User`s manual FLIR Ex series

User’s manual

FLIR Ex series

User’s manual

FLIR Ex series

#T559828; r. AD/23843/24541; en-US iii

Table of contents

5

6

7

1

2

3

4

8

1.5

1.6

1.7

1.8

1.9

Disclaimers ......................................................................................1

1.1

1.2

Legal disclaimer ....................................................................... 1

Usage statistics ........................................................................ 1

1.3

1.4

Changes to registry ................................................................... 1

U.S. Government Regulations...................................................... 1

Copyright ................................................................................ 1

Quality assurance ..................................................................... 1

Patents ................................................................................... 1

EULA Terms ............................................................................ 1

EULA Terms ............................................................................ 1

Safety information .............................................................................3

3.4

3.5

3.6

3.7

3.8

Notice to user ...................................................................................6

3.1

User-to-user forums .................................................................. 6

3.2

3.3

Calibration............................................................................... 6

Accuracy ................................................................................ 6

Disposal of electronic waste ........................................................ 6

Training .................................................................................. 6

Documentation updates ............................................................. 6

Important note about this manual.................................................. 6

Note about authoritative versions.................................................. 6

Customer help ..................................................................................7

4.1

General .................................................................................. 7

4.2

4.3

Submitting a question ................................................................ 7

Downloads .............................................................................. 8

Quick Start Guide ..............................................................................9

5.1

Procedure ............................................................................... 9

List of accessories and services ....................................................... 10

Description ..................................................................................... 11

7.1

Camera parts ......................................................................... 11

7.2

7.1.1

Figure ........................................................................ 11

7.1.2

Explanation................................................................. 11

Keypad................................................................................. 11

7.2.1

Figure ........................................................................ 11

7.3

7.4

7.2.2

Explanation................................................................. 11

Connectors ........................................................................... 12

7.3.1

Figure ........................................................................ 12

7.3.2

Explanation................................................................. 12

Screen elements .................................................................... 13

7.4.1

Figure ........................................................................ 13

7.4.2

Explanation................................................................. 13

Operation ....................................................................................... 14

8.1

Charging the battery ................................................................ 14

8.1.1

Charging the battery using the FLIR power supply ............... 14

8.1.2

Charging the battery using the FLIR stand-alone battery charger. ..................................................................... 14

8.2

8.3

8.1.3

Charging the battery using a USB cable ............................ 14

Turning on and turning off the camera.......................................... 14

Saving an image ..................................................................... 15

8.3.1

General...................................................................... 15

8.4

8.3.2

Image capacity ............................................................ 15

8.3.3

Naming convention....................................................... 15

8.3.4

Procedure .................................................................. 15

Recalling an image.................................................................. 15

8.4.1

General...................................................................... 15

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8.5

8.6

8.7

8.8

8.9

8.4.2

Procedure .................................................................. 15

Deleting an image ................................................................... 15

8.5.1

General...................................................................... 15

8.5.2

Procedure .................................................................. 15

Deleting all images.................................................................. 16

8.6.1

General...................................................................... 16

8.6.2

Procedure .................................................................. 16

Measuring a temperature using a spotmeter ................................. 16

8.7.1

General...................................................................... 16

8.7.2

Procedure .................................................................. 16

Measuring the hottest temperature within an area .......................... 16

8.8.1

General...................................................................... 16

8.8.2

Procedure .................................................................. 16

Measuring the coldest temperature within an area.......................... 16

8.9.1

General...................................................................... 16

8.9.2

Procedure .................................................................. 16

8.10

Hiding measurement tools ........................................................ 17

8.10.1 Procedure .................................................................. 17

8.11

Changing the color palette ........................................................ 17

8.11.1 General...................................................................... 17

8.11.2 Procedure .................................................................. 17

8.12

Working with color alarms ......................................................... 17

8.12.1 General...................................................................... 17

8.12.2 Image examples .......................................................... 17

8.12.3 Procedure .................................................................. 18

8.13

Changing image mode ............................................................. 18

8.13.1 General...................................................................... 18

8.13.2 Procedure .................................................................. 19

8.14

Changing the temperature scale mode ........................................ 19

8.14.1 General...................................................................... 19

8.14.2 When to use Lock mode ................................................ 20

8.14.3 When to use Manual mode............................................. 20

8.14.4 Procedure .................................................................. 20

8.15

Setting the emissivity as a surface property .................................. 21

8.15.1 General...................................................................... 21

8.15.2 Procedure .................................................................. 21

8.16

Setting the emissivity as a custom material ................................... 21

8.16.1 General...................................................................... 21

8.16.2 Procedure .................................................................. 21

8.17

Changing the emissivity as a custom value ................................... 22

8.17.1 General...................................................................... 22

8.17.2 Procedure .................................................................. 22

8.18

Changing the reflected apparent temperature ............................... 22

8.18.1 General...................................................................... 22

8.18.2 Procedure .................................................................. 22

8.19

Changing the distance between the object and the camera .............. 22

8.19.1 General...................................................................... 22

8.19.2 Procedure .................................................................. 22

8.20

Performing a non-uniformity correction (NUC) ............................... 23

8.20.1 What is a non-uniformity correction?................................. 23

8.20.2 When to perform a non-uniformity correction? .................... 23

8.20.3 Procedure .................................................................. 23

8.21

Changing the settings .............................................................. 23

8.21.1 General...................................................................... 23

8.21.2 Procedure .................................................................. 24

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9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

8.22

Updating the camera ............................................................... 24

8.22.1 General...................................................................... 24

8.22.2 Procedure .................................................................. 24

Technical data ................................................................................. 25

9.1

Online field-of-view calculator .................................................... 25

9.2

9.3

9.4

9.5

Note about technical data ......................................................... 25

Note about authoritative versions................................................ 25

FLIR E4 ................................................................................ 26

FLIR E5 ................................................................................ 29

9.6

9.7

FLIR E6 ................................................................................ 32

FLIR E8 ................................................................................ 35

Mechanical drawings ....................................................................... 38

CE Declaration of conformity ............................................................ 40

Cleaning the camera ........................................................................ 41

12.1

Camera housing, cables, and other items..................................... 41

12.1.1 Liquids....................................................................... 41

12.1.2 Equipment .................................................................. 41

12.1.3 Procedure .................................................................. 41

12.2

Infrared lens .......................................................................... 41

12.2.1 Liquids....................................................................... 41

12.2.2 Equipment .................................................................. 41

12.2.3 Procedure .................................................................. 41

Application examples....................................................................... 42

13.1

Moisture & water damage ......................................................... 42

13.1.1 General...................................................................... 42

13.1.2 Figure ........................................................................ 42

13.2

Faulty contact in socket ............................................................ 42

13.2.1 General...................................................................... 42

13.2.2 Figure ........................................................................ 42

13.3

Oxidized socket...................................................................... 43

13.3.1 General...................................................................... 43

13.3.2 Figure ........................................................................ 43

13.4

Insulation deficiencies.............................................................. 44

13.4.1 General...................................................................... 44

13.4.2 Figure ........................................................................ 44

13.5

Draft .................................................................................... 45

13.5.1 General...................................................................... 45

13.5.2 Figure ........................................................................ 45

About FLIR Systems ........................................................................ 46

14.1

More than just an infrared camera .............................................. 47

14.2

Sharing our knowledge ............................................................ 47

14.3

Supporting our customers......................................................... 47

14.4

A few images from our facilities .................................................. 48

Glossary ........................................................................................ 49

Thermographic measurement techniques .......................................... 52

16.1

Introduction .......................................................................... 52

16.2

Emissivity.............................................................................. 52

16.2.1 Finding the emissivity of a sample .................................... 52

16.3

Reflected apparent temperature................................................. 55

16.4

Distance ............................................................................... 55

16.5

Relative humidity .................................................................... 55

16.6

Other parameters.................................................................... 55

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17

18

19

20

History of infrared technology........................................................... 57

Theory of thermography................................................................... 60

18.1

Introduction ........................................................................... 60

18.2

The electromagnetic spectrum................................................... 60

18.3

Blackbody radiation................................................................. 60

18.3.1 Planck’s law ................................................................ 61

18.3.2 Wien’s displacement law................................................ 62

18.3.3 Stefan-Boltzmann's law ................................................. 63

18.3.4 Non-blackbody emitters................................................. 64

18.4

Infrared semi-transparent materials............................................. 66

The measurement formula................................................................ 67

Emissivity tables ............................................................................. 71

20.1

References............................................................................ 71

20.2

Tables .................................................................................. 71

#T559828; r. AD/23843/24541; en-US viii

1 Disclaimers

1.1

Legal disclaimer

All products manufactured by FLIR Systems are warranted against defective materials and workmanship for a period of one (1) year from the delivery date of the original purchase, provided such products have been under normal storage, use and service, and in accordance with FLIR Systems instruction.

Uncooled handheld infrared cameras manufactured by FLIR Systems are warranted against defective materials and workmanship for a period of two

(2) years from the delivery date of the original purchase, provided such products have been under normal storage, use and service, and in accordance with FLIR Systems instruction, and provided that the camera has been registered within 60 days of original purchase.

Detectors for uncooled handheld infrared cameras manufactured by FLIR

Systems are warranted against defective materials and workmanship for a period of ten (10) years from the delivery date of the original purchase, provided such products have been under normal storage, use and service, and in accordance with FLIR Systems instruction, and provided that the camera has been registered within 60 days of original purchase.

Products which are not manufactured by FLIR Systems but included in systems delivered by FLIR Systems to the original purchaser, carry the warranty, if any, of the particular supplier only. FLIR Systems has no responsibility whatsoever for such products.

The warranty extends only to the original purchaser and is not transferable. It is not applicable to any product which has been subjected to misuse, neglect, accident or abnormal conditions of operation. Expendable parts are excluded from the warranty.

In the case of a defect in a product covered by this warranty the product must not be further used in order to prevent additional damage. The purchaser shall promptly report any defect to FLIR Systems or this warranty will not apply.

FLIR Systems will, at its option, repair or replace any such defective product free of charge if, upon inspection, it proves to be defective in material or workmanship and provided that it is returned to FLIR Systems within the said oneyear period.

FLIR Systems has no other obligation or liability for defects than those set forth above.

No other warranty is expressed or implied. FLIR Systems specifically disclaims the implied warranties of merchantability and fitness for a particular purpose.

FLIR Systems shall not be liable for any direct, indirect, special, incidental or consequential loss or damage, whether based on contract, tort or any other legal theory.

This warranty shall be governed by Swedish law.

Any dispute, controversy or claim arising out of or in connection with this warranty, shall be finally settled by arbitration in accordance with the Rules of the

Arbitration Institute of the Stockholm Chamber of Commerce. The place of arbitration shall be Stockholm. The language to be used in the arbitral proceedings shall be English.

1.2

1.5

Usage statistics

FLIR Systems reserves the right to gather anonymous usage statistics to help maintain and improve the quality of our software and services.

1.3

Changes to registry

The registry entry HKEY_LOCAL_MACHINE\SYSTEM\CurrentControlSet

\Control\Lsa\LmCompatibilityLevel will be automatically changed to level 2 if the FLIR Camera Monitor service detects a FLIR camera connected to the computer with a USB cable. The modification will only be executed if the camera device implements a remote network service that supports network logons.

1.4

U.S. Government Regulations

This product may be subject to U.S. Export Regulations. Please send any inquiries to [email protected].

Copyright

© 2015, FLIR Systems, Inc. All rights reserved worldwide. No parts of the software including source code may be reproduced, transmitted, transcribed or translated into any language or computer language in any form or by any means, electronic, magnetic, optical, manual or otherwise, without the prior written permission of FLIR Systems.

The documentation must not, in whole or part, be copied, photocopied, reproduced, translated or transmitted to any electronic medium or machine readable form without prior consent, in writing, from FLIR Systems.

Names and marks appearing on the products herein are either registered trademarks or trademarks of FLIR Systems and/or its subsidiaries. All other trademarks, trade names or company names referenced herein are used for identification only and are the property of their respective owners.

1.6

Quality assurance

The Quality Management System under which these products are developed and manufactured has been certified in accordance with the ISO 9001 standard.

FLIR Systems is committed to a policy of continuous development; therefore we reserve the right to make changes and improvements on any of the products without prior notice.

1.7

Patents

One or several of the following patents and/or design patents may apply to the products and/or features. Additional pending patents and/or pending design patents may also apply.

000279476-0001; 000439161; 000499579-0001; 000653423; 000726344;

000859020; 001106306-0001; 001707738; 001707746; 001707787;

001776519; 001954074; 002021543; 002058180; 002249953; 002531178;

0600574-8; 1144833; 1182246; 1182620; 1285345; 1299699; 1325808;

1336775; 1391114; 1402918; 1404291; 1411581; 1415075; 1421497;

1458284; 1678485; 1732314; 2106017; 2107799; 2381417; 3006596;

3006597; 466540; 483782; 484155; 4889913; 5177595; 60122153.2;

602004011681.5-08; 6707044; 68657; 7034300; 7110035; 7154093;

7157705; 7237946; 7312822; 7332716; 7336823; 7544944; 7667198;

7809258 B2; 7826736; 8,153,971; 8,823,803; 8,853,631; 8018649 B2;

8212210 B2; 8289372; 8354639 B2; 8384783; 8520970; 8565547; 8595689;

8599262; 8654239; 8680468; 8803093; D540838; D549758; D579475;

D584755; D599,392; D615,113; D664,580; D664,581; D665,004; D665,440;

D677298; D710,424 S; D718801; DI6702302-9; DI6903617-9; DI7002221-6;

DI7002891-5; DI7002892-3; DI7005799-0; DM/057692; DM/061609; EP

2115696 B1; EP2315433; SE 0700240-5; US 8340414 B2; ZL

201330267619.5; ZL01823221.3; ZL01823226.4; ZL02331553.9;

ZL02331554.7; ZL200480034894.0; ZL200530120994.2;

ZL200610088759.5; ZL200630130114.4; ZL200730151141.4;

ZL200730339504.7; ZL200820105768.8; ZL200830128581.2;

ZL200880105236.4; ZL200880105769.2; ZL200930190061.9;

ZL201030176127.1; ZL201030176130.3; ZL201030176157.2;

ZL201030595931.3; ZL201130442354.9; ZL201230471744.3;

ZL201230620731.8.

•

•

•

1.8

EULA Terms

•

•

You have acquired a device (“INFRARED CAMERA”) that includes software licensed by FLIR Systems AB from Microsoft Licensing, GP or its affiliates (“MS”). Those installed software products of MS origin, as well as associated media, printed materials, and “online” or electronic documentation (“SOFTWARE”) are protected by international intellectual property laws and treaties. The SOFTWARE is licensed, not sold. All rights reserved.

IF YOU DO NOT AGREE TO THIS END USER LICENSE AGREEMENT

(“EULA”), DO NOT USE THE DEVICE OR COPY THE SOFTWARE. IN-

STEAD, PROMPTLY CONTACT FLIR Systems AB FOR INSTRUC-

TIONS ON RETURN OF THE UNUSED DEVICE(S) FOR A REFUND.

