Celestron Compound Microscope, Stereo Microscope Instruction Manual

10. Arm

11. Fine Focus Knob

9. Safety Rack Stop

8. Stage Holder Clamp

Compound Microscope

1. Eyepiece

2. Eyepiece Tube

3. Coarse Focus Knob

12. Nosepiece

4. Objective Lens

5. Specimen Stage

6. Illumination Mirror

7. Base

1. Eyepiece & Rubber Eyecup

15. Pillar Stand Safety Screw

14. Pillar Stand

13. Pillar Stand Locking Knob

12. Focus Knob

11. Top Light Illuminator

10. Power Cord

9. Illuminator Switch

2. Diopter Ring

3. Head

4. Binocular Head Tension Screw

5. Objective Lens Housing

6. Specimen Slide Holder Clips

7. Stage Plate

8. Base

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Stereo Microscope

Objective Lenses

Objectives for compound microscope Objectives Mounted Objective on Stereo Microscope

The objective lenses are the most important components of microscopes and thus will be discussed in greater detail here.

Their basic function is to gather the light passing through the specimen and then to project the image up into the body of the microscope. Then, the eyepiece lens system further magnifies the image for your eye to see. Most quality microscopes use glass for the objectives and even for beginner microscopes, stay away from plastic objectives lenses as the quality level is quite inferior. The objectives are the lens system closest to the specimen.

There is one objective for each eyepiece in a compound microscope. For stereo microscopes, there are objective pairs (one objective lens for each eyepiece lens) which give the 3-D effect.

On compound microscope objectives, there is printed the following information on each one – power, DIN tube length, N.A., cover slip thickness, universal color ring. Tube length of the objectives usually have a DIN (interchangeable) of 185mm or 195mm.

Objectives vary in power from 1x to 160x in compound microscopes but the most common power range is from 4x to 100x. Most compound microscopes have three or four (occasionally five) objectives usually of 4x, 10x, 40x, and 100x (oil immersion) which revolve on a nosepiece (turret) to give different magnifying powers. The 4x, 10x, and 40x are called “dry” objectives which means they operate with air between the objective and the specimen. The 100x is called a “wet” objective which means it operates with immersion oil between the lens and the specimen.

For stereo microscopes, they usually have one or two objectives lenses which normally are 1x, 2x, 3x, or 4x. In addition, there are zoom models which operate from about 0.5x up to 5x.

The extent of corrections for lens errors (aberrations) and flatness of the image field determines the usefulness and cost of the objectives for compound microscopes. The least expensive objectives are achromatic types and these are fine for all microscopes costing under about $ 750.00. The cost of objectives increases if using fluorites or semi-apochromatic types and the most expensive are the apochromats.

Flatness of field (field curvature) refers to how well the specimen is focused across the entire field of view. In achromatic objectives the flatness of field is usually about 50% to &70% of the field where they are in sharp focus in the center and the outside of field becomes out of focus but you can refocus in the outer portions to see that area sharply. Flatter field objectives (micro plan or semi-Plan) are the semi-apochromats which are flat for about 70% to 85% of the field and apochromats (Plan types) are flat for about 90% to 100% of the field. Plan objectives are the ultimate for quality and a microscope typically will cost more than $ 750.00 to have these type objectives in them.

N.A. (numerical aperture) is a number that expresses the ability of a lens to resolve fine details in an object being observed especially those close together. As the N.A. number increases, the resolution becomes better. The N.A. may vary from 0.04 (low power) to 1.4

(high power Plan wet objective). The N.A. will be marked on the objective and the typical N.A. for the following are; 4x=0.10,

10x=0.25, 40x=0.65, and 100x=1.25.

Resolution (actual not theoretical) is the separation distance of two details (points or lines) lying close together still seen as separate.

The higher the resolution, the closer the two points may be to one another and still be distinguished as two points. Resolution comes from the objective and not the eyepieces as the eyepieces only magnify the resolution.

Sometimes objectives have a color ring (universally used) to aid in identifying the magnification: black (1x), brown (2x), red (4x), yellow (10x), green (20x), turquoise (25x), light blue (40x), dark blue (60x), white (100x).

Another number on the objective (like 0.17) refers to the thickness in millimeters of the cover glass that was assumed by the lens designer in computing best performance for the objective lens.

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DIN (Deutsche Institut Fuer Normung) standard objectives are the most popular in international standards which dictates the design capability of the objectives. DIN standard objectives from one manufacturer can be used in another manufacturer’s compatible microscope. The standard refers to the 45mm parfocal (explained below) distance and RMS standard 33mm thread for the objective.

