Red Hat 7.3 Operating Systems Customization Guide

Red Hat Linux 7.3
The Official Red Hat Linux
Customization Guide
Red Hat Linux 7.3: The Official Red Hat Linux Customization Guide
Copyright © 2002 by Red Hat, Inc.
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rhl-cg(EN)-7.3-HTML-RHI (2002-04-05T14:34-0400)
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All other trademarks and copyrights referred to are the property of their respective owners.
The Red Hat Linux Product Documentation Team consists of the following people:
Sandra A. Moore, Product Documentation Manager — Primary Writer/Maintainer of the Official Red Hat Linux
x86 Installation Guide; Contributing Writer to the Official Red Hat Linux Getting Started Guide
Tammy Fox, Product Documentation Technical Lead — Primary Writer/Maintainer of the Official Red Hat Linux
Customization Guide; Contributing Writer to the Official Red Hat Linux Getting Started Guide; Writer/Maintainer of
custom DocBook stylesheets and scripts
Edward C. Bailey, Technical Writer — Contributing Writer to the Official Red Hat Linux x86 Installation Guide
Johnray Fuller, Technical Writer — Primary Writer/Maintainer of the Official Red Hat Linux Reference Guide
John Ha, Technical Writer — Contributing Writer to the Official Red Hat Linux Getting Started Guide
Table of Contents
Introduction ......................................................................................................................................ix
1. Changes to This Manual ..................................................................................................ix
2. Document Conventions .................................................................................................... x
3. More to Come ..................................................................................................................xiii
3.1. Send in Your Feedback ....................................................................................xiii
4. Sign Up for Support........................................................................................................xiv
I. Installation-Related Reference ................................................................................................. xv
1. Kickstart Installations...................................................................................................... 17
1.1. What are Kickstart Installations? .................................................................... 17
1.2. How Do You Perform a Kickstart Installation? ............................................ 17
1.3. Creating the Kickstart File ............................................................................... 17
1.4. Kickstart Options .............................................................................................. 18
1.5. Where to Put A Kickstart File.......................................................................... 38
1.6. Starting a Kickstart Installation....................................................................... 40
2. Kickstart Configurator.................................................................................................... 43
2.1. Basic Configuration .......................................................................................... 43
2.2. Boot Loader Options......................................................................................... 44
2.3. Installation Method........................................................................................... 45
2.4. Partition Information........................................................................................ 46
2.5. Network Configuration.................................................................................... 47
2.6. Authentication................................................................................................... 48
2.7. Firewall Configuration ..................................................................................... 49
2.8. X Configuration................................................................................................. 50
2.9. Package Selection .............................................................................................. 53
2.10. Pre-Installation Script ..................................................................................... 53
2.11. Post-Installation Script ................................................................................... 54
2.12. Saving the File ................................................................................................. 56
3. Rescue Mode..................................................................................................................... 59
3.1. What is Rescue Mode?...................................................................................... 59
3.2. Booting Rescue Mode ....................................................................................... 60
3.3. Booting Single-User Mode............................................................................... 61
4. Redundant Array of Independent Disks (RAID) ........................................................ 63
4.1. What is RAID? ................................................................................................... 63
4.2. Who Should Use RAID?................................................................................... 63
4.3. Hardware RAID versus Software RAID........................................................ 63
4.4. RAID Levels and Linear Support ................................................................... 64
5. Software RAID Configuration........................................................................................ 67
II. Network-Related References................................................................................................... 71
6. Network Configuration................................................................................................... 73
6.1. Overview ............................................................................................................ 73
6.2. Establishing an Ethernet Connection ............................................................. 74
6.3. Establishing an ISDN Connection .................................................................. 75
6.4. Establishing a Modem Connection................................................................. 76
6.5. Establishing an xDSL Connection .................................................................. 78
6.6. Establishing a Token Ring Connection .......................................................... 79
6.7. Establishing a CIPE Connection ..................................................................... 81
6.8. Establishing a Wireless Connection................................................................ 81
6.9. Managing Hosts ................................................................................................ 83
6.10. Managing DNS Settings ................................................................................. 84
7. Basic Firewall Configuration .......................................................................................... 87
7.1. Basic .................................................................................................................... 87
7.2. Local Hosts......................................................................................................... 88
7.3. DHCP.................................................................................................................. 89
7.4. Configuring Services ........................................................................................ 89
7.5. Activating the Firewall..................................................................................... 90
8. Controlling Access to Services ....................................................................................... 91
8.1. Runlevels ............................................................................................................ 91
8.2. TCP Wrappers.................................................................................................... 92
8.3. Serviceconf ........................................................................................................ 93
8.4. ntsysv.................................................................................................................. 94
8.5. chkconfig .......................................................................................................... 95
8.6. Additional Resources ....................................................................................... 95
9. OpenSSH ........................................................................................................................... 97
9.1. Why Use OpenSSH? ......................................................................................... 97
9.2. Configuring an OpenSSH Server.................................................................... 97
9.3. Configuring an OpenSSH Client .................................................................... 97
9.4. Additional Resources ..................................................................................... 102
10. Network File System (NFS) ........................................................................................ 103
10.1. Why Use NFS?............................................................................................... 103
10.2. Mounting NFS Filesystems.......................................................................... 103
10.3. Exporting NFS Filesystems.......................................................................... 104
10.4. Additional Resources ................................................................................... 106
11. Samba............................................................................................................................. 107
11.1. Why Use Samba?........................................................................................... 107
11.2. Configuring Samba ....................................................................................... 107
11.3. Connecting to a Samba Share ...................................................................... 109
11.4. Additional Resources ................................................................................... 110
12. Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)...................................................... 111
12.1. Why Use DHCP?........................................................................................... 111
12.2. Configuring a DHCP Server........................................................................ 111
12.3. Configuring a DHCP Client ........................................................................ 116
12.4. Additional Resources ................................................................................... 116
13. Apache Configuration ................................................................................................. 119
13.1. Basic Settings ................................................................................................. 119
13.2. Default Settings ............................................................................................. 121
13.3. Virtual Hosts Settings ................................................................................... 127
13.4. Server Settings ............................................................................................... 132
13.5. Performance Tuning ..................................................................................... 134
13.6. Saving Your Settings ..................................................................................... 135
13.7. Additional Resources ................................................................................... 135
14. Apache Secure Server Configuration ........................................................................ 137
14.1. Introduction ................................................................................................... 137
14.2. An Overview of Security-Related Packages ............................................. 137
14.3. An Overview of Certificates and Security................................................. 139
14.4. Using Pre-Existing Keys and Certificates .................................................. 140
14.5. Types of Certificates...................................................................................... 141
14.6. Generating a Key........................................................................................... 142
14.7. Generating a Certificate Request to Send to a CA.................................... 143
14.8. Creating a Self-Signed Certificate ............................................................... 145
14.9. Testing Your Certificate ................................................................................ 146
14.10. Accessing Your Secure Server ................................................................... 147
14.11. Additional Resources ................................................................................. 148
15. BIND Configuration .................................................................................................... 149
15.1. Adding a Forward Master Zone ................................................................. 150
15.2. Adding a Reverse Master Zone .................................................................. 152
15.3. Adding a Slave Zone .................................................................................... 154
16. Mail Transport Agent (MTA) Configuration............................................................ 155
III. System Configuration ............................................................................................................ 157
17. Console Access ............................................................................................................. 159
17.1. Disabling Shutdown Via Ctrl-Alt-Del........................................................ 159
17.2. Disabling Console Program Access............................................................ 160
17.3. Disabling All Console Access...................................................................... 160
17.4. Defining the Console .................................................................................... 160
17.5. Making Files Accessible From the Console............................................... 160
17.6. Enabling Console Access for Other Applications .................................... 161
17.7. The floppy Group ........................................................................................ 162
18. Time and Date Configuration..................................................................................... 163
18.1. Time and Date Properties ............................................................................ 163
18.2. Time Zone Configuration............................................................................. 165
19. User and Group Configuration .................................................................................. 167
19.1. Adding a New User ...................................................................................... 167