ANY USE OF THE SOFTWARE, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO

USE ON THE DEVICE, WILL CONSTITUTE YOUR AGREEMENT TO

THIS EULA (OR RATIFICATION OF ANY PREVIOUS CONSENT).

GRANT OF SOFTWARE LICENSE. This EULA grants you the following license:

•

•

•

•

•

You may use the SOFTWARE only on the DEVICE.

NOT FAULT TOLERANT. THE SOFTWARE IS NOT FAULT TOL-

ERANT. FLIR Systems AB HAS INDEPENDENTLY DETERMINED

HOW TO USE THE SOFTWARE IN THE DEVICE, AND MS HAS

RELIED UPON FLIR Systems AB TO CONDUCT SUFFICIENT

TESTING TO DETERMINE THAT THE SOFTWARE IS SUITABLE

FOR SUCH USE.

NO WARRANTIES FOR THE SOFTWARE. THE SOFTWARE is provided “AS IS” and with all faults. THE ENTIRE RISK AS TO

SATISFACTORY QUALITY, PERFORMANCE, ACCURACY, AND

EFFORT (INCLUDING LACK OF NEGLIGENCE) IS WITH YOU.

ALSO, THERE IS NO WARRANTY AGAINST INTERFERENCE

WITH YOUR ENJOYMENT OF THE SOFTWARE OR AGAINST

INFRINGEMENT. IF YOU HAVE RECEIVED ANY WARRANTIES

REGARDING THE DEVICE OR THE SOFTWARE, THOSE WAR-

RANTIES DO NOT ORIGINATE FROM, AND ARE NOT BINDING

ON, MS.

No Liability for Certain Damages. EXCEPT AS PROHIBITED BY

LAW, MS SHALL HAVE NO LIABILITY FOR ANY INDIRECT,

SPECIAL, CONSEQUENTIAL OR INCIDENTAL DAMAGES

ARISING FROM OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PER-

FORMANCE OF THE SOFTWARE. THIS LIMITATION SHALL

APPLY EVEN IF ANY REMEDY FAILS OF ITS ESSENTIAL PUR-

POSE. IN NO EVENT SHALL MS BE LIABLE FOR ANY

AMOUNT IN EXCESS OF U.S. TWO HUNDRED FIFTY DOL-

LARS (U.S.$250.00).

Limitations on Reverse Engineering, Decompilation, and Dis-

assembly. You may not reverse engineer, decompile, or disassemble the SOFTWARE, except and only to the extent that such activity is expressly permitted by applicable law notwithstanding this limitation.

SOFTWARE TRANSFER ALLOWED BUT WITH RESTRIC-

TIONS. You may permanently transfer rights under this EULA only as part of a permanent sale or transfer of the Device, and only if the recipient agrees to this EULA. If the SOFTWARE is an upgrade, any transfer must also include all prior versions of the

SOFTWARE.

EXPORT RESTRICTIONS. You acknowledge that SOFTWARE is subject to U.S. export jurisdiction. You agree to comply with all applicable international and national laws that apply to the SOFT-

WARE, including the U.S. Export Administration Regulations, as well as end-user, end-use and destination restrictions issued by U.

S. and other governments. For additional information see http:// www.microsoft.com/exporting/.

1.9

EULA Terms

Qt4 Core and Qt4 GUI, Copyright ©2013 Nokia Corporation and FLIR Systems AB. This Qt library is a free software; you can redistribute it and/or modify it under the terms of the GNU Lesser General Public License as published by the Free Software Foundation; either version 2.1 of the License, or (at your option) any later version. This library is distributed in the hope that it will be useful, but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of

MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. See the

GNU Lesser General Public License, http://www.gnu.org/licenses/lgpl-2.1.

#T559828; r. AD/23843/24541; en-US 1

1 Disclaimers

html. The source code for the libraries Qt4 Core and Qt4 GUI may be requested from FLIR Systems AB.

#T559828; r. AD/23843/24541; en-US 2

2

Safety information

WARNING

Applicability: Cameras with one or more batteries.

Do not disassemble or do a modification to the battery. The battery contains safety and protection devices which, if damage occurs, can cause the battery to become hot, or cause an explosion or an ignition.

WARNING


If there is a leak from the battery and you get the fluid in your eyes, do not rub your eyes. Flush well with water and immediately get medical care. The battery fluid can cause injury to your eyes if you do not do this.

WARNING


Do not continue to charge the battery if it does not become charged in the specified charging time. If you continue to charge the battery, it can become hot and cause an explosion or ignition. Injury to persons can occur.

WARNING


Only use the correct equipment to remove the electrical power from the battery. If you do not use the correct equipment, you can decrease the performance or the life cycle of the battery. If you do not use the correct equipment, an incorrect flow of current to the battery can occur. This can cause the battery to become hot, or cause an explosion. Injury to persons can occur.

WARNING

Make sure that you read all applicable MSDS (Material Safety Data Sheets) and warning labels on containers before you use a liquid. The liquids can be dangerous. Injury to persons can occur.

CAUTION

Do not point the infrared camera (with or without the lens cover) at strong energy sources, for example, devices that cause laser radiation, or the sun. This can have an unwanted effect on the accuracy of the camera. It can also cause damage to the detector in the camera.

CAUTION

Do not use the camera in temperatures more than +50°C (+122°F), unless other information is specified in the user documentation or technical data. High temperatures can cause damage to the camera.

CAUTION


Do not attach the batteries directly to a car’s cigarette lighter socket, unless FLIR Systems supplies a specific adapter to connect the batteries to a cigarette lighter socket. Damage to the batteries can occur.

CAUTION


Do not connect the positive terminal and the negative terminal of the battery to each other with a metal object (such as wire). Damage to the batteries can occur.

CAUTION


Do not get water or salt water on the battery, or permit the battery to become wet. Damage to the batteries can occur.

#T559828; r. AD/23843/24541; en-US 3

2 Safety information

CAUTION


Do not make holes in the battery with objects. Damage to the battery can occur.

CAUTION


Do not hit the battery with a hammer. Damage to the battery can occur.

CAUTION


Do not put your foot on the battery, hit it or cause shocks to it. Damage to the battery can occur.

CAUTION


Do not put the batteries in or near a fire, or into direct sunlight. When the battery becomes hot, the builtin safety equipment becomes energized and can stop the battery charging procedure. If the battery becomes hot, damage can occur to the safety equipment and this can cause more heat, damage or ignition of the battery.

CAUTION


Do not put the battery on a fire or increase the temperature of the battery with heat. Damage to the battery and injury to persons can occur.

CAUTION


Do not put the battery on or near fires, stoves, or other high-temperature locations. Damage to the battery and injury to persons can occur.

CAUTION


Do not solder directly onto the battery. Damage to the battery can occur.

CAUTION


Do not use the battery if, when you use, charge, or put the battery in storage, there is an unusual smell from the battery, the battery feels hot, changes color, changes shape, or is in an unusual condition.

Speak with your sales office if one or more of these problems occurs. Damage to the battery and injury to persons can occur.

CAUTION


Only use a specified battery charger when you charge the battery. Damage to the battery can occur if you do not do this.

CAUTION


The temperature range through which you can charge the battery is ±0°C to +45°C (+32°F to +113°F), unless other information is specified in the user documentation or technical data. If you charge the battery at temperatures out of this range, it can cause the battery to become hot or to break. It can also decrease the performance or the life cycle of the battery.

#T559828; r. AD/23843/24541; en-US 4

2 Safety information

CAUTION


The temperature range through which you can remove the electrical power from the battery is -15°C to

+50°C (+5°F to +122°F), unless other information is specified in the user documentation or technical data. If you operate the battery out of this temperature range, it can decrease the performance or the life cycle of the battery.

CAUTION


When the battery is worn, apply insulation to the terminals with adhesive tape or equivalent materials before you discard it. Damage to the battery and injury to persons can occur if you do not do this.

CAUTION


Remove any water or moisture on the battery before you install it. Damage to the battery can occur if you do not do this.

CAUTION

Do not apply solvents or equivalent liquids to the camera, the cables, or other items. Damage to the battery and injury to persons can occur.

CAUTION

Be careful when you clean the infrared lens. The lens has an anti-reflective coating which is easily damaged. Damage to the infrared lens can occur.

CAUTION

Do not use too much force to clean the infrared lens. This can cause damage to the anti-reflective coating.

NOTE

The encapsulation rating is only applicable when all the openings on the camera are sealed with their correct covers, hatches, or caps. This includes the compartments for data storage, batteries, and connectors.

#T559828; r. AD/23843/24541; en-US 5

3 Notice to user

3.1

User-to-user forums

Exchange ideas, problems, and infrared solutions with fellow thermographers around the world in our user-to-user forums. To go to the forums, visit: http://www.infraredtraining.com/community/boards/

3.2

Calibration

We recommend that you send in the camera for calibration once a year. Contact your local sales office for instructions on where to send the camera.

3.3

Accuracy

For very accurate results, we recommend that you wait 5 minutes after you have started the camera before measuring a temperature.

3.4

Disposal of electronic waste

As with most electronic products, this equipment must be disposed of in an environmentally friendly way, and in accordance with existing regulations for electronic waste.

Please contact your FLIR Systems representative for more details.

3.5

Training

To read about infrared training, visit:

• http://www.infraredtraining.com

• http://www.irtraining.com

• http://www.irtraining.eu

3.6

Documentation updates

Our manuals are updated several times per year, and we also issue product-critical notifications of changes on a regular basis.

To access the latest manuals and notifications, go to the Download tab at: http://support.flir.com

It only takes a few minutes to register online. In the download area you will also find the latest releases of manuals for our other products, as well as manuals for our historical and obsolete products.

3.7

Important note about this manual

FLIR Systems issues generic manuals that cover several cameras within a model line.

This means that this manual may contain descriptions and explanations that do not apply to your particular camera model.

3.8

Note about authoritative versions

The authoritative version of this publication is English. In the event of divergences due to translation errors, the English text has precedence.

Any late changes are first implemented in English.

#T559828; r. AD/23843/24541; en-US 6

4

Customer help

4.1

General

For customer help, visit: http://support.flir.com

4.2

Submitting a question

To submit a question to the customer help team, you must be a registered user. It only takes a few minutes to register online. If you only want to search the knowledgebase for existing questions and answers, you do not need to be a registered user.

When you want to submit a question, make sure that you have the following information to hand:

#T559828; r. AD/23843/24541; en-US 7

4 Customer help

• The camera model

• The camera serial number

• The communication protocol, or method, between the camera and your device (for example, HDMI, Ethernet, USB, or FireWire)

• Device type (PC/Mac/iPhone/iPad/Android device, etc.)

• Version of any programs from FLIR Systems

• Full name, publication number, and revision number of the manual

4.3

Downloads

On the customer help site you can also download the following:

• Firmware updates for your infrared camera.

• Program updates for your PC/Mac software.

• Freeware and evaluation versions of PC/Mac software.

• User documentation for current, obsolete, and historical products.

• Mechanical drawings (in *.dxf and *.pdf format).

• Cad data models (in *.stp format).

• Application stories.

• Technical datasheets.

• Product catalogs.

#T559828; r. AD/23843/24541; en-US 8

5

Quick Start Guide

5.1

Procedure

Follow this procedure:

1. Charge the battery. You can do this in three different ways:

• Charge the battery using the FLIR stand-alone battery charger.

• Charge the battery using the FLIR power supply.

• Charge the battery using a USB cable connected to a computer.

NOTE

Charging the camera using a USB cable connected to a computer takes considerably longer than using the FLIR power supply or the FLIR stand-alone battery charger.

2. Push the On/off button to turn on the camera.

3. Open the lens cap by pushing the lens cap lever.

4. Aim the camera toward your target of interest.

5. Pull the trigger to save an image.

(Optional steps)

6. Install FLIR Tools on your computer.

7. Start FLIR Tools.

8. Connect the camera to your computer, using the USB cable.

9. Import the images into FLIR Tools.

10. Create a PDF report in FLIR Tools.

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6 List of accessories and services

Product name

Battery

Battery charger incl power supply

Car charger

FLIR Tools+ (license only)

Hard transport case FLIR Ex-series

One year extended warranty for Ex or ix series

Pouch FLIR Ex and ix series

Power supply USB-micro

Tool belt

USB cable Std A <-> Micro B

Part number

T198530

T198531

T198532

T198583

T198528

T199806

T198529

T198534

T911093

T198533

NOTE

FLIR Systems reserves the right to discontinue models, parts or accessories, and other items, or to change specifications at any time without prior notice.

#T559828; r. AD/23843/24541; en-US 10

7

Description

7.1

Camera parts

7.1.1

Figure

7.1.2

Explanation

1. Digital camera lens.

2. Infrared lens.

3. Lever to open and close the lens cap.

4. Trigger to save images.

5. Battery.

7.2

Keypad

7.2.1

Figure

7.2.2

Explanation

1. Camera screen.

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7 Description

2. Archive button .

Function:

• Push to open the image archive.

3. Navigation pad.

Function:

• Push left/right or up/down to navigate in menus, submenus, and dialog boxes.

• Push the center to confirm.

4. Cancel button .

Function:

• Push to cancel a choice.

• Push to go back into the menu system.

5. On/off button

Function:

• Push the button to turn on the camera.

• Push and hold the button for less than 5 seconds to put the camera in standby mode. The camera then automatically turns off after 48 hours.

• Push and hold the button for more than 10 seconds to turn off the camera.

7.3

Connectors

7.3.1

Figure

7.3.2

Explanation

The purpose of this USB mini-B connector is the following:

• Charging the battery using the FLIR power supply.

• Charging the battery using a USB cable connected to a computer.

NOTE

Charging the camera using a USB cable connected to a computer takes considerably longer than using the FLIR power supply or the FLIR stand-alone battery charger.

• Moving images from the camera to a computer for further analysis in FLIR Tools.

NOTE

Install FLIR Tools on your computer before you move the images.

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7 Description

7.4

Screen elements

7.4.1

Figure

7.4.2

Explanation

1. Main menu toolbar.

2. Submenu toolbar.

3. Spotmeter.

4. Result table.

5. Status icons.

6. Temperature scale.

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8

Operation

8.1

Charging the battery

8.1.1

Charging the battery using the FLIR power supply


1. Connect the power supply to a wall outlet.

2. Connect the power supply cable to the USB connector on the camera.

NOTE

The charging time for a fully depleted battery is 2 hours.

8.1.2

Charging the battery using the FLIR stand-alone battery charger.


1. Connect the stand-alone battery charger to a wall outlet.

2. Remove the battery from the camera.

3. Put the battery into the stand-alone battery charger.

NOTE

• The charging time for a fully depleted battery is 2 hours.

• The battery is being charged when the blue LED is flashing.

• The battery is fully charged when the blue LED is continuous.