The 45mm distance is the measurement from the mounting hole in the objective nosepiece to the point of focus on the specimen.

JIS (Japanese Industrial Standard) is a less used international standard for objectives. They use 36mm objective distance.

RMS (Royal Microscopical Society) uses a 33mm parfocal distance for the objective. RMS screw threads are 20.32mm diameter with a pitch of 0.706.

Parfocal refers to the ability to change objective lenses with differing powers and have the focus remain sharp or with very little refocusing. Parcentered refers to when changing objective lens power, the specimen should stay centered in the field of view.

Oil Immersion concentrates the light path and increases the resolution. A special oil is used with the 100x objective lens and usually at

1000x up to 1500x. This is a technique used to close the air gap between the tip of the objective and the top of the specimen with the oil.

Once the objective contacts the drop of oil of matching refractivity, it becomes one unit. Immersion oil is the only suitable oil for this purpose and will allow high magnifications and avoid damage to the objectives. There are two basic types of oil immersion – Type A is for low viscosity and Type B is for high viscosity.

Eyepiece (Ocular)

Various Eyepieces

The eyepiece consists of a series of lenses mounted in a tube (barrel) at the upper end of the microscope. Its basic function is to look at the focused, magnified image projected by the objective lens and magnify that image a second time before your eye looks at the image of the specimen. As with objective lenses, stay away from eyepieces where the optics are made of plastic as they will ensure very poor quality. Eyepieces come in several different designs such as Huygens, Ramsden, Kellner, Orthoscopic, Plossl, etc. and all can be good in microscopes and the differences are minor as compared to various optical designs used with astronomical telescopes.

The eyepieces are usually 10x but also come in 5x, 12.5x, 15x, and 20x. The “x” refers to the amount of magnification (power) that this lens adds as a multiplier to the magnification of the objective. They are inscribed with the magnification and its field number (which is the diameter in millimeters of the diaphragm opening (aperture) of the eyepiece. The aperture limits the field of view to the useful coverage of the eyepiece. For special applications, eyepieces can have scales, pointers, crosshairs, markers, etc. on them.

Eyepieces also come in wide field styles. They have a large diameter and show a wider field of view than standard eyepieces. Most are 10x although 15x and sometimes 20x are common. Eye Relief is the distance (in millimeters) between the observer’s eye (cornea) and the nearest surface of the eyepiece lens – longer eye relief being better for eyeglass wearers.

The eyepoint is the location (or position) of the eye from the eyepiece which allows for the best possible viewing of the image. Some eyepieces use a pointer to point at a section of the specimen. You can rotate the pointer by turning the eyepiece. An eyepiece reticle

(micrometer) is a piece of glass with a pattern printed or etched which is put inside an eyepiece to make measurements of the size of objects seen through the microscope.

The diopter adjustment is a focusing characteristic to match the user’s eyes on microscopes with binocular heads. Most all people have a different vision in each eye. This allows the user to adjust the focus of each eyepiece separately. For eyeglass wears, it allows them to adjust for their prescription and they can use the microscope without using their glasses. Typically, the diopter is on the left eyepiece and to make the adjustment --- close your left eye and look through the right eyepiece with your right eye and focus the specimen sharply, then close your right eye and look through the left eyepiece with your left eye and focus the specimen sharply. Then you will be able to focus and examine specimens with comfort and ease.

Rubber eyecups (eye shields) are typically used with stereo microscopes. They reduce ambient light and provide comfort but should not be used if you are wearing eyeglasses.

Condenser Lens (Sub-stage Condenser)

A glass lens or lens system located within or below the stage on compound microscopes. Its basic function is to gather the light coming in from the light source and to concentrate that light into a light cone onto the specimen. High power

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objective lenses have very tiny diameters and require concentrated light to work properly. A basic condenser is fixed in place.

A moveable and more precise and more expensive condenser is the Abbe condenser. It usually can be moved up and down vertically, regulating the amount of light from the illuminator. It mounts under the stage and usually has an adjustable iris type aperture to control the diameter of the beam of light entering the lens system. By changing the size of the iris and moving the lens up or down from the stage, the diameter and focal point of the cone of light that goes through the specimen can be controlled. It is most useful at 400x and higher powers.