19.2. Modifying User Properties .......................................................................... 168
19.3. Adding a New Group................................................................................... 169
19.4. Modifying Group Properties ....................................................................... 169
20. Gathering System Information................................................................................... 171
20.1. System Processes ........................................................................................... 171
20.2. Memory Usage .............................................................................................. 172
20.3. Filesystems ..................................................................................................... 173
20.4. Hardware ....................................................................................................... 175
20.5. Additional Resources ................................................................................... 176
21. Printer Configuration .................................................................................................. 179
21.1. Adding a Local Printer ................................................................................. 180
21.2. Adding a Remote UNIX Printer.................................................................. 182
21.3. Adding a Samba (SMB) Printer................................................................... 184
21.4. Adding a Novell NetWare (NCP) Printer.................................................. 185
21.5. Adding a JetDirect Printer ........................................................................... 186
21.6. Selecting the Print Driver and Finishing ................................................... 188
21.7. Printing a Test Page ...................................................................................... 190
21.8. Modifying Existing Printers ........................................................................ 190
21.9. Saving the Configuration File ..................................................................... 192
21.10. Managing Your Print Jobs.......................................................................... 193
21.11. Configuring the CUPS Printing System................................................... 193
21.12. Additional Resources ................................................................................. 195
22. Automated Tasks.......................................................................................................... 197
22.1. Cron................................................................................................................. 197
22.2. Anacron .......................................................................................................... 199
22.3. At and Batch .................................................................................................. 200
22.4. Additional Resources ................................................................................... 202
23. Ugrading the Kernel .................................................................................................... 205
23.1. The 2.4 Kernel ................................................................................................ 205
23.2. Preparing to Upgrade................................................................................... 205
23.3. Downloading the Upgraded Kernel........................................................... 206
23.4. Performing the Upgrade .............................................................................. 207
23.5. Configuring the Boot Loader....................................................................... 208
24. Kernel Modules ............................................................................................................ 211
24.1. Kernel Module Utilities................................................................................ 211
24.2. Additional Resources ................................................................................... 212
IV. Package Management ............................................................................................................ 215
25. Package Management with RPM .............................................................................. 217
25.1. RPM Design Goals........................................................................................ 217
25.2. Using RPM..................................................................................................... 218
25.3. Checking a Package’s Signature ................................................................. 223
25.4. Impressing Your Friends with RPM .......................................................... 224
25.5. Additional Resources ................................................................................... 227
26. Gnome-RPM ................................................................................................................ 229
26.1. Starting Gnome-RPM .................................................................................. 230
26.2. The Package Display..................................................................................... 231
26.3. Installing New Packages .............................................................................. 232
26.4. Configuration................................................................................................. 233
26.5. Package Manipulation.................................................................................. 238
27. Red Hat Network ......................................................................................................... 243
V. Appendixes ............................................................................................................................... 245
A. Building a Custom Kernel ........................................................................................... 247
A.1. Building a Modularized Kernel ................................................................... 247
A.2. Making an initrd Image ................................................................................ 249
A.3. Configuring the Boot Loader ....................................................................... 249
A.4. Building a Monolithic Kernel....................................................................... 252
A.5. Additional Resources .................................................................................... 252
B. Getting Started with Gnu Privacy Guard ................................................................. 253
B.1. An Introduction to GnuPG........................................................................... 253
B.2. Generating a Keypair ..................................................................................... 253
B.3. Generating a Revocation Certificate ............................................................ 255
B.4. Exporting your Public Key............................................................................ 256
B.5. Importing a Public Key.................................................................................. 258
B.6. What Are Digital Signatures? ....................................................................... 259
B.7. Additional Resources ..................................................................................... 259
Index ................................................................................................................................................ 261
Introduction
Welcome to the Official Red Hat Linux Customization Guide.
The Official Red Hat Linux Customization Guide contains information on how to customize
your Red Hat Linux system to fit your needs. If you are looking for a step-by-step, taskoriented guide for configuring and customizing your system, this is the manual for you.
This manual discusses many intermediate topics such as the following:
•
Setting up a network interface card (NIC)
•
Performing a Kickstart installation
•
Configuring Samba shares
•
Managing your software with RPM
•
Determining information about your system
•
Upgrading your kernel
This manual is divided into the following main categories:
•
Installation-Related Reference
•
Network-Related Reference
•
System Configuration
•
Package Management
This guide assumes you have a basic understanding of your Red Hat Linux system. If you
need reference material which covers more basic issues such as configuring your desktop or
playing audio CD-RPMs, please refer to the Official Red Hat Linux Getting Started Guide. If you
need more advanced documentation such as an overview of the Red Hat Linux filesystem,
please refer to the Official Red Hat Linux Reference Guide.
HTML and PDF versions of the Official Red Hat Linux manuals are available on the Documentation CD and online at http://www.redhat.com/docs/.
Note
Although this manual reflects the most current information possible, you should read the Red Hat
Linux Release Notes for information that may not have been available prior to our documentation
being finalized. They can be found on the Red Hat Linux CD #1 and online at:
http://www.redhat.com/docs/manuals/linux
1. Changes to This Manual
This manual has been expanded to include new features in Red Hat Linux 7.3 as well as
topics requested by our readers. Changes to this manual include:
Kickstart Options
The kickstart options have been updated to include the new options in Red Hat Linux
7.3.
x
Introduction
Network Configuration
This chapter has been written to discussed the revised Red Hat Network Administration Tool. It is now more task-oriented.
Samba
This chapter now includes how to use pam_smbpass to sync users’ Samba passwords
with their system passwords when the passwd command is used.
Squid Configuration
This new chapter discusses the Red Hat Squid Configurator, a graphical tool for configuring the Squid Web Proxy Cache server.
Mail Transport Agent (MTA) Configuration
This new chapter discusses the Red Hat Mail Transport Agent Switcher application,
which allows users to select either sendmail or postfix as the default MTA for the
system.
Monitoring Filesystems
The Gathering System Information chapter has been expanded to include a Monitoring
Filesystems section, which covers the diskcheck utility.
Printer Configuration
This chapter has been expanded to include information on the alternative printing system called CUPS.
Automated Tasks
The at and batch commands have been added to this chapter.
Upgrading the Kernel
The Upgrading the Kernel chapter has been expanded to include information on Red Hat
Linux kernels built for different x86-architecture chips such as the AMD Athlon™ and
the Intel® Pentium® 4.
Building a Custom Kernel
The Building a Custom Kernel chapter included instructions for using the Red Hat .config files to recompile the kernel with the existing configuration options.
Kerberos
All the Kerberos information has been merged into one location in the Official Red Hat
Linux Reference Guide.
2. Document Conventions
When you read this manual, you will see that certain words are represented in different
fonts, typefaces, sizes, and weights. This highlighting is systematic; different words are represented in the same style to indicate their inclusion in a specific category. The types of words
that are represented this way include the following:
Introduction
xi
command
Linux commands (and other operating system commands, when used) are represented
this way. This style should indicate to you that you can type the word or phrase on the
command line and press [Enter] to invoke a command. Sometimes a command contains
words that would be displayed in a different style on their own (such as filenames). In
these cases, they are considered to be part of the command, so the entire phrase will be
displayed as a command. For example:
Use the cat testfile command to view the contents of a file, named testfile, in the
current working directory.
filename
Filenames, directory names, paths, and RPM package names are represented this way.
This style should indicate that a particular file or directory exists by that name on your
Red Hat Linux system. Examples:
The .bashrc file in your home directory contains bash shell definitions and aliases for
your own use.
The /etc/fstab file contains information about different system devices and filesystems.
Install the webalizer RPM if you want to use a Web server log file analysis program.
application
This style should indicate to you that the program named is an end-user application (as
opposed to system software). For example:
Use Netscape Navigator to browse the Web.
[key]
A key on the keyboard is shown in this style. For example:
To use [Tab] completion, type in a character and then press the [Tab] key. Your terminal
will display the list of files in the directory that start with that letter.
[key]-[combination]
A combination of keystrokes is represented in this way. For example:
The [Ctrl]-[Alt]-[Backspace] key combination will exit your graphical session and return
you to the graphical login screen or the console.
text found on a GUI interface
A title, word, or phrase found on a GUI interface screen or window will be shown in
this style. When you see text shown in this style, it is being used to identify a particular
GUI screen or an element on a GUI screen (such as text associated with a checkbox or
field). Example:
Select the Require Password checkbox if you would like your screensaver to require a
password before stopping.
xii
Introduction
top level of a menu on a GUI screen or window
When you see a word in this style, it indicates that the word is the top level of a pulldown menu. If you click on the word on the GUI screen, the rest of the menu should
appear. For example:
Under Settings on a GNOME terminal, you will see the following menu items: Preferences, Reset Terminal, Reset and Clear, and Color selector.
If you need to type in a sequence of commands from a GUI menu, they will be shown
like the following example:
Click on Programs=>Applications=>Emacs to start the Emacs text editor.
button on a GUI screen or window
This style indicates that the text will be found on a clickable button on a GUI screen.
For example:
Click on the Back button to return to the webpage you last viewed.
computer output
When you see text in this style, it indicates text displayed by the computer on the
command line. You will see responses to commands you typed in, error messages, and
interactive prompts for your input during scripts or programs shown this way. For example:
Use the ls command to display the contents of a directory:
$ ls
Desktop
Mail
axhome
backupfiles
logs
mail
paulwesterberg.gif
reports
The output returned in response to the command (in this case, the contents of the directory) is shown in this style.
prompt
A prompt, which is a computer’s way of signifying that it is ready for you to input
something, will be shown in this style. Examples:
$
#
[stephen@maturin stephen]$
leopard login:
user input
Text that the user has to type, either on the command line, or into a text box on a GUI
screen, is displayed in this style. In the following example, text is displayed in this
style:
To boot your system into the text based installation program, you will need to type in
the text command at the boot: prompt.