8.1.3

Charging the battery using a USB cable


1. Connect the camera to a computer using a USB cable.

NOTE

• To charge the camera, the computer must be turned on.

• Charging the camera using a USB cable connected to a computer takes considerably longer than using the FLIR power supply or the FLIR stand-alone battery charger.

8.2

Turning on and turning off the camera

• Push the button to turn on the camera.

• Push and hold the button for less than 5 seconds to put the camera in standby mode. The camera then automatically turns off after 48 hours.

• Push and hold the button for more than 10 seconds to turn off the camera.

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8 Operation

8.3

Saving an image

8.3.1

General

You can save multiple images to the internal camera memory.

8.3.2

Image capacity

Approximately 500 images can be saved to the internal camera memory.

8.3.3

Naming convention

The naming convention for images is FLIRxxxx.jpg, where xxxx is a unique counter.

8.3.4

Procedure


1. To save an image, pull the trigger.

8.4

Recalling an image

8.4.1

General

When you save an image, it is stored in the internal camera memory. To display the image again, you can recall it from the internal camera memory.

8.4.2

Procedure


1. Push the Archive button .

2. Push the navigation pad left/right or up/down to select the image you want to view.

3. Push the center of the navigation pad. This displays the selected image.

4. To return to live mode, push the Cancel button repeatedly or push the Archive button .

8.5

Deleting an image

8.5.1

General

You can delete one or more images from the internal camera memory.

8.5.2

Procedure


1. Push the Archive button .

2. Push the navigation pad left/right or up/down to select the image you want to view.

3. Push the center of the navigation pad. This displays the selected image.

4. Push the center of the navigation pad. This displays a toolbar.

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8 Operation

5. On the toolbar, select Delete .

8.6

Deleting all images

8.6.1

General

You can delete all images from the internal camera memory.

8.6.2

Procedure



2. On the toolbar, select Settings . This displays a dialog box.

3. In the dialog box, select Device settings. This displays a dialog box.

4. In the dialog box, select Reset options. This displays a dialog box.

5. In the dialog box, select Delete all saved images.

8.7

Measuring a temperature using a spotmeter

8.7.1

General

You can measure a temperature using a spotmeter. This will display the temperature at the position of the spotmeter on the screen.

8.7.2

Procedure



2. On the toolbar, select Measurement . This displays a toolbar.

3. On the toolbar, select Center spot .

The temperature at the position of the spotmeter will now be displayed in the top left corner of the screen.

8.8

Measuring the hottest temperature within an area

8.8.1

General

You can measure the hottest temperature within an area. This displays a moving spotmeter that indicates the hottest temperature.

8.8.2

Procedure




3. On the toolbar, select Auto hot spot .

8.9

Measuring the coldest temperature within an area

8.9.1

General

You can measure the coldest temperature within an area. This displays a moving spotmeter that indicates the coldest temperature.

8.9.2

Procedure




3. On the toolbar, select Auto cold spot .

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8 Operation

8.10

Hiding measurement tools

8.10.1

Procedure




3. On the toolbar, select No measurements .

8.11

Changing the color palette

8.11.1

General

You can change the color palette that the camera uses to display different temperatures.

A different palette can make it easier to analyze an image.

8.11.2

Procedure



2. On the toolbar, select Color . This displays a toolbar.

3. On the toolbar, select a new color palette.

8.12

Working with color alarms

8.12.1

General

By using color alarms (isotherms), anomalies can easily be discovered in an infrared image. The isotherm command applies a contrasting color to all pixels with a temperature above or below the specified temperature level.

8.12.2

Image examples

This table explains the different color alarms (isotherms).

Image

Color alarm

Below alarm

Above alarm

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8 Operation

8.12.3

Procedure



2. On the toolbar, select Color . This displays a toolbar.

3. On the toolbar, select the type of alarm:

• Below alarm .

• Above alarm .

4. Push the center of the navigation pad. The threshold temperature is displayed at the bottom of the screen.

5. To change the threshold temperature, push the navigation pad up/down.

8.13

Changing image mode

8.13.1

General

The camera can operate in five different image modes:

• Thermal MSX (Multi Spectral Dynamic Imaging): The camera displays an infrared image where the edges of the objects are enhanced.

• Thermal: The camera displays a fully thermal image.

• Picture-in-picture: The camera displays a digital camera image with a superimposed infrared image frame.

• Thermal blending: The camera displays a blended image that uses a mix of infrared pixels and digital photo pixels. The mixing level can be adjusted.

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8 Operation

• Digital camera: The camera displays a digital camera image.

To display a good fusion image (Thermal MSX, Picture-in-picture, and Thermal blending modes), the camera must make adjustments to compensate for the small difference in position between the digital camera lens and the infrared lens. To adjust the image accurately, the camera requires the alignment distance (i.e., the distance to the object).

8.13.2

Procedure



2. On the toolbar, select Image mode . This displays a toolbar.

3. On the toolbar, select one of the following:

• Thermal MSX .

• Thermal .

• Picture-in-picture .

• Thermal blending . This displays a dialog box where you can select the mixing level.

• Digital camera .

4. If you have selected the Thermal MSX, Picture-in-picture, or Thermal blending mode, also set the distance to the object by doing the following:

• On the Image mode toolbar, select Alignment distance . This displays a dialog box.

• In the dialog box, select the distance to the object.

8.14

Changing the temperature scale mode

8.14.1

General

The camera can, depending on the camera model, operate in different temperature scale modes:

• Auto mode: In this mode, the camera is continuously auto-adjusted for the best image brightness and contrast.

• Lock mode: In this mode, the camera locks the temperature span and the temperature level.

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8 Operation

• Manual mode: This mode allows manual adjustments of the temperature span and the temperature level.

8.14.2

When to use Lock mode

A typical situation where you would want to use Lock mode is when looking for temperature anomalies in two items with a similar design or construction.

For example, if you are looking at two cables, where you suspect one is overheated, working in Lock mode will clearly show that one is overheated. The higher temperature in that cable would create a lighter color for the higher temperature.

If you use Auto mode instead, the color for the two items will appear the same.

8.14.3

When to use Manual mode

8.14.3.1

Example 1

This figure shows two infrared images of cable connection points. The left image has been auto-adjusted, which makes a correct analysis of the circled cable difficult. You can analyze this cable in more detail if you:

• Change the temperature scale maximum limit.

• Change the temperature scale minimum limit.

• Change the temperature scale maximum and minimum limits.

In the right image, the maximum and minimum temperature levels have been changed to temperature levels near the object. On the temperature scale to the right of each image you can see how the temperature levels were changed.

8.14.3.2

Example 2

This figure shows two infrared images of an isolator in a power line.

In the left image, the cold sky and the power line structure are recorded at a minimum temperature of –26.0°C (–14.8°F). In the right image, the maximum and minimum temperature levels have been changed to temperature levels near the isolator. This makes it easier to analyze the temperature variations in the isolator.

8.14.4

Procedure



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8 Operation

2. On the toolbar, select Temperature scale . This displays a toolbar.

3. On the toolbar, select one of the following:

• Auto .

• Lock .

• Manual .

4. To change the temperature span and the temperature level in Manual mode, do the following:

• Push the navigation pad left/right to select (highlight) the maximum and/or minimum temperature.

• Push the navigation pad up/down to change the value of the highlighted temperature.

8.15

Setting the emissivity as a surface property

8.15.1

General

To measure temperatures accurately, the camera must know what kind of surface you are measuring. You can choose between the following surface properties:

• Matt.

• Semi-matt.

• Semi-glossy.

For more information about emissivity, see section 16 Thermographic measurement

techniques, page 52.

8.15.2

Procedure




3. In the dialog box, select Measurement parameters. This displays a dialog box.

4. In the dialog box, select Emissivity. This displays a dialog box.

5. In the dialog box, select one of the following:

• Matt.

• Semi-matt.

• Semi-glossy.

8.16

Setting the emissivity as a custom material

8.16.1

General

Instead of specifying a surface property as matt, semi-matt or semi-glossy, you can specify a custom material from a list of materials.



8.16.2

Procedure






5. In the dialog box, select Custom material. This displays a list of materials with known emissivities.

6. In the list, select the material.

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8 Operation

8.17

Changing the emissivity as a custom value

8.17.1

General

For very precise measurements, you may need to set the emissivity, instead of selecting a surface property or a custom material. You also need to understand how emissivity and reflectivity affect measurements, rather than just simply selecting a surface property.

Emissivity is a property that indicates how much radiation originates from an object as opposed to being reflected by it. A lower value indicates that a larger proportion is being reflected, while a high value indicates that a lower proportion is being reflected.

Polished stainless steel, for example, has an emissivity of 0.14, while a structured PVC floor typically has an emissivity of 0.93.



8.17.2

Procedure






5. In the dialog box, select Custom value. This displays a dialog box where you can set a custom value.

8.18

Changing the reflected apparent temperature

8.18.1

General

This parameter is used to compensate for the radiation reflected by the object. If the emissivity is low and the object temperature significantly different from that of the reflected temperature, it will be important to set and compensate for the reflected apparent temperature correctly.

For more information about reflected apparent temperature, see section 16 Thermo-

graphic measurement techniques, page 52.

8.18.2

Procedure





4. In the dialog box, select Reflected apparent temperature. This displays a dialog box where you can set a value.

8.19

Changing the distance between the object and the camera

8.19.1

General

To measure temperatures accurately, the camera requires the distance between the camera and the object.

8.19.2

Procedure





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8 Operation

4. In the dialog box, select Distance. This displays a dialog box where you can select a distance.

8.20

Performing a non-uniformity correction (NUC)

8.20.1

What is a non-uniformity correction?

A non-uniformity correction is an image correction carried out by the camera software to

compensate for different sensitivities of detector elements and other optical and geometrical disturbances

1

.

8.20.2

When to perform a non-uniformity correction?

The non-uniformity correction process should be carried out whenever the output image becomes spatially noisy. The output can become spatially noisy when the ambient temperature changes (such as from day to night operation, and vice versa).

8.20.3

Procedure

To perform a non-uniformity correction, push and hold the Image archive button more than 2 seconds.

8.21

Changing the settings

8.21.1

General

You can change a variety of settings for the camera.

The Settings menu includes the following:

• Measurement parameters.

• Save options.

• Device settings.

8.21.1.1

Measurement parameters

• Emissivity.

• Reflected temperature.

• Distance.

8.21.1.2

Save options

• Photo as separate JPEG: When this menu command is selected, the digital photo from the visual camera is saved at its full field of view as a separate JPEG image.

8.21.1.3

Device settings

• Language, time & units:

• Language.

• Temperature unit.

• Distance unit.

• Date & time.

• Date & time format.

• Reset options:

• Reset default camera mode.

• Reset device settings to factory default.

• Delete all saved images.

• Auto power off.

• Display intensity.

for

1. Definition from the impending international adoption of DIN 54190-3 (Non-destructive testing – Thermographic testing – Part 3: Terms and definitions).

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8 Operation

• Demonstration mode: This menu command provides a camera mode that displays various images without any user interventions. The camera mode is intended for demonstration purposes or when displaying the camera in a store.

• Off.

• Electrical applications.

• Building applications.

• Camera information: This menu command displays various items of information about the camera, such as the model, serial number, and software version.

8.21.2

Procedure




3. In the dialog box, select the setting that you want to change and use the navigation pad to display additional dialog boxes.

8.22

Updating the camera

8.22.1

General

To take advantage of our latest camera firmware, it is important that you keep your camera updated. You update your camera using FLIR Tools.

8.22.2

Procedure


1. Start FLIR Tools.

2. Start the camera.

3. Connect the camera to the computer using the USB cable.

4. On the Help menu in FLIR Tools, click Check for updates.

5. Follow the on-screen instructions.

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9 Technical data

9.1

Online field-of-view calculator

Please visit http://support.flir.com

and click the photo of the camera series for field-ofview tables for all lens–camera combinations.

9.2

Note about technical data

FLIR Systems reserves the right to change specifications at any time without prior notice.

Please check http://support.flir.com

for latest changes.

9.3

Note about authoritative versions

The authoritative version of this publication is English. In the event of divergences due to translation errors, the English text has precedence.

Any late changes are first implemented in English.

#T559828; r. AD/23843/24541; en-US 25


9.4

FLIR E4

P/N: 63901-0101

Rev.: 22369

General description

The FLIR Ex series cameras are point-and-shoot infrared cameras that give you access to the infrared world. A FLIR Ex series camera is an affordable replacement for an infrared thermometer, providing a thermal image with temperature information in every pixel. The new MSX and visual formats make the cameras incomparably easy to use.

The FLIR Ex series cameras are user-friendly, compact, and rugged, for use in harsh environments.

The wide field of view makes them the perfect choice for building applications.

Benefits:

• Easy to use: The FLIR Ex series cameras are fully automatic and focus-free with an intuitive interface for simple measurements in thermal, visual, or MSX mode.

• Compact and rugged: The FLIR Ex series cameras’ low weight of 0.575 kg and the accessory belt pouch make them easy to bring along at all times. Their rugged design can withstand a 2 m drop test, and ensures reliability, even in harsh environments.

• Ground breaking affordability: The FLIR Ex series cameras are the most affordable infrared cameras on the market.

Imaging and optical data

IR resolution

Thermal sensitivity/NETD

Field of view (FOV)

Minimum focus distance

Spatial resolution (IFOV)

F-number

Image frequency

Focus

Detector data

Detector type

Spectral range

80 × 60 pixels

<0.15°C (0.27°F) / <150 mK

45° × 34°

0.5 m (1.6 ft.)

10.3 mrad

1.5

9 Hz

Focus free

Focal plane array (FPA), uncooled microbolometer

7.5–13 µm

Image presentation

Display

Image adjustment

3.0 in. 320 × 240 color LCD

Automatic adjust/lock image

Image presentation modes

Image modes Thermal MSX, Thermal, Thermal blending, Digital camera.

IR image with enhanced detail presentation Multi Spectral Dynamic Imaging (MSX)

Measurement

Object temperature range

Accuracy

–20°C to +250°C (–4°F to +482°F)

±2°C (±3.6°F) or ±2% of reading, for ambient temperature 10°C to 35°C (+50°F to 95°F) and object temperature above +0°C (+32°F)

Measurement analysis

Spotmeter

Emissivity correction

Emissivity table

Reflected apparent temperature correction

Center spot

Variable from 0.1 to 1.0

Emissivity table of predefined materials

Automatic, based on input of reflected temperature

#T559828; r. AD/23843/24541; en-US 26


Set-up

Color palettes

Set-up commands

Storage of images

File formats

Data communication interfaces

Interfaces

Power system

Battery type

Battery voltage

Battery operating time

Charging system

Charging time

Power management

AC operation

Environmental data

Operating temperature range

Storage temperature range

Humidity (operating and storage)

EMC

Encapsulation

Shock

Vibration

Drop

Physical data

Camera weight, incl. battery

Camera size (L × W × H)

Color

Certifications

Certification

Black and white, iron and rainbow

Local adaptation of units, language, date and time formats

Standard JPEG, 14-bit measurement data included

USB Micro: Data transfer to and from PC and

Mac device

Rechargeable Li ion battery

3.6 V

Approx. 4 hours at +25°C (+77°F) ambient temperature and typical use

Battery is charged inside the camera or in specific charger.