A condenser should have a N.A. equal to or greater than the N.A. of the objective lens being used. A basic condenser has a

N.A. of 0.65 which is fine at 400x and below. But, at higher magnifications, a N.A. of 1.20 or 1.25 is common and you will need an Abbe type condenser. For condensers of a higher quality than the Abbe type, they are usually called aplanatic achromatic types and they have a very flat field and they are very expensive.

Some condensers can be designed to have special accessories for phase contrast, polarized light, differential interference, and dark field microscopy.

Basic Condenser Abbe Condenser

Diaphragm

Disc Diaphragm Iris Diaphragm

The diaphragm is also called the sub-stage diaphragm or aperture diaphragm. The diaphragm is normally located under the stage of a microscope and it adjusts the amount of light passing into the slide or specimen. It is most useful at high powers.

Most compound microscopes have one of two types of diaphragm:

1.

Disc Diaphragm – is the simplest and least expensive of the two types. It is located between the light source and the slide or specimen. It contains a rotating disk (usually fixed) with five to ten openings of differing diameters which limit the amount of light passing through to the specimen.

2.

Iris Diaphragm – is the better and more expensive of the two types. It has a continuously variable diameter (like the iris of an eye or a camera shutter) which has a function to limit the size of the opening through which light passes from the light source to optimize resolution, contrast, and sharpness. It is usually controlled by a lever.

Illumination Systems (Light Source)

Since specimens rarely generate their own light, illumination is necessary. Illumination is the application of light onto an object or specimen in a microscope. The illuminator is the source of light which illuminates the object or specimen to be observed. Illumination of the object or specimen should be bright, free of glare, and evenly dispersed in the field of view.

The simplest means of illumination can be provided by overhead lights, desk or table lamps, or indirect sunlight. Many compound microscopes are provided with adjustable plano/concave mirrors which reflect an external light source into the microscope. The flat slide (plano) of the mirror usually provides the sharper image but if stronger and brighter illumination

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is needed then use the concave side. These methods are the least expensive illumination methods but it can be difficult to direct the light source for proper illumination.

The more expensive and common illumination is by using built-in or attached light sources using bulbs or lamps that provide direct and intense illumination. These light sources can be from above the specimen or object which is used mainly with low power stereo microscopes and is called incident (reflected) light or from below a specimen (typically a slide specimen) which is light passing up through the specimen from inside the base and called transillumination (transmitted light). Lighting from both top and bottom at the same time can provide enough light for the most thick and irregular specimens. These illuminators may be of a fixed intensity, or of a variable intensity, which use a control knob (rheostat) to control the intensity of the light produced.

Illumination lamps or bulbs come in various types:

Tungsten – is an incandescent bulb filament which is the most common and least expensive. They give off a yellowish hue and give off moderate heat. They are typically 15-watt or 20-watt.

Halogen – is a lamp which generally is the hottest light source for a microscope. The light is very bright, very white, and concentrated. The halogen type is more expensive than the tungsten. They are typically 15-watt or 20-watt.

Fluorescent – is a lamp that is cool in temperature. The light is bright and white and very sharp while being comfortable to the eye. The fluorescent is great for observing live specimens. They are typically 5-watt to 10-watt and generate the same brightness as the tungsten or halogens do. They can be built in the base of a microscope or they can be attached

(called a ring light) to observe from above.

LED – these are light emitting diodes which provide a bright light source with virtually no heat. The white beam is brighter and cooler than the other illumination systems. They are typically battery operated and thus are cordless and great for outdoor use also.

There are various forms of illumination produced by varying the amount of light or the quality of the light allowed to impinge on the specimen:

Bright Field – this is the most fundamental and common form of lighting for microscopes. It is a highly directional and intense light source. Light aimed from beneath the stage through a condenser lens, through the specimen, through an objective lens, and through the eyepiece to the eye.

Diffuse – this is where you place a ground glass, some translucent plastic, some opalescent material, or other similar material in front of the condenser (between the illuminator source and the condenser lens) and will cause the light of a bright field source to be scattered. Often this broadens the field illumination and brings subtle changes in the image.

Phase Contrast – this form is used mainly because a large spectrum of living biological specimens (blood, tissue, and cultured cells), are virtually transparent or have poor contrast when observed with a bright field microscope. By utilizing a phase annulous (ring) mounted in the condensers front focal plane partially modulates the light ray bundles that pass through and around the specimen, where they are slowed ¼ wave, then are retarded another ¼ wave when they pass through the phase plate in the rear focal plane of the objective. This system also diminishes background light about 85% providing a darkened background to contrast with the illuminated structure of the phase object. While the affect diminishes the resolution of the image, it makes detail visible that one could not see without it.