Introduction
xiii
Additionally, we use several different strategies to draw your attention to certain pieces of
information. In order of how critical the information is to your system, these items will be
marked as note, tip, important, caution, or a warning. For example:
Note
Remember that Linux is case sensitive. In other words, a rose is not a ROSE is not a rOsE.
Tip
The directory /usr/share/doc contains additional documentation for packages installed on your
system.
Important
If you modify the DHCP configuration file, the changes will not take effect until you restart the DHCP
daemon.
Caution
Do not perform routine tasks as root — use a regular user account unless you need to use the root
account for system administration tasks.
Warning
If you choose not to partition manually, a server installation will remove all existing partitions on all
installed hard drives. Do not choose this installation class unless you are sure you have no data you
need to save.
3. More to Come
The Official Red Hat Linux Customization Guide is part of Red Hat’s growing commitment to
provide useful and timely support to Red Hat Linux users. As new tools and applications
are released, this guide will be expanded to include them.
xiv
Introduction
3.1. Send in Your Feedback
If you spot a typo in the Official Red Hat Linux Customization Guide, or if you have thought of
a way to make this manual better, we would love to hear from you! Please submit a report
in Bugzilla (http://www.redhat.com/bugzilla) against the component rhl-cg.
Be sure to mention the manual’s identifier:
rhl-cg(EN)-7.3-HTML-RHI (2002-04-05T14:34-0400)
By mentioning this manual’s identifier, we will know exactly which version of the guide you
have.
If you have a suggestion for improving the documentation, try to be as specific as possible.
If you have found an error, please include the section number and some of the surrounding
text so we can find it easily.
4. Sign Up for Support
If you have an official edition of Red Hat Linux 7.3, please remember to sign up for the
benefits you are entitled to as a Red Hat customer.
You will be entitled to any or all of the following benefits, depending upon the Official Red
Hat Linux product you purchased:
•
Official Red Hat support — Get help with your installation questions from Red Hat, Inc.’s
support team.
•
Red Hat Network — Easily update your packages and receive security notices that are
customized for your system. Go to http://rhn.redhat.com for more details.
•
Under the Brim: The Official Red Hat E-Newsletter — Every month, get the latest news and
product information directly from Red Hat.
To sign up, go to http://www.redhat.com/apps/activate/. You will find your Product ID
on a black, red, and white card in your Official Red Hat Linux box.
To read more about technical support for Official Red Hat Linux, refer to the Getting Technical
Support Appendix in the Official Red Hat Linux Installation Guide.
Good luck, and thank you for choosing Red Hat Linux!
The Red Hat Documentation Team
Installation-Related Reference
Chapter 1.
Kickstart Installations
1.1. What are Kickstart Installations?
Many system administrators would prefer to use an automated installation method to install
Red Hat Linux on their machines. To answer this need, Red Hat created the kickstart installation method. Using kickstart, a system administrator can create a single file containing the
answers to all the questions that would normally be asked during a typical Red Hat Linux
installation.
Kickstart files can be kept on single server system, and read by individual computers during the installation. This installation method can support the use of a single kickstart file to
install Red Hat Linux on multiple machines, making it ideal for network and system administrators.
Kickstart lets you automate most of a Red Hat Linux installation, including:
•
Language selection
•
Mouse configuration
•
Keyboard selection
•
Boot loader installation
•
Disk partitioning
•
Network configuration
•
NIS, LDAP, Kerberos, Hesiod, and Samba authentication
•
Firewall configuration
•
Package selection
•
X Window System configuration
1.2. How Do You Perform a Kickstart Installation?
Kickstart installations can be performed using a local CD-ROM, a local hard drive, or via
NFS, FTP, or HTTP.
To use kickstart, you must:
1. Create a kickstart file.
2. Create a boot disk with the kickstart file or make the kickstart file available on the
network.
3. Start the kickstart installation.
This chapter explains these steps in detail.
18
Chapter 1. Kickstart Installations
1.3. Creating the Kickstart File
The kickstart file is a simple text file, containing a list of items, each identified by a keyword.
You can create it by editing a copy of the sample.ks file found in the RH-DOCS directory
of the Red Hat Linux Documentation CD, using the Kickstart Configurator application, or
writing it from scratch. The Red Hat Linux installation program also creates a sample kickstart file based on the options that you selected during installation. It is written to the file
/root/anaconda-ks.cfg. You should be able to edit it with any text editor or word processor that can save files as ASCII text.
First, be aware of the following issues when you are creating your kickstart file:
•
Items must be specified in order. That order is:
•
Command section — Refer to Section 1.4 for a list of kickstart options. You must include
the required options.
•
The %packages section — Refer to Section 1.4.29 for details.
•
The %pre and %post sections — These two sections can be in any order and are not
required. Refer to Section 1.4.30 and Section 1.4.31 for details.
•
Items that are not required can be omitted.
•
Omitting any required item will result in the installation program prompting the user
for an answer to the related item, just as the user would be prompted during a typical
installation. Once the answer is given, the installation will continue unattended (unless it
finds another missing item).
•
Lines starting with a pound sign ("#") are treated as comments and are ignored.
•
For kickstart upgrades, the following items are required:
•
Language
•
Installation method
•
Device specification (if device is needed to perform installation)
•
Keyboard setup
•
The upgrade keyword
•
LILO configuration
If any other items are specified for an upgrade, those items will be ignored (note that this
includes package selection).
1.4. Kickstart Options
The following options can be placed in a kickstart file. If you prefer to use a graphical interface for creating your kickstart file, you can use the Kickstart Configurator application.
Refer to Chapter 2 for details.
Chapter 1. Kickstart Installations
19
1.4.1. autostep
autostep (optional)
Similar to interactive except it goes to the next screen for you. It is used mostly for
debugging.
1.4.2. auth
auth or authconfig (required)
Sets up the authentication options for the system. It’s similar to the authconfig command, which can be run after the install. By default, passwords are normally encrypted
and are not shadowed.
--enablemd5
Use md5 encryption for user passwords.
--enablenis
Turns on NIS support. By default, --enablenis uses whatever domain it finds on
the network. A domain should almost always be set by hand (via --nisdomain).
--nisdomain
NIS domain name to use for NIS services.
--nisserver
Server to use for NIS services (broadcasts by default).
--useshadow or --enableshadow
Use shadow passwords.
--enableldap
Turns on LDAP support in /etc/nsswitch.conf, allowing your system to retrieve
information about users (UIDs, home directories, shells, etc.) from an LDAP directory. To use this option, you must have the nss_ldap package installed. You must
also specify a server and a base DN with --ldapserver= and --ldapbasedn=.
--enableldapauth
Use LDAP as an authentication method. This enables the pam_ldap module for authentication and changing passwords, using an LDAP directory. To use this option,
you must have the nss_ldap package installed. You must also specify a server and
a base DN with --ldapserver= and --ldapbasedn=.
--ldapserver=
If you specified either --enableldap or --enableldapauth, the name of the LDAP
server to use. This option is set in the /etc/ldap.conf file.
--ldapbasedn=
If you specified either --enableldap or --enableldapauth, the DN (distinguished
name) in your LDAP directory tree under which user information is stored. This
option is set in the /etc/ldap.conf file.
20
Chapter 1. Kickstart Installations
--enableldaptls
Use TLS (Transport Layer Security) lookups. This option allows LDAP to send encrypted usernames and passwords to an LDAP server before authentication.
--enablekrb5
Use Kerberos 5 for authenticating users. Kerberos itself does not know about home
directories, UIDs, or shells. So if you enable Kerberos you will need to make users’
accounts known to this workstation by enabling LDAP, NIS, or Hesiod or by using
the /usr/sbin/useradd command to make their accounts known to this workstation. If you use this option, you must have the pam_krb5 package installed.
--krb5realm
The Kerberos 5 realm to which your workstation belongs.
--krb5kdc
The KDC (or KDCs) that serve requests for the realm. If you have multiple KDCs
in your realm, separate their names with commas (,).
--krb5adminserver
The KDC in your realm that is also running kadmind. This server handles password
changing and other administrative requests. This server must be run on the master
KDC if you have more than one KDC.
--enablehesiod
Enable Hesiod support for looking up user home directories, UIDs, and
shells. More information on setting up and using Hesiod on your network is
in /usr/share/doc/glibc-2.x.x/README.hesiod, which is included in the
glibc package. Hesiod is an extension of DNS that uses DNS records to store
information about users, groups, and various other items.
--hesiodlhs
The Hesiod LHS ("left-hand side") option, set in /etc/hesiod.conf. This option is
used by the Hesiod library to determine the name to search DNS for when looking
up information, similar to LDAP’s use of a base DN.
