above and below 20°C
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
0.06
0.13
0.19
0.26
0.33
0.40
0.48
0.56
0.64
0.72
15
16
17
18
19
10
11
12
13
14
Temp
°C
Percent Sucrose
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70
Subtract from the Sucrose
0.50
0.46
0.42
0.37
0.33
0.54
0.49
0.45
0.58
0.53
0.48
0.40 0.42
0.35 0.37
0.61
0.55
0.50
0.64
0.58
0.52
0.44 0.46
0.39 0.40
0.66
0.60
0.54
0.68
0.62
0.56
0.48 0.49
0.41 0.42
0.70
0.64
0.57
0.72 0.73
0.65 0.66
0.58 0.59
0.50 0.51 0.52
0.43 0.44 0.45
0.74
0.67
0.60
0.75
0.68
0.61
0.53 0.54
0.45 0.46
0.76
0.69
0.61
0.54
0.46
0.78
0.70
0.63
0.79
0.71
0.63
0.55 0.55
0.47 0.48
0.27
0.22
0.17
0.12
0.06
0.29 0.31 0.33 0.34 0.34 0.35 0.36 0.37 0.37 0.38 0.39 0.39 0.40 0.40
0.24 0.25 0.26 0.27 0.28 0.28 0.29 0.30 0.30 0.30 0.31 0.31 0.32 0.32
0.18 0.19 0.20 0.21 0.21 0.21 0.22 0.22 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.24 0.24
0.13 0.13 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16
0.06 0.06 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08
Add to the percent Sucrose
0.07 0.07 0.07 0.07 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08 0.08
0.13 0.14 0.14 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16 0.16
0.20 0.21 0.22 0.22 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.23 0.24 0.24 0.24 0.24 0.24 0.24
0.27 0.28 0.29 0.30 0.30 0.31 0.31 0.31 0.31 0.31 0.32 0.32 0.32 0.32
0.35 0.36 0.37 0.38 0.38 0.39 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.40 0.40
0.42 0.43 0.44 0.45 0.46 0.47 0.48 0.48 0.48 0.48 0.48 0.48 0.48 0.48
0.50 0.52 0.53 0.54 0.55 0.55 0.56 0.56 0.56 0.56 0.56 0.56 0.56 0.56
0.57 0.60 0.61 0.62 0.63 0.63 0.64 0.64 0.64 0.64 0.64 0.64 0.64 0.64
0.66 0.68 0.69 0.71 0.72 0.72 0.73 0.73 0.73 0.73 0.73 0.73 0.73 0.73
0.74 0.77 0.78 0.79 0.80 0.80 0.81 0.81 0.81 0.81 0.81 0.81 0.81 0.81
22 ABBE-3L User Guide
Bibliography
For a detailed discussion of refractometry, refer to Physical Methods of
Organic Analysis, Vol. 1, Part 2, Chapter 18 by A. Weissberger.
ABBE-3L User Guide 23
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24 ABBE-3L User Guide