Dark Field – this form is a method to examine transparent or semi-transparent specimens which cannot be distinguished from the background. It shuts out background light and allows only scattered light to reach the specimen in order to heighten textural detail.

Koehler – this form is a technique to optimize light quality and sharpness by aligning and adjusting each component of the optical system starting with a focusing illuminator. The light quality will be even and bright. The Koehler is the best form of illumination possible with a microscope and is offered on only the most expensive microscopes.

Koehler Illumination

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Focus Systems

A focus control allows you to adjust the focus of the microscope. Every microscope includes a focusing control (knob) for

quick (coarse) focusing of the image. More expensive compound microscope models include a coarse (quick) and fine focusing control. The fine focus is particularly advantageous in high power applications and required for 400x and higher but is not available on stereo microscopes since they are only low power.

Coarse Focus Knob (Top) Coaxial Coarse/Fine Focus Knob

Fine Focus Knob (Bottom)

Coaxial controls (focus) are where both the course and fine focus knobs are on one large control (on top of each other).

The larger knob is typically for the coarse focusing and the smaller knob for the fine focusing. The smaller knob is usually centered on the inside of the larger one.

Focusing mechanisms used in microscopes are rack and pinion type. This is a design involving the intermeshing of a geared wheel and matching grooved rack. The rack is a track with teeth and the pinion is a gear that rides on the teeth. By turning a knob, the pinion gear moves along the track.

A safety rack stop (rack stop or stop screw) is an adjustable screw located at or near the base of a focus mechanism. When adjusted properly, it prevents the body tube from lowering too far and potentially causing damage to both the high power objective and/or the specimen. Most microscopes have a slip clutch which allows for continuous turning of a focus knob when it is all the way up or down without damaging the gear system.

Focusing can take place in one of two ways. The stage moves vertically to bring it nearer or further from the objective which remains fixed in place. The other method is the drawtube moves vertically with the objective and nosepiece while the stage stays in place.

Head (Body)

The head is the upper part of the microscope that connects the eyepiece to the nosepiece or turret. Some heads are fixed in place and allow you to tilt them from angles of 0° up to 60°. More expensive microscopes usually have heads that can be rotated 360° allowing two or more users to see the specimen without the microscope itself having to be picked up and rotated.

There are several types of heads:

Monocular – this is a microscope with a single eyepiece. These types are the more economical models and are very satisfactory for their usage. A monocular head with a second vertical viewing port is called a teaching head (dual view head) which can be used by a second person (or teacher) to observe the same image as the first person. Or, the second port can be used with various cameras.

Binocular – this is a microscope with two eyepieces, one for each eye. They are generally used on high power compound microscopes and all low power stereo microscopes and are generally more comfortable to use than a monocular type. There are different types of heads for adjusting the interpupillary distance (IPD) – see description below -- and the more common types are (1) seidentoff – IPD is adjusted by twisting the eyepieces in an up and down arc motion similar to most binoculars and (2) slider – IPD is adjustable side-to-side by sliding the eyepieces toward and away from each other.

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Binocular Head

Trinocular – this is a microscope with a binocular head for viewing and an additional port that can be used for a third eyepiece for a second person (or teacher) to use or it would be used for various photo applications. On many microscopes, the amount of light can be adjusted (from 30% to 70% or so) for the third port.

Binocular heads contain prisms carrying light rays from the objectives to the eyepieces. The two eyepieces must be lined up with the user’s pupils for comfortable viewing and this process is called adjusting the interpupillary distance (IPD). The eyepieces will get further apart or closer together to fit each individual as different people have varying distances between their eyes.

Nosepiece (Turret or Revolving Nosepiece)

The nosepiece is a rotating turret located above the stage on compound microscopes that can hold multiple objective lenses of various magnifications. By rotating the objectives into the light path and over the specimen you can observe various magnifications of the specimen during your examination. As any of the objectives are rotated they will click when the precise location is reached. There are normally three or four objectives (4x, 10x, 40x, and 100x) and in rare cases there are five. The objective can be of different powers but the ones just mentioned are used in the vast majority of all compound microscopes.

Sometimes the 40x and 100x objectives are spring loaded at the end which allows the objective to be retracted slightly when nearing the slide/cover slip that may be too thick and this then prevents damage to the objective. Some nosepieces may be called “reverse nosepieces” and this is when the objectives are in a tucked position under the head and nosepiece allowing ease of placing slide specimens onto the stage from the front of the microscope.