2.5 hours to 90% capacity in camera. 2 hours in charger.

Automatic shut-down

AC adapter, 90–260 VAC input, 5 VDC output to camera

–15°C to +50°C (+5°F to +122°F)

–40°C to +70°C (–40°F to +158°F)

IEC 60068-2-30/24 h 95% relative humidity

• WEEE 2012/19/EC

• RoHs 2011/65/EC

• C-Tick

• EN 61000-6-3

• EN 61000-6-2

• FCC 47 CFR Part 15 Class B

IP 54 (IEC 60529)

25 g (IEC 60068-2-27)

2 g (IEC 60068-2-6)

2 m (6.6 ft.)

0.575 kg (1.27 lb.)

244 × 95 × 140 mm (9.6 × 3.7 × 5.5 in.)

Black and gray

UL, CSA, CE, PSE and CCC

#T559828; r. AD/23843/24541; en-US 27


Shipping information

Packaging, type

List of contents

Packaging, weight

Packaging, size

EAN-13

UPC-12

Country of origin

Supplies & accessories:

• T911093; Tool belt

• T198528; Hard transport case FLIR Ex-series

• T198530; Battery

• T198531; Battery charger incl power supply

• T198532; Car charger

• T198534; Power supply USB-micro

• T198529; Pouch FLIR Ex and ix series

• T198533; USB cable Std A <-> Micro B

• T198583; FLIR Tools+ (license only)

Cardboard box

• Infrared camera

• Hard transport case

• Battery (inside camera)

• USB cable

• Power supply/charger with EU, UK, US and

Australian plugs

• User documentation CD-ROM

• Printed documentation

• FLIR Tools download card

2.9 kg (6.4 lb.)

385 × 165 × 315 mm (15.2 × 6.5 × 12.4 in.)

4743254000995

845188004941

Estonia

#T559828; r. AD/23843/24541; en-US 28


9.5

FLIR E5

P/N: 63905-0501

Rev.: 22369





Benefits:





IR resolution


Field of view (FOV)



F-number

Image frequency

Focus

Detector data

Detector type

Spectral range

120 × 90 pixels

<0.10°C (0.27°F) / <100 mK

45° × 34°

0.5 m (1.6 ft.)

6.9 mrad

1.5

9 Hz

Focus free


7.5–13 µm


Display

Image adjustment

3.0 in. 320 × 240 color LCD

Automatic adjust/lock image


Image modes Thermal MSX, Thermal, Thermal blending, Digital camera.

IR image with enhanced detail presentation Multi Spectral Dynamic Imaging (MSX)

Measurement


Accuracy

–20°C to +250°C (–4°F to +482°F)



Spotmeter

Area


Center spot

Box with max./min.


#T559828; r. AD/23843/24541; en-US 29



Emissivity table


Set-up

Color palettes

Set-up commands


File formats


Interfaces

Power system

Battery type

Battery voltage


Charging system

Charging time

Power management

AC operation





EMC

Encapsulation

Shock

Vibration

Drop

Physical data



Color

Certifications

Certification







Mac device


3.6 V




Automatic shut-down


–15°C to +50°C (+5°F to +122°F)

–40°C to +70°C (–40°F to +158°F)


• WEEE 2012/19/EC

• RoHs 2011/65/EC

• C-Tick

• EN 61000-6-3

• EN 61000-6-2


IP 54 (IEC 60529)

25 g (IEC 60068-2-27)

2 g (IEC 60068-2-6)

2 m (6.6 ft.)

0.575 kg (1.27 lb.)

244 × 95 × 140 mm (9.6 × 3.7 × 5.5 in.)

Black and gray


#T559828; r. AD/23843/24541; en-US 30



Packaging, type

List of contents

Packaging, weight

Packaging, size

EAN-13

UPC-12

Country of origin











Cardboard box

• Infrared camera



• USB cable


Australian plugs




2.9 kg (6.4 lb.)

385 × 165 × 315 mm (15.2 × 6.5 × 12.4 in.)

4743254001114

845188005146

Estonia

#T559828; r. AD/23843/24541; en-US 31


9.6

FLIR E6

P/N: 63902-0202

Rev.: 22369





Benefits:





IR resolution


Field of view (FOV)



F-number

Image frequency

Focus

Detector data

Detector type

Spectral range

160 × 120 pixels

<0.06°C (0.11°F) / <60 mK

45° × 34°

0.5 m (1.6 ft.)

5.2 mrad

1.5

9 Hz

Focus free


7.5–13 µm


Display

Image adjustment


Image modes

3.0 in. 320 × 240 color LCD

Automatic/Manual

Multi Spectral Dynamic Imaging (MSX)

Picture in Picture

Measurement


Accuracy

Thermal MSX, Thermal, Picture-in-Picture, Thermal blending, Digital camera.

IR image with enhanced detail presentation

IR area on visual image

–20°C to +250°C (–4°F to +482°F)



Spotmeter

Area


Center spot

Box with max./min.


#T559828; r. AD/23843/24541; en-US 32



Emissivity table


Set-up

Color palettes

Set-up commands


File formats


Interfaces

Power system

Battery type

Battery voltage


Charging system

Charging time

Power management

AC operation





EMC

Encapsulation

Shock

Vibration

Drop

Physical data



Color

Certifications

Certification







Mac device


3.6 V




Automatic shut-down


–15°C to +50°C (+5°F to +122°F)

–40°C to +70°C (–40°F to +158°F)


• WEEE 2012/19/EC

• RoHs 2011/65/EC

• C-Tick

• EN 61000-6-3

• EN 61000-6-2


IP 54 (IEC 60529)

25 g (IEC 60068-2-27)

2 g (IEC 60068-2-6)

2 m (6.6 ft.)

0.575 kg (1.27 lb.)

244 × 95 × 140 mm (9.6 × 3.7 × 5.5 in.)

Black and gray


#T559828; r. AD/23843/24541; en-US 33



Packaging, type

List of contents

Packaging, weight

Packaging, size

EAN-13

UPC-12

Country of origin











Cardboard box

• Infrared camera



• USB cable


Australian plugs




2.9 kg (6.4 lb.)

385 × 165 × 315 mm (15.2 × 6.5 × 12.4 in.)

4743254001008

845188004958

Estonia

#T559828; r. AD/23843/24541; en-US 34


9.7

FLIR E8

P/N: 63903-0303

Rev.: 22369





Benefits:





IR resolution


Field of view (FOV)



F-number

Image frequency

Focus

Detector data

Detector type

Spectral range

320 × 240 pixels

<0.06°C (0.11°F) / <60 mK

45° × 34°

0.5 m (1.6 ft.)

2.6 mrad

1.5

9 Hz

Focus free


7.5–13 µm


Display

Image adjustment


Image modes

3.0 in. 320 × 240 color LCD

Automatic/Manual

Multi Spectral Dynamic Imaging (MSX)

Picture in Picture

Measurement


Accuracy

Thermal MSX, Thermal, Picture-in-Picture, Thermal blending, Digital camera.

IR image with enhanced detail presentation

IR area on visual image

–20°C to +250°C (–4°F to +482°F)



Spotmeter

Area


Center spot

Box with max./min.


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Emissivity table


Set-up

Color palettes

Set-up commands


File formats


Interfaces

Power system

Battery type

Battery voltage


Charging system

Charging time

Power management

AC operation





EMC

Encapsulation

Shock

Vibration

Drop

Physical data



Color

Certifications

Certification







Mac device


3.6 V




Automatic shut-down


–15°C to +50°C (+5°F to +122°F)

–40°C to +70°C (–40°F to +158°F)


• WEEE 2012/19/EC

• RoHs 2011/65/EC

• C-Tick

• EN 61000-6-3

• EN 61000-6-2


IP 54 (IEC 60529)

25 g (IEC 60068-2-27)

2 g (IEC 60068-2-6)

2 m (6.6 ft.)

0.575 kg (1.27 lb.)

244 × 95 × 140 mm (9.6 × 3.7 × 5.5 in.)

Black and gray


#T559828; r. AD/23843/24541; en-US 36



Packaging, type

List of contents

Packaging, weight

Packaging, size

EAN-13

UPC-12

Country of origin











Cardboard box

• Infrared camera


• Battery (2x)

• USB cable


Australian plugs

• Battery charger




3.13 kg (6.9 lb.)

385 × 165 × 315 mm (15.2 × 6.5 × 12.4 in.)

4743254001015

845188004965

Estonia

#T559828; r. AD/23843/24541; en-US 37

56mm

2,2in

243,5mm

9,59in

108,6mm

4,27in

3,08in 78,3mm

13,5mm

0,53in

55,2mm

2,17in 7,41in

188,3mm

1,9in

9,86in

250,4mm

48,3mm

60,7mm 2,39in

3,73in 94,8mm

Product may be subject to US Export Regulations. Please refer to [email protected] with any questions. Diversion contrary to US law is prohibited.

without written permission from FLIR Systems, Inc. Specifications subject to change without further notice. Dimensional data is based on nominal values. Products may be subject to regional market considerations. License procedures may apply.

© 2012, FLIR Systems, Inc. All rights reserved worldwide. No part of this drawing may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form, or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise,

2,56in 65mm

105mm

4,13in

81,5mm

3,21in

2,29in 58,3mm

0,84in 21,4mm

22,1mm

0,87in

0,41in

R10,5mm

89,5mm

3,52in

66mm

2,6in

1,41in 35,8mm 1,66in 42,3mm

1,96in 49,9mm

Product may be subject to US Export Regulations. Please refer to [email protected] with any questions. Diversion contrary to US law is prohibited.

without written permission from FLIR Systems, Inc. Specifications subject to change without further notice. Dimensional data is based on nominal values. Products may be subject to regional market considerations. License procedures may apply.

© 2012, FLIR Systems, Inc. All rights reserved worldwide. No part of this drawing may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form, or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise,

12

Cleaning the camera

12.1

Camera housing, cables, and other items

12.1.1

Liquids

Use one of these liquids:

• Warm water

• A weak detergent solution

12.1.2

Equipment

A soft cloth

12.1.3

Procedure


1. Soak the cloth in the liquid.

2. Twist the cloth to remove excess liquid.

3. Clean the part with the cloth.

CAUTION

Do not apply solvents or similar liquids to the camera, the cables, or other items. This can cause damage.

12.2

Infrared lens

12.2.1

Liquids

Use one of these liquids:

• A commercial lens cleaning liquid with more than 30% isopropyl alcohol.

• 96% ethyl alcohol (C

2

H

5

OH).

12.2.2

Equipment

Cotton wool

12.2.3

Procedure


1. Soak the cotton wool in the liquid.

2. Twist the cotton wool to remove excess liquid.

3. Clean the lens one time only and discard the cotton wool.

WARNING

Make sure that you read all applicable MSDS (Material Safety Data Sheets) and warning labels on containers before you use a liquid: the liquids can be dangerous.

CAUTION

• Be careful when you clean the infrared lens. The lens has a delicate anti-reflective coating.

• Do not clean the infrared lens too vigorously. This can damage the anti-reflective coating.

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13 Application examples

13.1

Moisture & water damage

13.1.1

General

It is often possible to detect moisture and water damage in a house by using an infrared camera. This is partly because the damaged area has a different heat conduction property and partly because it has a different thermal capacity to store heat than the surrounding material.

NOTE

Many factors can come into play as to how moisture or water damage will appear in an infrared image.

For example, heating and cooling of these parts takes place at different rates depending on the material and the time of day. For this reason, it is important that other methods are used as well to check for moisture or water damage.

13.1.2

Figure

The image below shows extensive water damage on an external wall where the water has penetrated the outer facing because of an incorrectly installed window ledge.

13.2

Faulty contact in socket

13.2.1

General

Depending on the type of connection a socket has, an improperly connected wire can result in local temperature increase. This temperature increase is caused by the reduced contact area between the connection point of the incoming wire and the socket , and can result in an electrical fire.

NOTE

A socket’s construction may differ dramatically from one manufacturer to another. For this reason, different faults in a socket can lead to the same typical appearance in an infrared image.

Local temperature increase can also result from improper contact between wire and socket, or from difference in load.

13.2.2

Figure

The image below shows a connection of a cable to a socket where improper contact in the connection has resulted in local temperature increase.

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13.3

Oxidized socket

13.3.1

General

Depending on the type of socket and the environment in which the socket is installed, oxides may occur on the socket's contact surfaces. These oxides can lead to locally increased resistance when the socket is loaded, which can be seen in an infrared image as local temperature increase.

NOTE

A socket’s construction may differ dramatically from one manufacturer to another. For this reason, different faults in a socket can lead to the same typical appearance in an infrared image.

Local temperature increase can also result from improper contact between a wire and socket, or from difference in load.

13.3.2

Figure

The image below shows a series of fuses where one fuse has a raised temperature on the contact surfaces against the fuse holder. Because of the fuse holder’s blank metal, the temperature increase is not visible there, while it is visible on the fuse’s ceramic material.

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13.4

Insulation deficiencies

13.4.1

General

Insulation deficiencies may result from insulation losing volume over the course of time and thereby not entirely filling the cavity in a frame wall.

An infrared camera allows you to see these insulation deficiencies because they either have a different heat conduction property than sections with correctly installed insulation, and/or show the area where air is penetrating the frame of the building.

NOTE

When you are inspecting a building, the temperature difference between the inside and outside should be at least 10°C (18°F). Studs, water pipes, concrete columns, and similar components may resemble an insulation deficiency in an infrared image. Minor differences may also occur naturally.

13.4.2

Figure

In the image below, insulation in the roof framing is lacking. Due to the absence of insulation, air has forced its way into the roof structure, which thus takes on a different characteristic appearance in the infrared image.

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13.5

Draft

13.5.1

General

Draft can be found under baseboards, around door and window casings, and above ceiling trim. This type of draft is often possible to see with an infrared camera, as a cooler airstream cools down the surrounding surface.

NOTE

When you are investigating draft in a house, there should be sub-atmospheric pressure in the house.

Close all doors, windows, and ventilation ducts, and allow the kitchen fan to run for a while before you take the infrared images.

An infrared image of draft often shows a typical stream pattern. You can see this stream pattern clearly in the picture below.

Also keep in mind that drafts can be concealed by heat from floor heating circuits.

13.5.2

Figure

The image below shows a ceiling hatch where faulty installation has resulted in a strong draft.

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14

About FLIR Systems

FLIR Systems was established in 1978 to pioneer the development of high-performance infrared imaging systems, and is the world leader in the design, manufacture, and marketing of thermal imaging systems for a wide variety of commercial, industrial, and government applications. Today, FLIR Systems embraces five major companies with outstanding achievements in infrared technology since 1958—the Swedish AGEMA Infrared Systems (formerly AGA Infrared Systems), the three United States companies Indigo Systems, FSI, and Inframetrics, and the French company Cedip.