--hesiodrhs
The Hesiod RHS ("right-hand side") option, set in /etc/hesiod.conf. This option
is used by the Hesiod library to determine the name to search DNS for when looking up information, similar to LDAP’s use of a base DN.
Tip
To look up user information for "jim", the Hesiod library looks up
jim.passwd LHS
RHS , which should resolve to a TXT record that looks like what
his passwd entry would look like (jim:*:501:501:Jungle Jim:/home/jim:/bin/bash).
For groups, the situation is identical, except jim.group LHS
RHS would be used.
Looking up users and groups by number is handled by making "501.uid" a CNAME for
"jim.passwd", and "501.gid" a CNAME for "jim.group". Note that the LHS and RHS do not
have periods [.] put in front of them when the library determines the name for which to
search, so the LHS and RHS usually begin with periods.
Chapter 1. Kickstart Installations
21
--enablesmbauth
Enables authentication of users against an SMB server (typically a Samba or
Windows server). SMB authentication support does not know about home
directories, UIDs, or shells. So if you enable it you will need to make users’
accounts known to the workstation by enabling LDAP, NIS, or Hesiod or by
using the /usr/sbin/useradd command to make their accounts known to the
workstation. To use this option, you must have the pam_smb package installed.
--smbservers=
The name of the server(s) to use for SMB authentication. To specify more than one
server, separate the names with commas (,).
--smbworkgroup=
The name of the workgroup for the SMB servers.
--enablecache
Enables the nscd service. The nscd service caches information about users, groups,
and various other types of information. Caching is especially helpful if you choose
to distribute information about users and groups over your network using NIS,
LDAP, or hesiod.
1.4.3. bootloader
bootloader (required)
Specifies how the boot loader should be installed and whether the boot loader should
be LILO or GRUB.
--append
Specifies kernel parameters.
--location=
Specifies where the boot record is written. Valid values are the following: mbr (the
default), partition (installs the boot loader on the first sector of the partition
containing the kernel), or none (do not install the boot loader).
--password=mypassword
If using GRUB, sets the GRUB boot loader password to mypassword. This should
be used to restrict access to the GRUB shell where arbitrary kernel options can be
passed.
--md5pass=mypassword
If using GRUB, similar to --password except mypassword should be the password
already encrypted.
--useLilo
Use LILO instead of GRUB as the boot loader.
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Chapter 1. Kickstart Installations
--linear
If using LILO, use the linear LILO option; this is only for backwards compatibility
(and linear is now used by default).
--nolinear
If using LILO, use the nolinear LILO option; linear is the default.
--lba32
If using LILO, force use of lba32 mode instead of autodetecting.
--upgrade 1
Upgrade the existing boot loader configuration. This option is only available for
upgrades.
1.4.4. clearpart
clearpart (optional)
Removes partitions from the system, prior to creation of new partitions. By default, no
partitions are removed.
--linux
Erases all Linux partitions.
--all
Erases all partitions from the system.
--drives
Specifies which drives to clear partitions from.
--initlabel
Initializes the disk label to the default for your architecture (msdos for x86 and gpt
for Itanium). It is useful so that the installation program does not ask if it should
initialize the disk label if installing to a brand new hard drive.
Note
If the clearpart command, then the --onpart command cannot be used on a logical partition.
1.
This option is new to Red Hat Linux 7.3
Chapter 1. Kickstart Installations
23
1.4.5. device
device (optional)
On most PCI systems, the installation program will autoprobe for Ethernet and SCSI
cards properly. On older systems and some PCI systems, however, kickstart needs a
hint to find the proper devices. The device command, which tells Anaconda to install
extra modules, is in this format:
device
type
moduleName
--opts
type should be scsi or eth, and
ule which should be installed.
options
moduleName
is the name of the kernel mod-
--opts
Options to pass to the kernel module. Note that multiple options may be passed if
they are put in quotes. For example:
--opts "aic152x=0x340 io=11"
1.4.6. deviceprobe
deviceprobe (optional)
Forces a probe of the PCI bus and loads modules for all the devices found if a module
is available.
1.4.7. driverdisk
driverdisk (optional)
Driver disks can be used during kickstart installations. You will need to copy the driver
disk’s contents to the root directory of a partition on the system’s hard drive. Then you
will need to use the driverdisk command to tell the installation program where to look
for the driver disk.
driverdisk
partition
partition
[--type
fstype ]
is the partition containing the driver disk.
--type
Filesystem type (for example, vfat, ext2, or ext3).
1.4.8. firewall
firewall (optional)
Firewall options can be configured in kickstart. This configuration corresponds to the
Firewall Configuration screen in the installation program.
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Chapter 1. Kickstart Installations
firewall [--high | --medium | --disabled] [--trust
device ] [--dhcp] [--ssh] [-telnet] [--smtp] [--http] [--ftp] [--port
portspec ]
Levels of security
Choose one of the following levels of security:
• --high
• --medium
• --disabled
--trust
device
Listing a device here, such as eth0, allows all traffic coming from that device to go
through the firewall. To list more than one device, use --trust eth0 --trust eth1.
Do NOT use a comma-separated format such as --trust eth0, eth1.
Allow incoming
Enabling these options allow the specified services to pass through the firewall.
• --dhcp
• --ssh
• --telnet
• --smtp
• --http
• --ftp
--port
portspec
You can specify that ports be allowed through the firewall using the port:protocol format. For example, if you wanted to allow IMAP access through your firewall, you can
specify imap:tcp. You can also specify numeric ports explicitly; for example, to allow
UDP packets on port 1234 through, specify 1234:udp. To specify multiple ports, separate them by commas.
1.4.9. install
install (optional)
Tells the system to install a fresh system rather than upgrade an existing system. This is
the default mode.
1.4.10. Installation Methods
You must use one of these four commands to specify what type of kickstart installation is
being performed:
Chapter 1. Kickstart Installations
25
nfs
Install from the NFS server specified.
• --server
server
Server from which to install (hostname or IP).
• --dir
dir
Directory containing the Red Hat installation tree.
For example:
nfs --server
server
--dir
dir
cdrom
Install from the first CD-ROM drive on the system.
For example:
cdrom
harddrive
Install from a Red Hat installation tree on a local drive, which must be either vfat or
ext2.
• --partition
partition
Partition to install from (such as, sdb2).
• --dir
dir
Directory containing the Red Hat installation tree.
For example:
harddrive --partition
partition
--dir
dir
url
Install from a Red Hat installation tree on a remote server via FTP or HTTP.
For example:
url --url http:// server / dir
url --url ftp:// username : password @ server / dir
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Chapter 1. Kickstart Installations
1.4.11. interactive
interactive (optional)
Uses the information provided in the kickstart file during the installation, but allow
for inspection and modification of the values given. You will be presented with each
screen of the installation program with the values from the kickstart file. Either accept
the values by clicking Next or change the values and click Next to continue. See also
Section 1.4.1.
1.4.12. keyboard
keyboard (required)
Sets system keyboard type. Here is the list of available keyboards on i386, Itanium, and
Alpha machines:
azerty, be-latin1, be2-latin1, fr-latin0, fr-latin1, fr-pc, fr, wangbe,
ANSI-dvorak, dvorak-l, dvorak-r, dvorak, pc-dvorak-latin1, tr_f-latin5,
trf, bg, br-abnt2, cf, cz-lat2-prog, cz-lat2, defkeymap, defkeymap_V1.0,
dk-latin1, dk, emacs, emacs2, es, fi-latin1, fi, gr-pc, gr, hebrew,
hu101, is-latin1, it-ibm, it, it2, jp106, la-latin1, lt, lt.l4, nl,
no-latin1, no, pc110, pl, pt-latin1, pt-old, ro, ru-cp1251, ru-ms,
ru-yawerty, ru, ru1, ru2, ru_win, se-latin1, sk-prog-qwerty, sk-prog,
sk-qwerty, tr_q-latin5, tralt, trf, trq, ua, uk, us, croat, cz-us-qwertz,
de-latin1-nodeadkeys, de-latin1, de, fr_CH-latin1, fr_CH, hu,
sg-latin1-lk450, sg-latin1, sg, sk-prog-qwertz, sk-qwertz, slovene
Here is the list for SPARC machines:
sun-pl-altgraph, sun-pl, sundvorak, sunkeymap, sunt4-es,
sunt4-no-latin1, sunt5-cz-us, sunt5-de-latin1, sunt5-es,
sunt5-fi-latin1, sunt5-fr-latin1, sunt5-ru, sunt5-uk, sunt5-us-cz
1.4.13. lang
lang (required)
Sets the language to use during installation. For example, to set the language to English,
the kickstart file should contain the following line:
lang en_US
Valid language codes are the following (please note that these are subject to change at
any time):
cs_CZ, da_DK, en_US, fr_FR, de_DE, is_IS, it_IT, ja_JP.eucJP,
ko_KR.eucKR, no_NO, pt_PT, ru_RU.koi8r, sl_SI, es_ES, sv_SE, uk_UA
Chapter 1. Kickstart Installations
27
1.4.14. langsupport
langsupport (required)
Sets the language(s) to install on the system. The same language codes used with lang
can be used with langsupport.