In a stereo microscope, a nosepiece can be referred to as a single objective housing or a turret that may have two objectives.

If a turret type, the turret is rotated all the way in either direction to use the particular objective.

Arm

The arm (also called the stand or limb) is the component of a microscope which contains the focus mechanism and supports the stage, as well as the body or head which contains the eyepieces. It provides the rigidity of a microscope as it rises from the base. When moving a microscope, this is the part you should grab with one hand while putting your other hand under the base which will give you good protection. A few types of arms are:

Fixed – a type of arm where the arm and the body are integral parts of the microscope and connected solidly to the base.

Pillar (Post) – a type of arm which consists of a single post rising vertically from the base. The microscope body can rotate about the post and also be moved up and down on it.

Boom (Universal) – a long boom type stand used to support a microscope body. It has many adjustments allowing the microscope to be aligned in a wide variety of configurations. This is the least common type of arm.

Base

The base is the bottom support part of the microscope. It provides balance and rigidity. It houses electrical components for illumination.

Eyepiece Tubes

The eyepiece tubes are also called observation tubes or drawtubes. They are attached to the arm above the nosepiece. They are usually set at angles of 45° or 30° for comfortable viewing. The bottom of the eyepiece tubes hold a special lens called

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the eyepiece (tube) lens. The tube length is a fixed measurement in millimeters of the distance from the objective shoulder to the seat of the eyepiece which is typically DIN 160mm or 170mm (except on introductory microscopes) where the focused image forms. This distance governs the interchangeability of optical components.

Tube Lens

At the bottom of the eyepiece tubes is a tube lens. Its function is to gather the parallel rays of light projected by the objective lens and bring those rays to focus at the plane of the fixed diaphragm of the eyepiece. On some microscopes, the tube lens is built into the body of the microscope itself.

Stage

The platform beneath the objectives on which the slide or object to be observed is placed is called a stage. It has a smooth, flat surface and can be rectangular or circular. On most compound microscopes, the stage moves up and down and the nosepiece is stationary but on some microscopes just the reverse takes place. The stage has an opening for passing light.

The simple type of stage is called a plain stage and the more sophisticated stage is called a mechanical stage.

The more sophisticated and expensive mechanical stage makes it much easier to center specimen slides (standard slide size is 1”x 3”) with precise movements in two axes with knobs which is critical at high powers (400x or more) where slight movements of the slide by hand moves the slide too much or out of the field of view. A vernier type scale on the stage allows for making measurements of the specimen. The “X” axis moves a slide forward and back (north/south) and the “Y” axis moves the slide side-to-side (east/west or left/right).

Plain Stage Mechanical Stage Stage Plate

A stage plate is used with stereo microscopes and this plate fits in over the lower illumination in a circular hole. It normally is a frosted glass plate or a dual sided (white and black) plastic plate which can be used for improving contrast on various specimens to be viewed with top illumination.

The working distance of a stage is the vertical area that is available to place specimens for examination.

Terms Associated with Microscopes

Magnification (power) – the magnification of a microscope is determined by multiplying the power of the eyepiece by the power of the objective lens being used. As an example, a 40x objective lens times 10x eyepiece = 400x. Another way to look at this is that the magnification is the number of times the image is larger than the object would appear to the unaided

(naked) eye.

Lower powers allow for brighter, sharper images combined with a wide field of view. Higher powers, often for examining slide specimens, present larger but dimmer images with a narrower field of view. When observing, always start with the lowest power on your microscope and progress to higher powers. High powers are useless unless the resolution is good. When the magnification is increased but the detail is not increased (due to the limitation of the resolution), it is called “empty magnification”. For a given magnification, always use the higher magnification objective when given a choice rather than using a lower power objective with a high powered eyepiece as the results will always be better. For example, using a 40x objective and 10x eyepiece =400x will give higher quality views than using a 20x objective and 20x eyepiece =400x.

Field of View – the field of view is the diameter of the circle of light that you see when looking into a microscope and it is measured in millimeters. The lowest powers have the widest field of view. As you increase power, the field of view gets smaller. Some wide angle or super wide angle eyepieces increase the field of view over standard eyepieces.

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Depth of Field – how much depth of field is a function of the objective lenses and means the farthest and nearest points in the field of view are in simultaneous sharp focus. Low magnification objectives have more depth of field than high magnification objectives.