Since 2007, FLIR Systems has acquired several companies with world-leading expertise in sensor technologies:

• Extech Instruments (2007)

• Ifara Tecnologías (2008)

• Salvador Imaging (2009)

• OmniTech Partners (2009)

• Directed Perception (2009)

• Raymarine (2010)

• ICx Technologies (2010)

• TackTick Marine Digital Instruments (2011)

• Aerius Photonics (2011)

• Lorex Technology (2012)

• Traficon (2012)

• MARSS (2013)

• DigitalOptics micro-optics business (2013)

Figure 14.1 Patent documents from the early 1960s

The company has sold more than 350,000 infrared cameras worldwide for applications such as predictive maintenance, R & D, non-destructive testing, process control and automation, and machine vision, among many others.

FLIR Systems has three manufacturing plants in the United States (Portland, OR, Boston, MA, Santa Barbara, CA) and one in Sweden (Stockholm). Since 2007 there is also a manufacturing plant in Tallinn, Estonia. Direct sales offices in Belgium, Brazil, China,

France, Germany, Great Britain, Hong Kong, Italy, Japan, Korea, Sweden, and the USA

—together with a worldwide network of agents and distributors—support our international customer base.

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14 About FLIR Systems

FLIR Systems is at the forefront of innovation in the infrared camera industry. We anticipate market demand by constantly improving our existing cameras and developing new ones. The company has set milestones in product design and development such as the introduction of the first battery-operated portable camera for industrial inspections, and the first uncooled infrared camera, to mention just two innovations.

Figure 14.2 LEFT: Thermovision Model 661 from 1969. The camera weighed approximately 25 kg

(55 lb.), the oscilloscope 20 kg (44 lb.), and the tripod 15 kg (33 lb.). The operator also needed a 220 VAC generator set, and a 10 L (2.6 US gallon) jar with liquid nitrogen. To the left of the oscilloscope the Polaroid attachment (6 kg/13 lb.) can be seen. RIGHT: FLIR One, which was launched in January 2014, is a slideon attachment that gives iPhones thermal imaging capabilities. Weight: 90 g (3.2 oz.).

FLIR Systems manufactures all vital mechanical and electronic components of the camera systems itself. From detector design and manufacturing, to lenses and system electronics, to final testing and calibration, all production steps are carried out and supervised by our own engineers. The in-depth expertise of these infrared specialists ensures the accuracy and reliability of all vital components that are assembled into your infrared camera.

14.1

More than just an infrared camera

At FLIR Systems we recognize that our job is to go beyond just producing the best infrared camera systems. We are committed to enabling all users of our infrared camera systems to work more productively by providing them with the most powerful camera– software combination. Especially tailored software for predictive maintenance, R & D, and process monitoring is developed in-house. Most software is available in a wide variety of languages.

We support all our infrared cameras with a wide variety of accessories to adapt your equipment to the most demanding infrared applications.

14.2

Sharing our knowledge

Although our cameras are designed to be very user-friendly, there is a lot more to thermography than just knowing how to handle a camera. Therefore, FLIR Systems has founded the Infrared Training Center (ITC), a separate business unit, that provides certified training courses. Attending one of the ITC courses will give you a truly hands-on learning experience.

The staff of the ITC are also there to provide you with any application support you may need in putting infrared theory into practice.

14.3

Supporting our customers

FLIR Systems operates a worldwide service network to keep your camera running at all times. If you discover a problem with your camera, local service centers have all the equipment and expertise to solve it within the shortest possible time. Therefore, there is no need to send your camera to the other side of the world or to talk to someone who does not speak your language.

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14 About FLIR Systems

14.4

A few images from our facilities

Figure 14.3 LEFT: Development of system electronics; RIGHT: Testing of an FPA detector

Figure 14.4 LEFT: Diamond turning machine; RIGHT: Lens polishing

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15

Glossary

absorption

(absorption factor) atmosphere autoadjust autopalette blackbody

The amount of radiation absorbed by an object relative to the received radiation. A number between 0 and 1.

The gases between the object being measured and the camera, normally air.

A function making a camera perform an internal image correction.

The IR image is shown with an uneven spread of colors, displaying cold objects as well as hot ones at the same time.

Totally non-reflective object. All its radiation is due to its own temperature.

blackbody radiator calculated atmospheric transmission

An IR radiating equipment with blackbody properties used to calibrate IR cameras.

A transmission value computed from the temperature, the relative humidity of air and the distance to the object.

cavity radiator A bottle shaped radiator with an absorbing inside, viewed through the bottleneck.

color temperature

The temperature for which the color of a blackbody matches a specific color.

The process that makes heat diffuse into a material.

conduction continuous adjust

A function that adjusts the image. The function works all the time, continuously adjusting brightness and contrast according to the image content.

convection Convection is a heat transfer mode where a fluid is brought into motion, either by gravity or another force, thereby transferring heat from one place to another.

dual isotherm emissivity

(emissivity factor)

An isotherm with two color bands, instead of one.

The amount of radiation coming from an object, compared to that of a blackbody. A number between 0 and 1.

emittance Amount of energy emitted from an object per unit of time and area

(W/m 2 ) environment

Objects and gases that emit radiation towards the object being measured.

A transmission value, supplied by a user, replacing a calculated one estimated atmospheric transmission external optics Extra lenses, filters, heat shields etc. that can be put between the camera and the object being measured.

filter

FOV

FPA graybody

A material transparent only to some of the infrared wavelengths.

Field of view: The horizontal angle that can be viewed through an IR lens.

Focal plane array: A type of IR detector.

IFOV

An object that emits a fixed fraction of the amount of energy of a blackbody for each wavelength.

Instantaneous field of view: A measure of the geometrical resolution of an IR camera.

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15 Glossary

image correction (internal or external) infrared

A way of compensating for sensitivity differences in various parts of live images and also of stabilizing the camera.

Non-visible radiation, having a wavelength from about 2–13 μm.

IR isotherm infrared

A function highlighting those parts of an image that fall above, below or between one or more temperature intervals.

isothermal cavity

A bottle-shaped radiator with a uniform temperature viewed through the bottleneck.

Laser LocatIR An electrically powered light source on the camera that emits laser radiation in a thin, concentrated beam to point at certain parts of the object in front of the camera.

laser pointer An electrically powered light source on the camera that emits laser radiation in a thin, concentrated beam to point at certain parts of the object in front of the camera.

level The center value of the temperature scale, usually expressed as a signal value.

manual adjust A way to adjust the image by manually changing certain parameters.

NETD Noise equivalent temperature difference. A measure of the image noise level of an IR camera.

Undesired small disturbance in the infrared image noise object parameters object signal palette pixel

A set of values describing the circumstances under which the measurement of an object was made, and the object itself (such as emissivity, reflected apparent temperature, distance etc.)

A non-calibrated value related to the amount of radiation received by the camera from the object.

The set of colors used to display an IR image.

radiance

Stands for picture element. One single spot in an image.

Amount of energy emitted from an object per unit of time, area and angle (W/m 2 /sr) radiant power Amount of energy emitted from an object per unit of time (W) radiation The process by which electromagnetic energy, is emitted by an object or a gas.

radiator range reference temperature reflection relative humidity saturation color

A piece of IR radiating equipment.

The current overall temperature measurement limitation of an IR camera. Cameras can have several ranges. Expressed as two blackbody temperatures that limit the current calibration.

A temperature which the ordinary measured values can be compared with.

The amount of radiation reflected by an object relative to the received radiation. A number between 0 and 1.

Relative humidity represents the ratio between the current water vapour mass in the air and the maximum it may contain in saturation conditions.

The areas that contain temperatures outside the present level/span settings are colored with the saturation colors. The saturation colors contain an ‘overflow’ color and an ‘underflow’ color. There is also a third red saturation color that marks everything saturated by the detector indicating that the range should probably be changed.

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15 Glossary

span spectral (radiant) emittance temperature difference, or difference of temperature.

temperature range

The interval of the temperature scale, usually expressed as a signal value.

Amount of energy emitted from an object per unit of time, area and wavelength (W/m

2

/μm)

A value which is the result of a subtraction between two temperature values.

temperature scale thermogram transmission

(or transmittance) factor transparent isotherm visual

The current overall temperature measurement limitation of an IR camera. Cameras can have several ranges. Expressed as two blackbody temperatures that limit the current calibration.

The way in which an IR image currently is displayed. Expressed as two temperature values limiting the colors.

infrared image

Gases and materials can be more or less transparent. Transmission is the amount of IR radiation passing through them. A number between 0 and 1.

An isotherm showing a linear spread of colors, instead of covering the highlighted parts of the image.

Refers to the video mode of a IR camera, as opposed to the normal, thermographic mode. When a camera is in video mode it captures ordinary video images, while thermographic images are captured when the camera is in IR mode.

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16 Thermographic measurement techniques

16.1

Introduction

An infrared camera measures and images the emitted infrared radiation from an object.

The fact that radiation is a function of object surface temperature makes it possible for the camera to calculate and display this temperature.

However, the radiation measured by the camera does not only depend on the temperature of the object but is also a function of the emissivity. Radiation also originates from the surroundings and is reflected in the object. The radiation from the object and the reflected radiation will also be influenced by the absorption of the atmosphere.

To measure temperature accurately, it is therefore necessary to compensate for the effects of a number of different radiation sources. This is done on-line automatically by the camera. The following object parameters must, however, be supplied for the camera:

• The emissivity of the object

• The reflected apparent temperature

• The distance between the object and the camera

• The relative humidity

• Temperature of the atmosphere

16.2

Emissivity

The most important object parameter to set correctly is the emissivity which, in short, is a measure of how much radiation is emitted from the object, compared to that from a perfect blackbody of the same temperature.

Normally, object materials and surface treatments exhibit emissivity ranging from approximately 0.1 to 0.95. A highly polished (mirror) surface falls below 0.1, while an oxidized or painted surface has a higher emissivity. Oil-based paint, regardless of color in the visible spectrum, has an emissivity over 0.9 in the infrared. Human skin exhibits an emissivity 0.97 to 0.98.

Non-oxidized metals represent an extreme case of perfect opacity and high reflexivity, which does not vary greatly with wavelength. Consequently, the emissivity of metals is low – only increasing with temperature. For non-metals, emissivity tends to be high, and decreases with temperature.

16.2.1

Finding the emissivity of a sample

16.2.1.1

Step 1: Determining reflected apparent temperature

Use one of the following two methods to determine reflected apparent temperature:

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16.2.1.1.1

Method 1: Direct method


1. Look for possible reflection sources, considering that the incident angle = reflection angle (a = b).

Figure 16.1 1 = Reflection source

2. If the reflection source is a spot source, modify the source by obstructing it using a piece if cardboard.


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3. Measure the radiation intensity (= apparent temperature) from the reflecting source using the following settings:

• Emissivity: 1.0

• D obj

: 0

You can measure the radiation intensity using one of the following two methods:


NOTE

Using a thermocouple to measure reflected apparent temperature is not recommended for two important reasons:

• A thermocouple does not measure radiation intensity

• A thermocouple requires a very good thermal contact to the surface, usually by gluing and covering the sensor by a thermal isolator.

16.2.1.1.2

Method 2: Reflector method


1. Crumble up a large piece of aluminum foil.

2. Uncrumble the aluminum foil and attach it to a piece of cardboard of the same size.

3. Put the piece of cardboard in front of the object you want to measure. Make sure that the side with aluminum foil points to the camera.

4. Set the emissivity to 1.0.

5. Measure the apparent temperature of the aluminum foil and write it down.

Figure 16.4 Measuring the apparent temperature of the aluminum foil.

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16.2.1.2

Step 2: Determining the emissivity


1. Select a place to put the sample.

2. Determine and set reflected apparent temperature according to the previous procedure.

3. Put a piece of electrical tape with known high emissivity on the sample.

4. Heat the sample at least 20 K above room temperature. Heating must be reasonably even.

5. Focus and auto-adjust the camera, and freeze the image.

6. Adjust Level and Span for best image brightness and contrast.

7. Set emissivity to that of the tape (usually 0.97).

8. Measure the temperature of the tape using one of the following measurement functions:

• Isotherm (helps you to determine both the temperature and how evenly you have heated the sample)

• Spot (simpler)

• Box Avg (good for surfaces with varying emissivity).

9. Write down the temperature.

10. Move your measurement function to the sample surface.

11. Change the emissivity setting until you read the same temperature as your previous measurement.

12. Write down the emissivity.

NOTE

• Avoid forced convection

• Look for a thermally stable surrounding that will not generate spot reflections

• Use high quality tape that you know is not transparent, and has a high emissivity you are certain of

• This method assumes that the temperature of your tape and the sample surface are the same. If they are not, your emissivity measurement will be wrong.

16.3

Reflected apparent temperature

This parameter is used to compensate for the radiation reflected in the object. If the emissivity is low and the object temperature relatively far from that of the reflected it will be important to set and compensate for the reflected apparent temperature correctly.

16.4

Distance

The distance is the distance between the object and the front lens of the camera. This parameter is used to compensate for the following two facts:

• That radiation from the target is absorbed by the atmosphere between the object and the camera.

• That radiation from the atmosphere itself is detected by the camera.

16.5

Relative humidity

The camera can also compensate for the fact that the transmittance is also dependent on the relative humidity of the atmosphere. To do this set the relative humidity to the correct value. For short distances and normal humidity the relative humidity can normally be left at a default value of 50%.

16.6

Other parameters

In addition, some cameras and analysis programs from FLIR Systems allow you to compensate for the following parameters:

• Atmospheric temperature – i.e. the temperature of the atmosphere between the camera and the target

• External optics temperature – i.e. the temperature of any external lenses or windows used in front of the camera

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• External optics transmittance – i.e. the transmission of any external lenses or windows used in front of the camera

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17 History of infrared technology

Before the year 1800, the existence of the infrared portion of the electromagnetic spectrum wasn't even suspected. The original significance of the infrared spectrum, or simply

‘the infrared’ as it is often called, as a form of heat radiation is perhaps less obvious today than it was at the time of its discovery by Herschel in 1800.

Figure 17.1 Sir William Herschel (1738–1822)

The discovery was made accidentally during the search for a new optical material. Sir

William Herschel – Royal Astronomer to King George III of England, and already famous for his discovery of the planet Uranus – was searching for an optical filter material to reduce the brightness of the sun’s image in telescopes during solar observations. While testing different samples of colored glass which gave similar reductions in brightness he was intrigued to find that some of the samples passed very little of the sun’s heat, while others passed so much heat that he risked eye damage after only a few seconds’ observation.