If you just want to install one language, specify it. For example, to install and use the
French language fr_FR:
langsupport fr_FR
--default
If you want to install language support for more than one language, you must specify a default.
For example, to install English and French and use English as the default language:
langsupport --default en_US fr_FR
If you use --default with only one language, all languages will be installed with the
specified language set to the default.
1.4.15. lilo
lilo (replaced by bootloader)
Warning
This option has been replaced by bootloader and is only available for backwards compatibility.
Refer to Section 1.4.3.
Specifies how the boot loader should be installed on the system. By default, LILO installs on the MBR of the first disk, and installs a dual-boot system if a DOS partition is
found (the DOS/Windows system will boot if the user types dos at the LILO: prompt).
--append
params
Specifies kernel parameters.
--linear
Use the linear LILO option; this is only for backwards compatibility (and linear is
now used by default).
--nolinear
Use the nolinear LILO option; linear is now used by default.
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Chapter 1. Kickstart Installations
--location=
Specifies where the LILO boot record is written. Valid values are the following:
mbr (the default) or partition (installs the boot loader on the first sector of the
partition containing the kernel). If no location is specified, LILO is not installed.
--lba32
Forces the use of lba32 mode instead of autodetecting.
1.4.16. lilocheck
lilocheck (optional)
If lilocheck is present, the installation program checks for LILO on the MBR of the
first hard drive, and reboots the system if it is found — in this case, no installation is
performed. This can prevent kickstart from reinstalling an already installed system.
1.4.17. mouse
mouse (required)
Configures the mouse for the system, both in GUI and text modes. Options are:
--device
dev
Device the mouse is on (such as --device ttyS0).
--emulthree
If present, simultaneous clicks on the left and right mouse buttons will be recognized as the middle mouse button by the X Window System. This option should be
used if you have a two button mouse.
After options, the mouse type may be specified as one of the following:
alpsps/2, ascii, asciips/2, atibm, generic, generic3,
genericps/2, generic3ps/2, genericusb, generic3usb,
geniusnm, geniusnmps/2,geniusprops/2, geniusscrollps/2,
geniusscrollps/2+, thinking, thinkingps/2, logitech,
logitechcc, logibm, logimman, logimmanps/2, logimman+,
logimman+ps/2, logimmusb, microsoft, msnew, msintelli,
msintellips/2, msintelliusb, msbm, mousesystems, mmseries,
mmhittab, sun, none
If the mouse command is given without any arguments, or it is omitted, the installation program will attempt to autodetect the mouse. This procedure works for
most modern mice.
Chapter 1. Kickstart Installations
29
1.4.18. network
network (optional)
Configures network information for the system. If the kickstart installation does not
require networking (in other words, it is not installed over NFS, HTTP, or FTP), networking is not configured for the system. If the installation does require networking
and network information is not provided in the kickstart file, the Red Hat Linux installation program assumes that the installation should be done over eth0 via a dynamic IP
address (BOOTP/DHCP), and configures the final, installed system to determine its IP
address dynamically. The network option configures networking information for kickstart installations via a network as well as for the installed system.
--bootproto
One of dhcp, bootp, or static (defaults to DHCP, and dhcp and bootp are
treated the same). Must be static for static IP information to be used.
--device
device
Used to select a specific Ethernet device for installation. Note that using --device
device will not be effective unless the kickstart file is a local file (such as
ks=floppy), since the installation program will configure the network to find the
kickstart file. Example:
network --bootproto dhcp --device eth0
--ip
IP address for the machine to be installed.
--gateway
Default gateway as an IP address.
--nameserver
Primary nameserver, as an IP address.
--nodns
Do not configure any DNS server.
--netmask
Netmask for the installed system.
--hostname
Hostname for the installed system.
There are three different methods of network configuration:
•
DHCP
•
BOOTP
•
static
The DHCP method uses a DHCP server system to obtain its networking configuration.
As you might guess, the BOOTP method is similar, requiring a BOOTP server to supply
the networking configuration.
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Chapter 1. Kickstart Installations
The static method requires that you enter all the required networking information in the
kickstart file. As the name implies, this information is static, and will be used during the
installation, and after the installation as well.
To direct a system to use DHCP to obtain its networking configuration, use the following
line:
network --bootproto dhcp
To direct a machine to use BOOTP to obtain its networking configuration, use the following line in the kickstart file:
network --bootproto bootp
The line for static networking is more complex, as you must include all network configuration information on one line. You must specify:
•
IP address
•
Netmask
•
Gateway IP address
•
Nameserver IP address
Here is an example static line:
network --bootproto static --ip 10.0.2.15 --netmask 255.255.255.0 --gateway 10.0.2.254 --nameserver 10.0.2.1
If you use the static method, be aware of the following two restrictions:
•
All static networking configuration information must be specified on one line; you
cannot wrap lines using a backslash, for example.
•
You can only specify one nameserver here. However, you can use the kickstart file’s
%post section (described in Section 1.4.31) to add more name servers, if needed.
1.4.19. part
part or partition (required for installs, ignored for upgrades)
Creates a partition on the system.
The mntpoint
following forms:
/ mntpoint
is where the partition will be mounted and must be of one of the
For example, /, /usr, /home
swap
The partition will be used as swap space.
To determine the size of the swap partition automatically, use the --recommended1
option:
swap --recommended
1.
This option is new to Red Hat Linux 7.3
Chapter 1. Kickstart Installations
31
The minimum size of the automatically-generated swap partition will be no smaller
than the amount of RAM in the system and no bigger than twice the amount of
RAM in the system.
raid. id
The partition will be used for software RAID (see the Section 1.4.20 below).
--size
size
The minimum partition size in megabytes. Specify an integer value here such as
500. Do not append the number with MB.
--grow
Tells the partition to grow to fill available space (if any), or up to the maximum size
setting.
--maxsize
size
The maximum partition size in megabytes when the partition is set to grow. Specify
an integer value here, and do not append the number with MB.
--noformat
Tells the installation program not to format the partition, for use with the --onpart
command.
--onpart
or --usepart
or --ondrive
part
part
Tells the installation program to put the partition on the already existing device
part . For example, partition /home --onpart hda1 will put /home on
/dev/hda1, which must already exist. If you use --onpart, you still must specify
a size with --size for the file to be parsed correctly. The size will be ignored since
the partition already exists.
--ondisk
disk
drive
Forces the partition to be created on a particular disk. For example, --ondisk sdb
will put the partition on the second disk on the system.
--asprimary
Forces automatic allocation of the partition as a primary partition or the partitioning will fail.
--bytes-per-inode= N
N represents the number of bytes per inode on the filesystem when it is created.
It must be given in decimal format. This option is useful for applications where you
want to increase the number of inodes on the filesystem.
--type= X
(replaced by fstype)
This option is no longer available. Use fstype.
--fstype
Sets the filesystem type for the partition. Valid values are ext2, ext3, swap, and
vfat.
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Chapter 1. Kickstart Installations
--start
Specifies the starting cylinder for the partition. It requires that a drive be specified
with --ondisk or ondrive. It also requires that the ending cylinder be specified
with --end or the partition size be specified with --size.
--end
Specifies the ending cylinder for the partition. It requires that the starting cylinder
be specified with --start.
--badblocks
Specifies that the partition should be checked for bad sectors.
All partitions created will be formatted as part of the installation process unless -noformat and --onpart are used.
Note
If partitioning fails for any reason, diagnostic messages will appear on virtual console 3.
1.4.20. raid
raid (optional)
Assembles a software RAID device. This command is of the form:
raid
mntpoint
--level
level
--device
mddevice
partitions*
The mntpoint is the location where the RAID filesystem is mounted. If it is /, the
RAID level must be 1 unless a boot partition (/boot) is present. If a boot partition is
present, the /boot partition must be level 1 and the root (/) partition can be any of the
available types. The partitions* (which denotes that multiple partitions can be
listed) lists the RAID identifiers to add to the RAID array.
--level
level
RAID level to use (0, 1, or 5).
--device
mddevice
Name of the RAID device to use (such as md0 or md1). RAID devices range from
md0 to md7, and each may only be used once.
--spares=N
Specifies that there should be N spare drives allocated for the RAID array. Spare
drives are used to rebuild the array in case of drive failure.
--fstype
Sets the filesystem type for the RAID array. Valid values are ext2, ext3, swap, and
vfat.
Chapter 1. Kickstart Installations
33
--noformat
Do not format the RAID array.