Depth of Focus – means the farthest and nearest points in the film plane (photomicrography) or the CCD plane (video microphotography) which are simultaneously in focus. It is just the reverse of the depth of field, where here greater depth of focus occurs with high magnification objectives.

Flatness of Field – a quality describing the appearance of the field of view as being flat from edge-to-edge.

Brightness – how light or dark is the image? Brightness is related to the illumination system. It is also related to the N.A. of the objective lens where the larger the N.A., the brighter the image at that power.

Contrast – is the ratio of light and dark parts of a specimen or object and how well they are defined and the main part of the microscope that affects this is the illumination system.

Collimation (Alignment) – this is a condition in which all optical elements are centered on the same axis.

Microscope Accessories

Prepared Slides – for those who do not wish to make their own slides or to supplement their collections, prepared slides are readily available. These slides can open up the world of microorganisms that lead to learning, discovery, and enjoyment. For best results use only glass slides that are 1” x 3” in size.

Filters – they can be useful in providing enhanced contrast and color correction for observing but not for photography. In some cases, colored filters can be a simple substitute for staining, which would kill live specimens. They usually lay over the top of illumination systems or on more expensive microscopes they sometimes have a special holder under the condenser. Blue is the most used filter since it absorbs some of the yellow to red light from of the illumination bulbs, used in many microscopes, resulting in a more natural coloration of the specimen. Green, yellow, and frosted filters all give varying effects and all filters should be experimented with to see the actual changes they make in observations of specimens.

Blank Slides – these are offered for those who want to make their own slides to observe. The higher quality ones are made of glass. Some may have a small depression or well to hold a few drops of liquid.

Cover Glass (Cover Slip) – these are extremely thin, flat glass or plastic covers that go over a specimen on a glass slide that has been made by you to protect the specimen during observation and storage. They come in different thicknesses which are usually matched to a number engraved on an objective lens for best performance.

Slide Making Kits – kits can contain blank slides, cover glasses, various types of stains to color objects or specimens, dissecting tools, labels, etc. which are all useful when making specimen slides.

Imagers and Photo Adapters – you can do photomicrography (documenting images) through your microscope. The most common form to image (and view) through a microscope is to use digital or CCD cameras. Most imagers are used as an accessory on the microscope and use specific adapters to attach them to the eyepiece tubes of both compound and stereo microscopes – see page 8. Various adapters are available to attach digital or film cameras to certain microscopes.

Specialized Accessories – some microscopes are set up to use specialized kits or adapters such as a phase contrast kit, a dark field adapter, or a polarizing kit.

Optical Aberrations

Aberrations are any errors that result in the imperfection of an image. Such errors can result from design, fabrication, or both. It is impossible to design an absolutely perfect microscope. Some aberrations of a minimal amount are present in all microscopes and generally are less apparent as the price of the microscope increases. So, don’t be too concerned unless the aberrations are severe or bothersome.

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Two extremes are the Plan optical microscopes which provide incredible performance with the least amount of aberrations on a microscope and microscopes with plastic optics which give you the most aberrations and the worst performance.

Chromatic Aberration – is a failure to bring light of different wavelengths (colors) to a common focus. You may see color fringes or halos especially at the edges of the field of view or around the specimen you are looking at. Chromatic aberration is inherent in achromatic lenses which are the standard type used in microscope objectives but well designed objectives usually hold it to a minimum and within acceptable limits.

Distortion – is generally caused when magnification varies from the center of the field of view to the edges. A straight line will be curved as you look near the edges of the field. If the lines are curved outward, this is called barrel distortion and if the lines are curved inward then this is called pincushion distortion.

Field Curvature – is caused by the light rays not all coming to a sharp focus in the same plane. The center of the field may be sharp and in focus but the edges are out of focus and vice versa.

Spherical Aberration – is when light rays at different distances from the optical center come to focus at different points on the axis. This will cause a blurred image and you will not be able to focus sharply on any object.

Recommended Books

To help you in understanding microscopes in greater detail and to learn various experiments and other usages of them, the following are recommended books:

“The Microscope Book” by Shar Levine & Leslie Johnstone (Sterling)

“The World Of The Microscope” by Chris Oxlade & Corrine Stockley (Usborne)

“Exploring with the Microscope” by Werner Nachtigall (Sterling)

“The Microscope and how to use it” by George Stehli (Dover)

“Guide to Microlife” by Kenneth Rainis & Bruce Russell (Watts)

“Adventures With A Microscope” by Richard Headstrom (Dover)

© 2007 Alan Hale

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