Herschel was soon convinced of the necessity of setting up a systematic experiment, with the objective of finding a single material that would give the desired reduction in brightness as well as the maximum reduction in heat. He began the experiment by actually repeating Newton’s prism experiment, but looking for the heating effect rather than the visual distribution of intensity in the spectrum. He first blackened the bulb of a sensitive mercury-in-glass thermometer with ink, and with this as his radiation detector he proceeded to test the heating effect of the various colors of the spectrum formed on the top of a table by passing sunlight through a glass prism. Other thermometers, placed outside the sun’s rays, served as controls.

As the blackened thermometer was moved slowly along the colors of the spectrum, the temperature readings showed a steady increase from the violet end to the red end. This was not entirely unexpected, since the Italian researcher, Landriani, in a similar experiment in 1777 had observed much the same effect. It was Herschel, however, who was the first to recognize that there must be a point where the heating effect reaches a maximum, and that measurements confined to the visible portion of the spectrum failed to locate this point.

Figure 17.2 Marsilio Landriani (1746–1815)

Moving the thermometer into the dark region beyond the red end of the spectrum, Herschel confirmed that the heating continued to increase. The maximum point, when he found it, lay well beyond the red end – in what is known today as the ‘infrared wavelengths’.

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When Herschel revealed his discovery, he referred to this new portion of the electromagnetic spectrum as the ‘thermometrical spectrum’. The radiation itself he sometimes referred to as ‘dark heat’, or simply ‘the invisible rays’. Ironically, and contrary to popular opinion, it wasn't Herschel who originated the term ‘infrared’. The word only began to appear in print around 75 years later, and it is still unclear who should receive credit as the originator.

Herschel’s use of glass in the prism of his original experiment led to some early controversies with his contemporaries about the actual existence of the infrared wavelengths.

Different investigators, in attempting to confirm his work, used various types of glass indiscriminately, having different transparencies in the infrared. Through his later experiments, Herschel was aware of the limited transparency of glass to the newly-discovered thermal radiation, and he was forced to conclude that optics for the infrared would probably be doomed to the use of reflective elements exclusively (i.e. plane and curved mirrors). Fortunately, this proved to be true only until 1830, when the Italian investigator,

Melloni, made his great discovery that naturally occurring rock salt (NaCl) – which was available in large enough natural crystals to be made into lenses and prisms – is remarkably transparent to the infrared. The result was that rock salt became the principal infrared optical material, and remained so for the next hundred years, until the art of synthetic crystal growing was mastered in the 1930’s.

Figure 17.3 Macedonio Melloni (1798–1854)

Thermometers, as radiation detectors, remained unchallenged until 1829, the year Nobili invented the thermocouple. (Herschel’s own thermometer could be read to 0.2 °C

(0.036 °F), and later models were able to be read to 0.05 °C (0.09 °F)). Then a breakthrough occurred; Melloni connected a number of thermocouples in series to form the first thermopile. The new device was at least 40 times as sensitive as the best thermometer of the day for detecting heat radiation – capable of detecting the heat from a person standing three meters away.

The first so-called ‘heat-picture’ became possible in 1840, the result of work by Sir John

Herschel, son of the discoverer of the infrared and a famous astronomer in his own right.

Based upon the differential evaporation of a thin film of oil when exposed to a heat pattern focused upon it, the thermal image could be seen by reflected light where the interference effects of the oil film made the image visible to the eye. Sir John also managed to obtain a primitive record of the thermal image on paper, which he called a

‘thermograph’.

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Figure 17.4 Samuel P. Langley (1834–1906)

The improvement of infrared-detector sensitivity progressed slowly. Another major breakthrough, made by Langley in 1880, was the invention of the bolometer. This consisted of a thin blackened strip of platinum connected in one arm of a Wheatstone bridge circuit upon which the infrared radiation was focused and to which a sensitive galvanometer responded. This instrument is said to have been able to detect the heat from a cow at a distance of 400 meters.

An English scientist, Sir James Dewar, first introduced the use of liquefied gases as cooling agents (such as liquid nitrogen with a temperature of -196 °C (-320.8 °F)) in low temperature research. In 1892 he invented a unique vacuum insulating container in which it is possible to store liquefied gases for entire days. The common ‘thermos bottle’, used for storing hot and cold drinks, is based upon his invention.

Between the years 1900 and 1920, the inventors of the world ‘discovered’ the infrared.

Many patents were issued for devices to detect personnel, artillery, aircraft, ships – and even icebergs. The first operating systems, in the modern sense, began to be developed during the 1914–18 war, when both sides had research programs devoted to the military exploitation of the infrared. These programs included experimental systems for enemy intrusion/detection, remote temperature sensing, secure communications, and ‘flying torpedo’ guidance. An infrared search system tested during this period was able to detect an approaching airplane at a distance of 1.5 km (0.94 miles), or a person more than 300 meters (984 ft.) away.

The most sensitive systems up to this time were all based upon variations of the bolometer idea, but the period between the two wars saw the development of two revolutionary new infrared detectors: the image converter and the photon detector. At first, the image converter received the greatest attention by the military, because it enabled an observer for the first time in history to literally ‘see in the dark’. However, the sensitivity of the image converter was limited to the near infrared wavelengths, and the most interesting military targets (i.e. enemy soldiers) had to be illuminated by infrared search beams. Since this involved the risk of giving away the observer’s position to a similarly-equipped enemy observer, it is understandable that military interest in the image converter eventually faded.

The tactical military disadvantages of so-called 'active’ (i.e. search beam-equipped) thermal imaging systems provided impetus following the 1939–45 war for extensive secret military infrared-research programs into the possibilities of developing ‘passive’ (no search beam) systems around the extremely sensitive photon detector. During this period, military secrecy regulations completely prevented disclosure of the status of infraredimaging technology. This secrecy only began to be lifted in the middle of the 1950’s, and from that time adequate thermal-imaging devices finally began to be available to civilian science and industry.

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18 Theory of thermography

18.1

Introduction

The subjects of infrared radiation and the related technique of thermography are still new to many who will use an infrared camera. In this section the theory behind thermography will be given.

18.2

The electromagnetic spectrum

The electromagnetic spectrum is divided arbitrarily into a number of wavelength regions, called bands, distinguished by the methods used to produce and detect the radiation.

There is no fundamental difference between radiation in the different bands of the electromagnetic spectrum. They are all governed by the same laws and the only differences are those due to differences in wavelength.

Figure 18.1 The electromagnetic spectrum. 1: X-ray; 2: UV; 3: Visible; 4: IR; 5: Microwaves; 6:

Radiowaves.

Thermography makes use of the infrared spectral band. At the short-wavelength end the boundary lies at the limit of visual perception, in the deep red. At the long-wavelength end it merges with the microwave radio wavelengths, in the millimeter range.

The infrared band is often further subdivided into four smaller bands, the boundaries of which are also arbitrarily chosen. They include: the near infrared (0.75–3 μm), the middle

infrared (3–6 μm), the far infrared (6–15 μm) and the extreme infrared (15–100 μm).

Although the wavelengths are given in μm (micrometers), other units are often still used to measure wavelength in this spectral region, e.g. nanometer (nm) and Ångström (Å).

The relationships between the different wavelength measurements is:

18.3

Blackbody radiation

A blackbody is defined as an object which absorbs all radiation that impinges on it at any wavelength. The apparent misnomer black relating to an object emitting radiation is explained by Kirchhoff’s Law (after Gustav Robert Kirchhoff, 1824–1887), which states that a body capable of absorbing all radiation at any wavelength is equally capable in the emission of radiation.

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Figure 18.2 Gustav Robert Kirchhoff (1824–1887)

The construction of a blackbody source is, in principle, very simple. The radiation characteristics of an aperture in an isotherm cavity made of an opaque absorbing material represents almost exactly the properties of a blackbody. A practical application of the principle to the construction of a perfect absorber of radiation consists of a box that is light tight except for an aperture in one of the sides. Any radiation which then enters the hole is scattered and absorbed by repeated reflections so only an infinitesimal fraction can possibly escape. The blackness which is obtained at the aperture is nearly equal to a blackbody and almost perfect for all wavelengths.

By providing such an isothermal cavity with a suitable heater it becomes what is termed a cavity radiator. An isothermal cavity heated to a uniform temperature generates blackbody radiation, the characteristics of which are determined solely by the temperature of the cavity. Such cavity radiators are commonly used as sources of radiation in temperature reference standards in the laboratory for calibrating thermographic instruments, such as a FLIR Systems camera for example.

If the temperature of blackbody radiation increases to more than 525°C (977°F), the source begins to be visible so that it appears to the eye no longer black. This is the incipient red heat temperature of the radiator, which then becomes orange or yellow as the temperature increases further. In fact, the definition of the so-called color temperature of an object is the temperature to which a blackbody would have to be heated to have the same appearance.

Now consider three expressions that describe the radiation emitted from a blackbody.

18.3.1

Planck’s law

Figure 18.3 Max Planck (1858–1947)

Max Planck (1858–1947) was able to describe the spectral distribution of the radiation from a blackbody by means of the following formula: where:

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h k

T

λ

W

λb c

Blackbody spectral radiant emittance at wavelength λ.

Velocity of light = 3 × 10 8 m/s

Planck’s constant = 6.6 × 10 -34 Joule sec.

Boltzmann’s constant = 1.4 × 10 -23 Joule/K.

Absolute temperature (K) of a blackbody.

Wavelength (μm).

NOTE

The factor 10 -6 is used since spectral emittance in the curves is expressed in Watt/m 2 , μm.

Planck’s formula, when plotted graphically for various temperatures, produces a family of curves. Following any particular Planck curve, the spectral emittance is zero at λ = 0, then increases rapidly to a maximum at a wavelength λ max and after passing it approaches zero again at very long wavelengths. The higher the temperature, the shorter the wavelength at which maximum occurs.

Figure 18.4 Blackbody spectral radiant emittance according to Planck’s law, plotted for various absolute temperatures. 1: Spectral radiant emittance (W/cm 2 × 10 3 (μm)); 2: Wavelength (μm)

18.3.2

Wien’s displacement law

By differentiating Planck’s formula with respect to λ, and finding the maximum, we have:

This is Wien’s formula (after Wilhelm Wien, 1864–1928), which expresses mathematically the common observation that colors vary from red to orange or yellow as the temperature of a thermal radiator increases. The wavelength of the color is the same as the wavelength calculated for λ max

. A good approximation of the value of λ max for a given blackbody temperature is obtained by applying the rule-of-thumb 3 000/T μm. Thus, a very hot star such as Sirius (11 000 K), emitting bluish-white light, radiates with the peak of spectral radiant emittance occurring within the invisible ultraviolet spectrum, at wavelength 0.27 μm.

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Figure 18.5 Wilhelm Wien (1864–1928)

The sun (approx. 6 000 K) emits yellow light, peaking at about 0.5 μm in the middle of the visible light spectrum.

At room temperature (300 K) the peak of radiant emittance lies at 9.7 μm, in the far infrared, while at the temperature of liquid nitrogen (77 K) the maximum of the almost insignificant amount of radiant emittance occurs at 38 μm, in the extreme infrared wavelengths.

Figure 18.6 Planckian curves plotted on semi-log scales from 100 K to 1000 K. The dotted line represents the locus of maximum radiant emittance at each temperature as described by Wien's displacement law. 1:

Spectral radiant emittance (W/cm 2 (μm)); 2: Wavelength (μm).

18.3.3

Stefan-Boltzmann's law

By integrating Planck’s formula from λ = 0 to λ = ∞, we obtain the total radiant emittance

(W b

) of a blackbody:

This is the Stefan-Boltzmann formula (after Josef Stefan, 1835–1893, and Ludwig Boltz-

mann, 1844–1906), which states that the total emissive power of a blackbody is proportional to the fourth power of its absolute temperature. Graphically, W b represents the area below the Planck curve for a particular temperature. It can be shown that the radiant emittance in the interval λ = 0 to λ max is only 25% of the total, which represents about the amount of the sun’s radiation which lies inside the visible light spectrum.

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Figure 18.7 Josef Stefan (1835–1893), and Ludwig Boltzmann (1844–1906)

Using the Stefan-Boltzmann formula to calculate the power radiated by the human body, at a temperature of 300 K and an external surface area of approx. 2 m 2 , we obtain 1 kW.

This power loss could not be sustained if it were not for the compensating absorption of radiation from surrounding surfaces, at room temperatures which do not vary too drastically from the temperature of the body – or, of course, the addition of clothing.

18.3.4

Non-blackbody emitters

So far, only blackbody radiators and blackbody radiation have been discussed. However, real objects almost never comply with these laws over an extended wavelength region – although they may approach the blackbody behavior in certain spectral intervals. For example, a certain type of white paint may appear perfectly white in the visible light spectrum, but becomes distinctly gray at about 2 μm, and beyond 3 μm it is almost black.

There are three processes which can occur that prevent a real object from acting like a blackbody: a fraction of the incident radiation α may be absorbed, a fraction ρ may be reflected, and a fraction τ may be transmitted. Since all of these factors are more or less wavelength dependent, the subscript λ is used to imply the spectral dependence of their definitions. Thus:

• The spectral absorptance α

λ

= the ratio of the spectral radiant power absorbed by an object to that incident upon it.

• The spectral reflectance ρ

λ

= the ratio of the spectral radiant power reflected by an object to that incident upon it.

• The spectral transmittance τ

λ

= the ratio of the spectral radiant power transmitted through an object to that incident upon it.

The sum of these three factors must always add up to the whole at any wavelength, so we have the relation:

For opaque materials τ

λ

= 0 and the relation simplifies to:

Another factor, called the emissivity, is required to describe the fraction ε of the radiant emittance of a blackbody produced by an object at a specific temperature. Thus, we have the definition:

The spectral emissivity ε

λ

= the ratio of the spectral radiant power from an object to that from a blackbody at the same temperature and wavelength.

Expressed mathematically, this can be written as the ratio of the spectral emittance of the object to that of a blackbody as follows:

Generally speaking, there are three types of radiation source, distinguished by the ways in which the spectral emittance of each varies with wavelength.

• A blackbody, for which ε

λ

= ε = 1

• A graybody, for which ε

λ

= ε = constant less than 1

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• A selective radiator, for which ε varies with wavelength

According to Kirchhoff’s law, for any material the spectral emissivity and spectral absorptance of a body are equal at any specified temperature and wavelength. That is:

From this we obtain, for an opaque material (since α

λ

+ ρ

λ

= 1):

For highly polished materials ε

λ al (i.e. a perfect mirror) we have: approaches zero, so that for a perfectly reflecting materi-

For a graybody radiator, the Stefan-Boltzmann formula becomes:

This states that the total emissive power of a graybody is the same as a blackbody at the same temperature reduced in proportion to the value of ε from the graybody.

Figure 18.8 Spectral radiant emittance of three types of radiators. 1: Spectral radiant emittance; 2: Wavelength; 3: Blackbody; 4: Selective radiator; 5: Graybody.

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Figure 18.9 Spectral emissivity of three types of radiators. 1: Spectral emissivity; 2: Wavelength; 3: Blackbody; 4: Graybody; 5: Selective radiator.