The following example shows how to create a RAID level 1 partition for /, and a RAID
level 5 for /usr, assuming there are three SCSI disks on the system. It also creates three
swap partitions, one on each drive.
part raid.01 --size 60 --ondisk sda
part raid.02 --size 60 --ondisk sdb
part raid.03 --size 60 --ondisk sdc
part swap --size 128 --ondisk sda
part swap --size 128 --ondisk sdb
part swap --size 128 --ondisk sdc
part raid.11 --size 1 --grow --ondisk sda
part raid.12 --size 1 --grow --ondisk sdb
part raid.13 --size 1 --grow --ondisk sdc
raid / --level 1 --device md0 raid.01 raid.02 raid.03
raid /usr --level 5 --device md1 raid.11 raid.12 raid.13
1.4.21. reboot
reboot (optional)
Reboot after the installation is complete (no arguments). Normally, kickstart displays a
message and waits for the user to press a key before rebooting.
1.4.22. rootpw
rootpw (required)
rootpw [--iscrypted]
password
!
Sets the system’s root password to the
"
password
#
argument.
--iscrypted
If this is present, the password argument is assumed to already be encrypted.
1.4.23. skipx
skipx (optional)
If present, X is not configured on the installed system.
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Chapter 1. Kickstart Installations
1.4.24. text
text (optional)
Perform the kickstart installation in text mode. Kickstart installations are performed in
graphical mode by default.
1.4.25. timezone
$
timezone (required)
timezone [--utc]
&
timezone
Sets the system time zone to
by timeconfig.
%
timezone
'
which may be any of the time zones listed
--utc
If present, the system assumes the hardware clock is set to UTC (Greenwich Mean)
time.
1.4.26. upgrade
upgrade (optional)
Tells the system to upgrade an existing system rather than install a fresh system.
1.4.27. xconfig
xconfig (optional)
Configures the X Window System. If this option is not given, the user will need to configure X manually during the installation, if X was installed; this option should not be
used if X is not installed on the final system.
--noprobe
Do not probe the monitor.
--card
$
&
card
%
'
Use card card ; this card name should be from the list of cards in Xconfigurator.
If this argument is not provided, Anaconda will probe the PCI bus for the card.
Since AGP is part of the PCI bus, AGP cards will be detected if supported. The
probe order is determined by the PCI scan order of the motherboard.
--videoram
$
vram
%
Specify the amount of video RAM the video card has.
Chapter 1. Kickstart Installations
--monitor
( )
mon
35
* +
Use monitor mon ; this monitor name should be from the list of monitors in
Xconfigurator. This is ignored if --hsync or --vsync is provided. If no monitor
information is provided, the installation program tries to probe for it automatically.
(
--hsync
)
sync
Specifies the horizontal sync frequency of the monitor.
(
--vsync
sync
)
Specifies the vertical sync frequency of the monitor.
--defaultdesktop=GNOME or --defaultdesktop=KDE
Sets the default desktop to either GNOME or KDE (and assumes that GNOME
and/or KDE has been installed through %packages).
--startxonboot
Use a graphical login on the installed system.
--resolution
( )
res
Specify the default resolution for the X Window System on the installed system.
Valid values are 640x480, 800x600, 1024x768, 1152x864, 1280x1024, 1400x1050,
1600x1200. Be sure to specify a resolution that is compatible with the video card
and monitor.
--depth
(
cdepth
)
Specify the default color depth for the X Window System on the installed system.
Valid values are 8, 16, 24, and 32. Be sure to specify a color depth that is compatible
with the video card and monitor.
1.4.28. zerombr — Partition Table Initialization
zerombr (optional)
If zerombr is specified, and yes is its sole argument, any invalid partition tables found
on disks are initialized. This will destroy all of the contents of disks with invalid partition tables. This command should be in the following format:
zerombr yes
No other format is effective.
1.4.29. %packages — Package Selection
Use the %packages command to begin a kickstart file section that lists the packages you
would like to install (this is for installations only, as package selection during upgrades is
not supported).
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Chapter 1. Kickstart Installations
Use the %packages --resolvedeps1 to install the listed packages and automatically resolve
package dependencies.
Use the %packages --ignoredeps1 to ignore the unresolved dependencies and install the
listed packages without the dependencies.
Packages can be specified by component or by individual package name. The installation
program defines several components that group together related packages. See the RedHat/base/comps file on any Red Hat Linux CD-ROM for a list of components. The components are defined by the lines that begin with a number followed by a space and then the
component name. Each package in that component is then listed, line-by-line. Individual
packages lack the leading number found in front of component lines.
Additionally, there are three other types of lines in the comps file:
Architecture specific (i386:, ia64:, alpha:, and sparc64:)
If a package name begins with an architecture type, you only need to type in the package
name, not the architecture name. For example:
For i386: apmd you only need to use the apmd part for that specific package to be installed.
Lines beginning with ?
Lines that begin with a ? are used by the installation program and should not be altered.
Lines beginning with --hide
If a package name begins with --hide, you only need to type in the package name,
without the --hide. For example:
For --hide Network Server you only need to use the Network Server part for that
specific package to be installed.
In most cases, it is only necessary to list the desired components and not individual packages. Note that the Base component is always selected by default, so it is not necessary to
specify it in the %packages section.
Here is an example %packages selection:
%packages
@ Network Managed Workstation
@ Development
@ Web Server
@ X Window System
ImageMagick
As you can see, components are specified, one to a line, starting with an @ symbol, a space,
and then the full component name as given in the comps file. Specify individual packages
with no additional characters (the ImageMagick line in the example above is an individual
package).
You can also direct the kickstart installation to install the default packages for a workstation
(KDE or GNOME) or server installation (or choose an everything installation to install all
packages). To do this, simply add one of the following lines to the %packages section:
1.
1.
This option is new to Red Hat Linux 7.3
This option is new to Red Hat Linux 7.3
Chapter 1. Kickstart Installations
@
@
@
@
37
GNOME
KDE
Server
Everything
1.4.30. %pre — Pre-Installation Configuration Section
You can add commands to run on the system immediately after the ks.cfg has been parsed.
This section must be at the end of the kickstart file (after the commands) and must start
with the %pre command. Note that you can access the network in the %pre section; however,
name service has not been configured at this point, so only IP addresses will work. Here is an
example %pre section:
%pre
# add comment to /etc/motd
echo "Kickstart-installed Red Hat Linux ‘/bin/date‘"
# add another nameserver
echo "nameserver 10.10.0.2"
,,
,
/etc/motd
/etc/resolv.conf
This section creates a message-of-the-day file containing the date the kickstart installation
took place. It also gets around the network command’s limitation of only one name server
by adding another nameserver to /etc/resolv.conf.
Note
Note that the pre-install script is not run in the change root environment.
1.4.31. %post — Post-Installation Configuration Section
You have the option of adding commands to run on the system once the installation is complete. This section must be at the end of the kickstart file and must start with the %post
command.
Note
If you configured the network with static IP information, including a nameserver, you can access the
network and resolve IP addresses in the %post section. If you configured the network for DHCP, the
/etc/resolv.conf file has not been completed when the installation executes the %post section.
You can access the network, but you can not resolve IP addresses. Thus, if you are using DHCP, you
must specify IP addresses in the %post section.
Here is an example %post section that creates a message of the day file containing the date
that the kickstart installation took place, and gets around the network command’s limitation
of one nameserver only by adding another nameserver to /etc/resolv.conf.
%post
# add comment to /etc/motd
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Chapter 1. Kickstart Installations
echo "Kickstart-installed Red Hat Linux ‘/bin/date‘"
# add another nameserver
echo "nameserver 10.10.0.2"
-.-
-
/etc/motd
/etc/resolv.conf
Note
The post-install script is run in a chroot environment; therefore, performing tasks such as copying
scripts or RPMs from the installation media will not work.
--nochroot
Allows you to specify commands that you would like to run outside of the chroot environment.
The following example copies the file /etc/resolv.conf to the filesystem that was just
installed.
%post --nochroot
cp /etc/resolv.conf /mnt/sysimage/etc/resolv.conf
--interpreter /usr/bin/perl
Allows you to specify a different scripting language, such as Perl. Replace
/usr/bin/perl with the scripting language of your choice.
The following example uses a Perl script to replace /etc/HOSTNAME.
%post --interpreter /usr/bin/perl
# replace /etc/HOSTNAME
open(HN, ">HOSTNAME");
print HN "1.2.3.4 an.ip.address\n";
More examples of post-installation scripts can be found in Section 2.11.
1.4.32. %include — Include Contents of Another File Section 1
Use the %include /path/to/file command to include the contents of another file in the
kickstart file as though the contents were at the location of the %include command in the
kickstart file.
1. This option is new to Red Hat Linux 7.3
Chapter 1. Kickstart Installations
39
1.5. Where to Put A Kickstart File
A kickstart file must be placed in one of two locations:
•
On a boot disk
•
On a network
Normally a kickstart file is copied to the boot disk, or made available on the network. The
network-based approach is most commonly used, as most kickstart installations tend to be
performed on networked computers.