18.4

Infrared semi-transparent materials

Consider now a non-metallic, semi-transparent body – let us say, in the form of a thick flat plate of plastic material. When the plate is heated, radiation generated within its volume must work its way toward the surfaces through the material in which it is partially absorbed. Moreover, when it arrives at the surface, some of it is reflected back into the interior. The back-reflected radiation is again partially absorbed, but some of it arrives at the other surface, through which most of it escapes; part of it is reflected back again.

Although the progressive reflections become weaker and weaker they must all be added up when the total emittance of the plate is sought. When the resulting geometrical series is summed, the effective emissivity of a semi-transparent plate is obtained as:

When the plate becomes opaque this formula is reduced to the single formula:

This last relation is a particularly convenient one, because it is often easier to measure reflectance than to measure emissivity directly.

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19 The measurement formula

As already mentioned, when viewing an object, the camera receives radiation not only from the object itself. It also collects radiation from the surroundings reflected via the object surface. Both these radiation contributions become attenuated to some extent by the atmosphere in the measurement path. To this comes a third radiation contribution from the atmosphere itself.

This description of the measurement situation, as illustrated in the figure below, is so far a fairly true description of the real conditions. What has been neglected could for instance be sun light scattering in the atmosphere or stray radiation from intense radiation sources outside the field of view. Such disturbances are difficult to quantify, however, in most cases they are fortunately small enough to be neglected. In case they are not negligible, the measurement configuration is likely to be such that the risk for disturbance is obvious, at least to a trained operator. It is then his responsibility to modify the measurement situation to avoid the disturbance e.g. by changing the viewing direction, shielding off intense radiation sources etc.

Accepting the description above, we can use the figure below to derive a formula for the calculation of the object temperature from the calibrated camera output.

Figure 19.1 A schematic representation of the general thermographic measurement situation.1: Surroundings; 2: Object; 3: Atmosphere; 4: Camera

Assume that the received radiation power W from a blackbody source of temperature

T source on short distance generates a camera output signal U source that is proportional to the power input (power linear camera). We can then write (Equation 1): or, with simplified notation: where C is a constant.

Should the source be a graybody with emittance ε, the received radiation would consequently be εW source

.

We are now ready to write the three collected radiation power terms:

1. Emission from the object = ετW obj

, where ε is the emittance of the object and τ is the transmittance of the atmosphere. The object temperature is T obj

.

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2. Reflected emission from ambient sources = (1 – ε)τW refl

, where (1 – ε) is the reflectance of the object. The ambient sources have the temperature T refl

.

It has here been assumed that the temperature T refl is the same for all emitting surfaces within the halfsphere seen from a point on the object surface. This is of course sometimes a simplification of the true situation. It is, however, a necessary simplification in order to derive a workable formula, and T refl can – at least theoretically – be given a value that represents an efficient temperature of a complex surrounding.

Note also that we have assumed that the emittance for the surroundings = 1. This is correct in accordance with Kirchhoff’s law: All radiation impinging on the surrounding surfaces will eventually be absorbed by the same surfaces. Thus the emittance = 1.

(Note though that the latest discussion requires the complete sphere around the object to be considered.)

3. Emission from the atmosphere = (1 – τ)τW atm

, where (1 – τ) is the emittance of the atmosphere. The temperature of the atmosphere is T atm

.

The total received radiation power can now be written (Equation 2):

We multiply each term by the constant C of Equation 1 and replace the CW products by the corresponding U according to the same equation, and get (Equation 3):

Solve Equation 3 for U obj

(Equation 4):

This is the general measurement formula used in all the FLIR Systems thermographic equipment. The voltages of the formula are:

Table 19.1

Voltages

U obj

U tot

U refl

U atm

Calculated camera output voltage for a blackbody of temperature

T obj i.e. a voltage that can be directly converted into true requested object temperature.

Measured camera output voltage for the actual case.

Theoretical camera output voltage for a blackbody of temperature

T refl according to the calibration.

Theoretical camera output voltage for a blackbody of temperature

T atm according to the calibration.

The operator has to supply a number of parameter values for the calculation:

• the object emittance ε,

• the relative humidity,

• T atm

• object distance (D obj

)

• the (effective) temperature of the object surroundings, or the reflected ambient temperature T refl

, and

• the temperature of the atmosphere T atm

This task could sometimes be a heavy burden for the operator since there are normally no easy ways to find accurate values of emittance and atmospheric transmittance for the actual case. The two temperatures are normally less of a problem provided the surroundings do not contain large and intense radiation sources.

A natural question in this connection is: How important is it to know the right values of these parameters? It could though be of interest to get a feeling for this problem already here by looking into some different measurement cases and compare the relative

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magnitudes of the three radiation terms. This will give indications about when it is important to use correct values of which parameters.

The figures below illustrates the relative magnitudes of the three radiation contributions for three different object temperatures, two emittances, and two spectral ranges: SW and

LW. Remaining parameters have the following fixed values:

• τ = 0.88

• T refl

= +20°C (+68°F)

• T atm

= +20°C (+68°F)

It is obvious that measurement of low object temperatures are more critical than measuring high temperatures since the ‘disturbing’ radiation sources are relatively much stronger in the first case. Should also the object emittance be low, the situation would be still more difficult.

We have finally to answer a question about the importance of being allowed to use the calibration curve above the highest calibration point, what we call extrapolation. Imagine that we in a certain case measure U tot

= 4.5 volts. The highest calibration point for the camera was in the order of 4.1 volts, a value unknown to the operator. Thus, even if the object happened to be a blackbody, i.e. U obj

= U tot

, we are actually performing extrapolation of the calibration curve when converting 4.5 volts into temperature.

Let us now assume that the object is not black, it has an emittance of 0.75, and the transmittance is 0.92. We also assume that the two second terms of Equation 4 amount to 0.5

volts together. Computation of U obj by means of Equation 4 then results in U obj

= 4.5 /

0.75 / 0.92 – 0.5 = 6.0. This is a rather extreme extrapolation, particularly when considering that the video amplifier might limit the output to 5 volts! Note, though, that the application of the calibration curve is a theoretical procedure where no electronic or other limitations exist. We trust that if there had been no signal limitations in the camera, and if it had been calibrated far beyond 5 volts, the resulting curve would have been very much the same as our real curve extrapolated beyond 4.1 volts, provided the calibration algorithm is based on radiation physics, like the FLIR Systems algorithm. Of course there must be a limit to such extrapolations.

Figure 19.2 Relative magnitudes of radiation sources under varying measurement conditions (SW camera). 1: Object temperature; 2: Emittance; Obj: Object radiation; Refl: Reflected radiation; Atm: atmosphere radiation. Fixed parameters: τ = 0.88; T refl

= 20°C (+68°F); T atm

= 20°C (+68°F).

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Figure 19.3 Relative magnitudes of radiation sources under varying measurement conditions (LW camera). 1: Object temperature; 2: Emittance; Obj: Object radiation; Refl: Reflected radiation; Atm: atmosphere radiation. Fixed parameters: τ = 0.88; T refl

= 20°C (+68°F); T atm

= 20°C (+68°F).

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20 Emissivity tables

This section presents a compilation of emissivity data from the infrared literature and measurements made by FLIR Systems.

20.1

References

1. Mikaél A. Bramson: Infrared Radiation, A Handbook for Applications, Plenum press,

N.Y.

2. William L. Wolfe, George J. Zissis: The Infrared Handbook, Office of Naval Research,

Department of Navy, Washington, D.C.

3. Madding, R. P.: Thermographic Instruments and systems. Madison, Wisconsin: University of Wisconsin – Extension, Department of Engineering and Applied Science.

4. William L. Wolfe: Handbook of Military Infrared Technology, Office of Naval Research,

Department of Navy, Washington, D.C.

5. Jones, Smith, Probert: External thermography of buildings..., Proc. of the Society of

Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers, vol.110, Industrial and Civil Applications of

Infrared Technology, June 1977 London.

6. Paljak, Pettersson: Thermography of Buildings, Swedish Building Research Institute,

Stockholm 1972.

7. Vlcek, J: Determination of emissivity with imaging radiometers and some emissivities

at λ = 5 µm. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing.

8. Kern: Evaluation of infrared emission of clouds and ground as measured by weather

satellites, Defence Documentation Center, AD 617 417.

9. Öhman, Claes: Emittansmätningar med AGEMA E-Box. Teknisk rapport, AGEMA

1999. (Emittance measurements using AGEMA E-Box. Technical report, AGEMA

1999.)

10. Matteï, S., Tang-Kwor, E: Emissivity measurements for Nextel Velvet coating 811-21

between –36°C AND 82°C.

11. Lohrengel & Todtenhaupt (1996)

12. ITC Technical publication 32.

13. ITC Technical publication 29.

NOTE

The emissivity values in the table below are recorded using a shortwave (SW) camera. The values should be regarded as recommendations only and used with caution.

20.2

Tables

Table 20.1

T: Total spectrum; SW: 2–5 µm; LW: 8–14 µm, LLW: 6.5–20 µm; 1: Material; 2: Specification;

3:Temperature in °C; 4: Spectrum; 5: Emissivity: 6:Reference

1

3M type 35

3M type 88

3M type 88

3M type Super 33

+

Aluminum

Aluminum

Aluminum

Aluminum

2

Vinyl electrical tape (several colors)

Black vinyl electrical tape

Black vinyl electrical tape

Black vinyl electrical tape anodized sheet anodized, black, dull anodized, black, dull anodized, light gray, dull

3

< 80

< 105

< 105

< 80

100

70

70

70

4

LW

LW

MW

LW

T

SW

LW

SW

5

≈ 0.96

≈ 0.96

< 0.96

≈ 0.96

0.55

0.67

0.95

0.61

2

9

6

13

13

13

13

9

9

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Table 20.1


3:Temperature in °C; 4: Spectrum; 5: Emissivity: 6:Reference (continued)

1

Aluminum

Aluminum

Aluminum

Aluminum

Aluminum

Aluminum

Aluminum

Aluminum

Aluminum

Aluminum

Aluminum

Aluminum

Aluminum

Aluminum

Aluminum

Aluminum

Aluminum

Aluminum

Aluminum

Aluminum bronze

Aluminum hydroxide

Aluminum oxide

Aluminum oxide

Asbestos

Asbestos

Asbestos

Asbestos

Asbestos

Asbestos

Asphalt paving

Brass

Brass

Brass

Brass

Brass

2

anodized, light gray, dull

3

70 as received, plate 100 as received, sheet cast, blast cleaned cast, blast cleaned dipped in HNO

3

, plate

100

70

70

100 foil foil

27

27 oxidized, strongly 50–500 polished polished plate polished, sheet

50–100

100

100

20–50 rough surface roughened roughened sheet, 4 samples differently scratched sheet, 4 samples differently scratched vacuum deposited weathered, heavily

27

27

70

70

20

17 powder

20 activated, powder pure, powder

(alumina) board fabric floor tile paper

20

35

40–400 powder slate 20

4 dull, tarnished oxidized oxidized

20–350

100

70 oxidized 70 oxidized at 600°C 200–600

4

LW

T

T

SW

LW

T

10 µm

3 µm

T

T

T

T

T

10 µm

3 µm

SW

LW

T

SW

T

T

T

T

T

T

SW

T

T

T

LLW

T

T

SW

LW

T

5

0.97

0.09

0.09

0.47

0.46

0.05

0.04

0.09

0.2–0.3

0.04–0.06

0.05

0.05

0.06–0.07

0.18

0.28

0.05–0.08

0.03–0.06

0.04

0.83–0.94

0.60

0.28

0.46

0.16

0.96

0.78

0.94

0.93–0.95

0.40–0.60

0.96

0.967

0.22

0.61

0.04–0.09

0.03–0.07

0.59–0.61

6

9

4

2

9

9

4

1

1

8

7

1

1

1

1

2

9

9

1

2

1

1

4

3

3

1

3

3

9

9

2

5

1

1

1

1

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Table 20.1



1

Brass

Brass

Brass

Brass

Brass

Brick

Brick

Brick

Brick

Brick

Brick

Brick

Brick

Brick

Brick

Brick

Brick

Brick

Brick

Brick

Brick

Brick

Brick

Brick

Brick

Bronze

Bronze

Bronze

Bronze

Bronze

Carbon

Carbon

Carbon

Carbon

Carbon

2

polished polished, highly rubbed with 80grit emery sheet, rolled sheet, worked with emery alumina common

Dinas silica, glazed, rough

Dinas silica, refractory

Dinas silica, unglazed, rough firebrick fireclay fireclay fireclay masonry masonry, plastered red, common red, rough refractory, corundum refractory, magnesite

3

200

100

20

20

20

17

17

1100

1000

1000

17

1000

1200

20

35

20

20

20

1000

1000–1300 refractory, strongly radiating refractory, weakly radiating

500–1000

500–1000 silica, 95% SiO

2 sillimanite, 33%

SiO

2

, 64% Al

2

O

3

1230

1500 waterproof 17 phosphor bronze 70 phosphor bronze 70 polished 50 porous, rough 50–150 powder candle soot charcoal powder graphite powder graphite, filed surface lampblack

20

20

20–400

4

T

T

T

T

T

SW

SW

T

T

T

SW

T

T

T

SW

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

SW

T

T

T

T

SW

LW

T

T

T

T

5

0.03

0.03

0.20

0.06

0.2

0.68

0.86–0.81

0.85

0.66

0.80

0.68

0.75

0.59

0.85

0.94

0.94

0.93

0.88–0.93

0.46

0.38

0.8–0.9

0.65–0.75

0.66

0.29

0.87

0.08

0.06

0.1

0.55

0.76–0.80

0.95

0.96

0.97

0.98

0.95–0.97

6

1

2

2

1

1

5

5

1

1

1

5

1

1

1

7

1

2

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

9

1

1

5

9

1

2

1

1

2

1

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Copper

Copper dioxide

Copper oxide

Ebonite

Emery

Enamel

Enamel

Fiber board

Fiber board

Fiber board

Fiber board

Fiber board

Fiber board

Gold

Gold

Gold

Table 20.1



1

Chipboard

Chromium

Chromium

Clay

Cloth

Concrete

Concrete

Concrete

Concrete

Copper

2

untreated polished polished fired black

3

20

50

17

5

20

500–1000

70

20

20

36

4

SW

T

T

T

T

T

SW

SW

LLW

T

5

0.90

0.10

0.28–0.38

0.91

0.98

0.92

0.95

0.97

0.974

0.07

Copper

Copper

Copper

Copper

Copper

Copper

Copper

Copper

Copper

Copper

Copper

Copper dry rough walkway commercial, burnished electrolytic, carefully polished electrolytic, polished molten oxidized oxidized to blackness oxidized, black oxidized, heavily polished polished polished, commercial polished, mechanical pure, carefully prepared surface scraped powder red, powder