Let us take a more in-depth look at where the kickstart file may be placed.
1.5.1. Creating a Kickstart Boot Disk
To perform a diskette-based kickstart installation, the kickstart file must be named ks.cfg
and must be located in the boot disk’s top-level directory. Note that the Red Hat Linux boot
disks are in MS-DOS format, so it is easy to copy the kickstart file under Linux using the
mcopy command:
mcopy ks.cfg a:
Alternatively, you can use Windows to copy the file. You can also mount the MS-DOS boot
disk and cp the file over.
1.5.2. Making the Kickstart File Available on the Network
Network installations using kickstart are quite common, because system administrators can
easily automate the installation on many networked computers quickly and painlessly.
In general, the approach most commonly used is for the administrator to have both a
BOOTP/DHCP server and an NFS server on the local network. The BOOTP/DHCP server
is used to give the client system its networking information, while the actual files used
during the installation are served by the NFS server. Often, these two servers run on the
same physical machine, but they are not required to.
To perform a network-based kickstart installation, you must have a BOOTP/DHCP server
on your network, and it must include configuration information for the machine on which
you are attempting to install Red Hat Linux. The BOOTP/DHCP server will provide the
client with its networking information as well as the location of the kickstart file.
If a kickstart file is specified by the BOOTP/DHCP server, the client system will attempt an
NFS mount of the file’s path, and will copy the specified file to the client, using it as the
kickstart file. The exact settings required vary depending on the BOOTP/DHCP server you
use.
Here is an example of a line from the dhcpd.conf file for the DHCP server shipped with Red
Hat Linux:
filename "/usr/new-machine/kickstart/";
next-server blarg.redhat.com;
Note that you should replace the value after filename with the name of the kickstart file (or
the directory in which the kickstart file resides) and the value after next-server with the
NFS server name.
If the filename returned by the BOOTP/DHCP server ends with a slash ("/"), then it is interpreted as a path only. In this case, the client system mounts that path using NFS, and
searches for a particular file. The filename the client searches for is:
40
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Chapter 1. Kickstart Installations
0
/
ip-addr -kickstart
0
The ip-addr section of the filename should be replaced with the client’s IP address in
dotted decimal notation. For example, the filename for a computer with an IP address of
10.10.0.1 would be 10.10.0.1-kickstart.
Note that if you do not specify a server name, then the client system will attempt to use the
server that answered the BOOTP/DHCP request as its NFS server. If you do not specify a
path or filename, the client system will try to mount /kickstart from the BOOTP/DHCP
server, and will try to find the kickstart file using the same ip-addr -kickstart filename
as described above.
/
0
1.6. Starting a Kickstart Installation
To begin a kickstart installation, you must boot the system from a Red Hat Linux boot
diskette or the CD-ROM and enter a special boot command at the boot prompt. If the kickstart file is located on a boot diskette that was created from the boot.img or bootnet.img
image file, the correct boot command would be:
boot: linux ks=floppy
The linux ks=floppy command also works if the ks.cfg file is located on a vfat or ext2
filesystem on a floppy diskette and you boot from the Red Hat Linux CD-ROM.
An alternate boot command for booting off the Red Hat Linux CD-ROM and having the
kickstart file on a vfat or ext2 filesystem on a floppy diskette is:
boot: linux ks=hd:fd0/ks.cfg
If you need to use a driver disk with kickstart, you can still have the kickstart file on a floppy
disk:
boot: linux ks=floppy dd
The Red Hat Linux installation program looks for a kickstart file if the ks command line
argument is passed to the kernel. The command line argument can take a number of forms:
/
0 /
2
ks=nfs: server / path
1
0
1
2
The installation program will look for the kickstart file on the NFS server server ,
as file path . The installation program will use DHCP to configure the Ethernet
card. For example, if your NFS server is server.example.com and the kickstart
file is in the NFS share /mydir/ks.cfg, the correct boot command would be
ks=nfs:server.example.com:/mydir/ks.cfg.
/
0 /
ks=http: server / path
1
2
1
0
2
The installation program will look for the kickstart file on the HTTP server
server , as file path . The installation program will use DHCP to configure
the Ethernet card. For example, if your HTTP server is server.example.com and the
kickstart file is in the HTTP directory /mydir/ks.cfg, the correct boot command would
be ks=http:server.example.com:/mydir/ks.cfg.
ks=floppy
The installation program looks for the file ks.cfg on a vfat or ext2 filesystem on the
floppy in drive /dev/fd0.
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3
4 3
ks=hd: device / file
4
41
55
66
The installation program will mount the filesystem on device (which must be vfat
or ext2), and look for the kickstart configuration file as file in that filesystem (for
example, ks=hd:sda3/mydir/ks.cfg).
3
ks=file:/ file
4
5
6
The installation program will try to read the file file from the filesystem; no
mounts will be done. This is normally used if the kickstart file is already on the initrd
image.
3
ks=cdrom:/ path
4
The installation program will look for the kickstart file on CD-ROM, as file
5
6
path .
ks
If ks is used alone, the installation program will configure the Ethernet card in the system using DHCP. The system will use the "bootServer" from the DHCP response as an
NFS server to read the kickstart file from (by default, this is the same as the DHCP
server). The name of the kickstart file is one of the following:
•
If DHCP is specified and the bootfile begins with a /, the bootfile provided by DHCP
is looked for on the NFS server.
•
If DHCP is specified and the bootfile begins with something other then a /, the bootfile provided by DHCP is looked for in the /kickstart directory on the NFS server.
•
If DHCP did not specify a bootfile, then the installation program tries to read the file
/kickstart/1.2.3.4-kickstart, where 1.2.3.4 is the numeric IP address of the
machine being installed.
3
ksdevice= device
4
The installation program will use this network device to connect to the network.
For example, to start a kickstart installation with the kickstart file on an NFS
server that is connected to the system through the eth1 device, use the command
ks=nfs: server: / path ksdevice=eth1 at the boot: prompt.
3
4 3
4
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Chapter 1. Kickstart Installations
Chapter 2.
Kickstart Configurator
Kickstart Configurator allows you to create a kickstart file using a graphical user interface,
so that you do not have to remember the correct syntax of the file. After choosing the kickstart options, click the Save File button, verify the options you have chosen, and save the
kickstart file to a desired location.
To use Kickstart Configurator, you must by running the X Window System. To start Kickstart Configurator, use one of the following methods:
•
On the GNOME desktop, go to the Main Menu Button (on the Panel) => Programs =>
System => Kickstart Configurator.
•
On the KDE desktop, go to the Main Menu Button (on the Panel) => System => Kickstart
Configurator.
•
Type the command /usr/sbin/ksconfig at a shell prompt (for example, in an XTerm or
GNOME terminal).
2.1. Basic Configuration
Figure 2-1. Basic Configuration
Choose the language to use during the installation from the Language menu.
Select the system keyboard type from the Keyboard menu.
Choose the mouse for the system from the Mouse menu. If you choose No Mouse, no mouse
will be configured. If you choose Probe for Mouse the installation program will try to autodetect the mouse. Probing works for most modern mice.
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Chapter 2. Kickstart Configurator
If you have a two-button button mouse, you can emulate a three-button mouse by selecting
Emulate 3 Buttons. If this option is selected, simultaneously clicking the left and right mouse
buttons will be recognized as a middle mouse button click.
From the Time Zone menu, choose the time zone to use for the system.
Enter the desired root password for the system in the Root Password text entry box. If you
want to save the password as an encrypted password in the file, select Encrypt root password. When the file is saved, the plaintext password that you typed will be encrypted and
written to the kickstart file. Do not type an already encrypted password and select to encrypt
it.
Choose one or more languages to install and use after installation from the Language Support list.
Choosing Reboot system after installation will reboot your system automatically after the
installation is finished.
Kickstart installations are performed in graphical mode by default. To override this default
and use text mode instead, check the Perform installation in text mode button.
You can perform a kickstart installation in interactive mode. This means that the installation
program will use all the options pre-configured in the kickstart file, but it will allow you to
preview the options in each screen before you can continue to the next screen. To continue
to the next screen, click the Next button after you have approved the settings. If you are not
satisfied with the pre-configured options, you can change them before continuing the installation. If you prefer this type of installation, check the Perform installation in interactive
mode button.
2.2. Boot Loader Options
Figure 2-2. Boot Loader Options
You have the option of installing GRUB or LILO as the boot loader. If you do not want to
install a boot loader, uncheck Install Boot Loader. If you choose not to install a boot loader,
make sure you create a boot disk or have another way to boot (such as a third-party boot
loader) your Red Hat Linux system.
Chapter 2. Kickstart Configurator
45
If you choose to install a boot loader, you must also choose which boot loader to install
(GRUB or LILO) and where to to install the boot loader (the Master Boot Record or the first
sector of the /boot partition). Install the boot loader on the MBR if you plan to use it as your
boot loader. If you are using a different boot loader, install LILO or GRUB on the first sector
of the /boot partition and configure the other boot loader to boot Red Hat Linux.