80

–34

1100–1300

50

27

20

50–100

100

27

22

22

27

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

0.018

0.006

0.13–0.15

0.6–0.7

0.88

0.78

0.78

0.02

0.03

0.03

0.015

0.008

5

8

1

1

1

1

2

7

6

6

1

1

4

1

1

1

4

2

1

2

4

4

4 coarse polished

80 lacquer hard, untreated masonite masonite particle board

70

70

70 particle board 70 porous, untreated 20

20

20

20

130 polished, carefully 200–600 polished, highly 100

T

T

SW

T

SW

SW

LW

SW

LW

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

0.07

0.84

0.70

0.89

0.85

0.9

0.85–0.95

0.85

0.75

0.88

0.77

0.89

0.85

0.018

0.02–0.03

0.02

9

6

9

9

9

1

1

6

1

1

2

1

1

1

4

1

#T559828; r. AD/23843/24541; en-US 74


Iron and steel

Iron and steel

Iron and steel

Iron and steel

Iron and steel

Iron and steel

Iron and steel

Iron and steel

Iron and steel

Iron and steel

Iron and steel

Iron and steel

Iron and steel

Iron and steel

Iron and steel

Iron and steel

Table 20.1



1

Granite

Granite

Granite

Granite

2

polished rough rough, 4 different samples rough, 4 different samples

3

20

21

70

70

4

LLW

LLW

SW

LW

5

0.849

0.879

0.95–0.97

0.77–0.87

6

8

8

9

9

20 T 0.8–0.9

1

Gypsum

Ice: See Water

Iron and steel

Iron and steel

Iron and steel

70

70

20

SW

LW

T

0.20

0.09

0.61–0.85

9

9

1

Iron and steel

Iron and steel

Iron and steel

Iron and steel

Iron and steel

Iron and steel

Iron and steel

Iron and steel

Iron and steel

Iron and steel

Iron and steel

Iron and steel cold rolled cold rolled covered with red rust electrolytic electrolytic electrolytic electrolytic, carefully polished freshly worked with emery ground sheet heavily rusted sheet hot rolled hot rolled oxidized oxidized oxidized oxidized oxidized oxidized oxidized strongly oxidized strongly polished polished polished sheet rolled sheet rolled, freshly rough, plane surface rusted red, sheet rusted, heavily rusty, red shiny oxide layer, sheet, shiny, etched

100

22

260

175–225

20

950–1100

20

130

20

100

100

1227

125–525

200

200–600

50

500

100

400–1000

750–1050

50

20

50

22

17

20

20

150

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

SW

T

T

T

0.05

0.05

0.07

0.05–0.06

0.24

0.55–0.61

0.69

0.60

0.77

0.74

0.74

0.89

0.78–0.82

0.79

0.80

0.88

0.98

0.07

0.14–0.38

0.52–0.56

0.56

0.24

0.95–0.98

0.69

0.96

0.69

0.82

0.16

4

4

4

1

1

1

2

1

2

1

4

1

1

1

4

1

2

1

1

1

1

1

1

4

5

1

1

1

#T559828; r. AD/23843/24541; en-US 75


Table 20.1



1

Iron and steel

Lacquer

Lacquer

Lacquer

Lead

Lead

Lead

Lead

Lead

Iron galvanized

Iron galvanized

Iron galvanized

Iron galvanized

Iron galvanized

Iron tinned

Iron, cast

Iron, cast

Iron, cast

Iron, cast

Iron, cast

Iron, cast

Iron, cast

Iron, cast

Iron, cast

Iron, cast

Iron, cast

Iron, cast

Iron, cast

Krylon Ultra-flat black 1602

Krylon Ultra-flat black 1602

Lacquer

Lacquer

Lacquer

Lacquer

Lacquer

Lacquer

Lacquer

2

wrought, carefully polished heavily oxidized heavily oxidized sheet sheet, burnished sheet, oxidized sheet casting

3

40–250

70

70

92

30

20

24

50 ingots liquid machined oxidized

1000

1300

800–1000

100 oxidized oxidized

260

38 oxidized 538 oxidized at 600°C

200–600 polished 200 polished polished unworked

Flat black

Flat black

3 colors sprayed on Aluminum

3 colors sprayed on Aluminum

Aluminum on rough surface bakelite black, dull black, matte black, shiny, sprayed on iron heat–resistant

70

20

80

40–100

100

20 shiny unoxidized, polished

100 white white

100

40–100 oxidized at 200°C

200 oxidized, gray 20 oxidized, gray 22

250

100

38

40

900–1100

Room temperature up to 175

Room temperature up to 175

70

4

T

SW

LW

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

LW

MW

SW

LW

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

5

0.28

0.64

0.85

0.07

0.23

0.28

0.064

0.81

0.95

0.28

0.60–0.70

0.64

0.66

0.63

0.76

0.64–0.78

0.21

0.21

0.21

0.87–0.95

≈ 0.96

≈ 0.97

0.50–0.53

0.92–0.94

0.4

0.83

0.96–0.98

0.97

0.87

0.92

0.92

0.8–0.95

0.63

0.28

0.28

0.08

0.05

6

1

12

9

9

1

1

1

2

1

1

1

1

4

2

1

1

4

4

1

1

4

1

9

9

1

2

1

1

4

1

4

4

1

4

2

1

12

#T559828; r. AD/23843/24541; en-US 76


Table 20.1



2

Molybdenum

Molybdenum

Mortar

Mortar

Nextel Velvet

811-21 Black

Nichrome

Nichrome

Nichrome

Nichrome

Nichrome

Nickel

Nickel

1

Lead red

Lead red, powder

Leather

Lime

Magnesium

Magnesium

Magnesium

Magnesium

Magnesium powder

Molybdenum

Nickel

Nickel

Nickel

Nickel

Nickel

Nickel

Nickel

Nickel

Nickel

Nickel

Nickel

Nickel

Nickel

Nickel

Nickel

Nickel oxide tanned polished filament dry

Flat black

3

100

100

22

260

538

20

1500–2200

600–1000

700–2500

17

36

–60–150 rolled sandblasted wire, clean wire, clean wire, oxidized bright matte commercially pure, polished commercially pure, polished electrolytic

700

700

50

500–1000

50–500

122

100

200–400 electrolytic electrolytic electrolytic

22

260

38

538 electroplated on iron, polished

22 electroplated on iron, unpolished electroplated on iron, unpolished

20

22 electroplated, polished

20 oxidized oxidized

1227

200 oxidized 227 oxidized at 600°C

200–600 polished 122 wire 200–1000

1000–1250

T

T

T

4

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

SW

SW

LW

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

5

0.93

0.93

0.75–0.80

0.3–0.4

0.07

0.13

0.18

0.07

0.86

0.19–0.26

0.08–0.13

0.1–0.3

0.87

0.94

> 0.97

0.25

0.70

0.65

0.71–0.79

0.95–0.98

0.041

0.045

0.07–0.09

0.04

0.07

0.06

0.10

0.045

0.11–0.40

0.11

0.05

0.85

0.37

0.37

0.37–0.48

0.045

0.1–0.2

0.75–0.86

4

4

4

4

4

4

1

4

2

4

1

1

1

4

1

1

1

1

1

5

7

1

1

10 and

11

1

1

1

4

6

4

1

4

4

2

1

1

1

4

2

#T559828; r. AD/23843/24541; en-US 77


Table 20.1



Oil, lubricating

Paint

Paint

Paint

Paint

Paint

Paint

Paint

Paint

Paint

Paint

Paint

Paint

Paint

Paint

Paint

Paper

Paper

Paper

Paper

Paper

Paper

Paper

Paper

1

Nickel oxide

Oil, lubricating

Oil, lubricating

Oil, lubricating

Oil, lubricating

Paper

Paper

Paper

Paper

Paper

Paper

Paper

Plaster

2

0.025 mm film

0.050 mm film

0.125 mm film film on Ni base:

Ni base only thick coating

3

500–650

20

20

20

20

8 different colors and qualities

8 different colors and qualities

Aluminum, various ages cadmium yellow chrome green cobalt blue oil oil based, average of 16 colors oil, black flat oil, black gloss oil, gray flat oil, gray gloss

20

70

70

50–100

17

100 oil, various colors 100 plastic, black 20 plastic, white

4 different colors

20

70

70

4 different colors black black, dull black, dull 70

70 black, dull blue, dark coated with black lacquer green red white white bond white, 3 different glosses

20

20

70

70 white, 3 different glosses yellow

17

20

20

20

20

4

T

T

T

T

T

T

SW

LW

T

T

T

T

T

T

SW

T

SW

SW

SW

SW

T

SW

SW

SW

LW

T

T

SW

LW

T

T

T

T

SW

LW

T

SW

5

0.52–0.59

0.27

0.46

0.72

0.05

0.82

0.88–0.96

0.92–0.94

0.27–0.67

0.28–0.33

0.65–0.70

0.7–0.8

0.87

0.94

0.94

0.92

0.97

0.96

0.92–0.96

0.95

0.84

0.68–0.74

0.92–0.94

0.90

0.94

0.86

0.89

0.84

0.93

0.85

0.76

0.7–0.9

0.93

0.76–0.78

0.88–0.90

0.72

0.86

6

1

1

1

1

9

6

9

9

9

1

1

6

6

1

6

6

6

1

2

9

1

1

1

5

2

1

2

2

2

2

2

9

9

1

9

1

5

#T559828; r. AD/23843/24541; en-US 78


Platinum

Platinum

Platinum

Platinum

Platinum

Platinum

Platinum

Platinum

Platinum

Platinum

Platinum

Platinum

Porcelain

Porcelain

Rubber

Rubber

Sand

Sand

Sandstone

Sandstone

Silver

Silver

Skin

Slag

Slag

Slag

Slag

Snow: See Water

Soil

Table 20.1



1

Plaster

Plaster

Plastic

Plastic

Plastic

Plastic

Plastic

Plastic

2

plasterboard, untreated rough coat glass fibre laminate (printed circ.

board) glass fibre laminate (printed circ.

board) polyurethane isolation board polyurethane isolation board

PVC, plastic floor, dull, structured

PVC, plastic floor, dull, structured

3

20

20

70

70

70

70

70

70

4

SW

T

SW

LW

LW

SW

SW

LW

5

0.90

0.91

0.94

0.91

0.55

0.29

0.94

0.93

6

6

2

9

9

9

9

9

9 pure, polished ribbon wire wire wire glazed white, shiny hard soft, gray, rough polished rough polished pure, polished human boiler boiler boiler boiler dry

100

1000–1500

1094

17

22

260

538

200–600

900–1100

1400

500–1000

50–200

20

20

20

20

19

19

100

200–600

32

0–100

1400–1800

200–500

600–1200

20

T

T

T

T

T

LLW

LLW

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

0.05

0.14–0.18

0.18

0.016

0.03

0.06

0.10

0.05–0.10

0.12–0.17

0.18

0.10–0.16

0.06–0.07

0.92

0.70–0.75

0.95

0.95

0.60

0.90

0.909

0.935

0.03

0.02–0.03

0.98

0.97–0.93

0.69–0.67

0.89–0.78

0.76–0.70

0.92

1

2

8

8

1

1

1

4

4

4

1

4

4

4

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

2

1

1

2

1

2

#T559828; r. AD/23843/24541; en-US 79


Titanium

Titanium

Titanium

Titanium

Titanium

Titanium

Tungsten

Tungsten

Tungsten

Tungsten

Varnish

Varnish

Table 20.1



1

Soil

Stainless steel

Stainless steel

Stainless steel

Stainless steel

Stainless steel

Stainless steel

Stainless steel

Stainless steel

Stainless steel

Stucco

Styrofoam

Tar

Tar

Tile

Tin

Tin

2

saturated with water alloy, 8% Ni, 18%

Cr rolled sandblasted sheet, polished

3

20

500

700

700

70 sheet, polished 70 sheet, untreated, somewhat scratched

70 sheet, untreated, somewhat scratched

70 type 18-8, buffed

20

60 type 18-8, oxidized at 800°C rough, lime insulation

10–90

37

4

T

T

T

T

SW

LW

SW

LW

T

T

T

T

T

SW

T

T

SW

5

0.95

0.35

0.45

0.70

0.18

0.14

0.30

0.28

0.16

0.85

0.91

0.60

0.79–0.84

0.91–0.93

0.94

0.04–0.06

0.07

6

2

1

1

1

9

9

9

9

2

2

1

1

5

1

2

1

7

Varnish

Wallpaper

Wallpaper

Water

Water

Water

Water paper glazed

20

17 burnished tin–plated sheet iron

20–50

100 oxidized at 540°C

1000 oxidized at 540°C 200 oxidized at 540°C 500 polished 1000 polished polished

200

500 filament flat on oak parquet floor on oak parquet floor slight pattern, light gray

600–1000

3300

20

70

70

20 slight pattern, red 20 distilled frost crystals ice, covered with heavy frost ice, smooth

1500–2200

200

20

–10

0

0

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

T

SW

SW

LW

SW

SW

T

T

T

T

0.60

0.40

0.50

0.36

0.15

0.20

0.24–0.31

0.05

0.1–0.16

0.39

0.93

0.90

0.90–0.93

0.85

0.90

0.96

0.98

0.98

0.97

9

6

6

2

2

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

1

6

9

#T559828; r. AD/23843/24541; en-US 80


Table 20.1



1

Water

Water

Water

Water

Wood

Wood

Wood

Wood

Wood

Wood

Wood

Wood

Wood

Wood

Wood

Wood

Zinc

Zinc

Zinc

Zinc

2

ice, smooth layer >0.1 mm thick snow snow

3

–10

0–100

–10

17

19 ground pine, 4 different samples pine, 4 different samples planed planed oak

70

70

20

20 planed oak planed oak

70

70 plywood, smooth, dry plywood, untreated white, damp

36

20

20 oxidized at 400°C 400 oxidized surface

1000–1200 polished 200–300 sheet 50

4

T

T

T

T

SW

LLW

T

SW

LW

T

T

SW

LW

SW

SW

T

T

T

T

T

5

0.96

0.95–0.98

0.8

0.85

0.98

0.962

0.5–0.7

0.67–0.75

0.81–0.89

0.8–0.9

0.90

0.77

0.88

0.82

0.83

0.7–0.8

0.11

0.50–0.60

0.04–0.05

0.20

6

2

1

1

2

5

8

1

9

9

1

2

9

9

7

6

1

1

1

1

1

#T559828; r. AD/23843/24541; en-US 81

We've been supplying portable test and measurement equipment to companies of all sizes and industries around the world since 1991.

Our aim is to distribute easy-to-use, reliable and effective instruments to engineering, maintenance and facilities departments; and to complement these products with comprehensive advice, training and support.

Telephone

01424 858118

E-mail Address [email protected]

Postal Address

Alpine Components Ltd

Innovation Centre, Highfield Drive

Churchfields

St. Leonards-on-Sea

TN38 9UH

United Kingdom

Website www.alpine-components.co.uk

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