If you need to pass any special parameters to the kernel to be used when the system boots,
enter them in the Kernel parameters text field. For example, if you have an IDE CD-ROM
burner, you can tell the kernel to use the SCSI emulation driver that must be loaded before
using cdrecord by typing hdd=ide-scsi as a kernel parameter (where hdd is the CD-ROM
device).
If you choose LILO as the boot loader, choose whether you want to use linear mode and
whether you want to force the use of lba32 mode.
If you choose GRUB as the boot loader, you can password protect it by configuring a GRUB
password. Enter a password in the Use GRUB Password text entry area. If you want to save
the password as an encrypted password in the file, select Encrypt GRUB password. When
the file is saved, the plaintext password that you typed will be encrypted and written to the
kickstart file. Do not type an already encrypted password and select to encrypt it.
2.3. Installation Method
Figure 2-3. Installation Method
The Installation Method screen allows you to choose whether you want to perform a full
installation or an upgrade. If you choose upgrade, the Partition Information and Package
Selection options will be disabled. They are not supported for kickstart upgrades.
Also choose the type of kickstart installation to perform from this screen. You can choose
from the following options:
•
CD-ROM — Choose this option if you wish to install Red Hat Linux from the Red Hat
Linux CD-ROMs.
•
NFS — Choose this option if you wish to install Red Hat Linux from an NFS shared directory. Two text entry boxes for the NFS server and NFS directory will appear. Enter
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Chapter 2. Kickstart Configurator
the fully-qualified domain name or IP address of the NFS server. For the NFS directory,
enter the name of the NFS directory that contains the RedHat directory. For example,
if your NFS server contains the directory /mirrors/redhat/i386/RedHat, enter /mirrors/redhat/i386 for the NFS directory.
•
FTP — Choose this option if you wish to install Red Hat Linux from an FTP server. Two
text entry boxes for the FTP server and FTP directory will appear. Enter the fully-qualified
domain name or IP address of the FTP server. For the FTP directory, enter the name of the
FTP directory that contains the RedHat directory. For example, if your FTP server contains
the directory /mirrors/redhat/i386/RedHat, enter /mirrors/redhat/i386 for the FTP
directory.
•
HTTP — Choose this option if you wish to install Red Hat Linux from an HTTP server.
Two text entry boxes for the HTTP server and HTTP directory will appear. Enter the fullyqualified domain name or IP address of the HTTP server. For the HTTP directory, enter the name of the HTTP directory that contains the RedHat directory. For example, if
your HTTP server contains the directory /mirrors/redhat/i386/RedHat, enter /mirrors/redhat/i386 for the HTTP directory.
•
Hard Drive — Choose this option if you wish to install Red Hat Linux from a hard
drive. Two text entry boxes for hard drive partition and hard drive directory will appear.
Hard drive installations require the use of ISO (or CD-ROM) images. Be sure to verify
that the ISO images are intact before you start the installation. To verify them, use an
md5sum program. Enter the hard drive partition that contains the ISO images (for example, /dev/hda1) in the Hard Drive Partition text box, and enter the directory that contains
the ISO images in the Hard Drive Directory text box.
2.4. Partition Information
Figure 2-4. Partition Information
To clear the Master Boot Record, select Yes beside the option on the top of the window. You
can choose to keep the existing partitions, remove all the existing partitions, or remove all
the existing Linux partitions by selecting None, All, or Linux, respectively, next to Remove
Partitions.
Chapter 2. Kickstart Configurator
47
You can initialize the disk label to the default for the architecture of the system (msdos for
x86 and gpt for Itanium). Choose Yes if you are installing on a brand new hard drive.
2.4.1. Creating Partitions
To create a partition, click the Add button. The Partition Options window shown in Figure
2-5 will appear. Choose mount point, filesystem type, and partition size for the new partition.
Optionally, you can also choose from the following:
•
Additional Size Options — Choose to make the partition a fixed size, up to a chosen size,
or fill the remaining space on the hard drive.
•
Force the partition to be created as a primary partition.
•
Create the partition on a specific hard drive. For example, to make the partition on the
first IDE hard disk (/dev/hda), specify hda as the drive. Do not include /dev in the drive
name.
•
Use an existing partition. For example, to make the partition on the first partition on the
first IDE hard disk (/dev/hda1), specify hda1 as the partition. Do not include /dev in the
partition name.
•
Format the partition as the chosen filesystem type.
Figure 2-5. Creating Partitions
To edit an existing partition, select the partition from the list and click the Edit button. The
same Partitions Options window that appears when you add a partition appears, except it
contains the values for the selected partition. Modify the partition options and click OK.
To delete an existing partition, select the partition from the list and click the Delete button.
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Chapter 2. Kickstart Configurator
2.5. Network Configuration
Figure 2-6. Network Configuration
There are three network configuration options: DHCP, Static IP, and None. If there is not an
Ethernet card in the system, choose None.
Networking is only required if you choose a networking-type installation method (NFS or
FTP). If you are unsure which to choose, choose None. Networking can always be configured
after installation with the Red Hat Network Configurator using the command (redhatconfig-network.
If you select Static IP, you must provide additional networking information in the table
below the network types.
Chapter 2. Kickstart Configurator
49
2.6. Authentication
Figure 2-7. Authentication
In the Authentication section, select whether to use shadow passwords and md5 encryption
for user passwords. These options are highly recommended and chosen by default.
The Authentication Configuration options allows you to configure the following methods
of authentication:
•
NIS
•
LDAP
•
Kerberos 5
•
Hesiod
•
SMB
•
Name Switch Cache
They are not enabled by default. To enable one or more of these methods, click the appropriate tab, click the checkbutton next to Enable, and enter the appropriate information for the
authentication method.
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Chapter 2. Kickstart Configurator
2.7. Firewall Configuration
Figure 2-8. Firewall Configuration
The Firewall Configuration window is identical to the screen in the Red Hat Linux installation program and provides the same functionality. Choose between High, Medium, and
Disabled security levels. Refer to the Official Red Hat Linux Installation Guide for detailed
information about these security levels.
2.8. X Configuration
If you are installing the X Window System, you can configure it during the kickstart installation by checking the Configure the X Window System button on the X Configuration
window as shown in Figure 2-9. If this option is not chosen, the X configuration options will
be disabled and the skipx option will be written to the kickstart file.
Chapter 2. Kickstart Configurator
51
2.8.1. General
Figure 2-9. X Configuration - General
The first step in configuring X is to choose the default color depth and resolution. Select them
from their respective pulldown menus. Be sure to specify a color depth and resolution that
is compatible with the video card and monitor for the system.
If you are installing both the GNOME and KDE desktops, you need to choose which desktop
you want to be the default. If you are just installing one desktop, be sure to choose it. Once
the system is installed, users can choose which desktop they want to be their default. For
more information about GNOME and KDE, refer to the Official Red Hat Linux Installation
Guide and the Official Red Hat Linux Getting Started Guide.
Next, choose whether to start the X Window System when the system is booted. This option will start the system in runlevel 5 with the graphical login screen. After the system is
installed, this can be changed by modifying the /etc/inittab configuration file.
2.8.2. Video Card
Probe for video card is selected by default. Accept this default if you want the installation
program to probe for the video card during installation. Probing works for most modern
video cards. If you select this option and the installation program can not successfully probe
the video card, the installation program will stop at the video card configuration screen. To
continue the installation process, select your video card from the list and click Next.
Alternatively, you can select the video card from the list on the Video Card tab as shown
in Figure 2-10. Also select the amount of video RAM the selected video card has from the
Video Card RAM pulldown menu. These values will be used by the installation program to
configure the X Window System.
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Chapter 2. Kickstart Configurator
Figure 2-10. X Configuration - Video Card
2.8.3. Monitor
After configuring the video card, click on the Monitor tab shown in Figure 2-11.
Probe for monitor is selected by default. Accept this default if you want the installation program to probe for the monitor during installation. Probing works for most modern monitors.
If you select this option and the installation program can not successfully probe the monitor, the installation program will stop at the monitor configuration screen. To continue the
installation process, select your monitor from the list and click Next.
Alternatively, you can select your monitor from the list. You can also specify the horizontal
and vertical sync rates instead of specifying a monitor by checking the Specify hysnc and
vsync instead of monitor option. This option is useful if the monitor for the system is not
listed. Notice that when this option is enabled, the monitor list is disabled.
Chapter 2. Kickstart Configurator
53
Figure 2-11. X Configuration - Monitor
2.9. Package Selection
Figure 2-12. Package Selection
The Package Selection window allows you to choose which package categories to install.
Currently, Kickstart Configurator does not allow you to select individual packages. To install individual packages, modify the %packages section of the kickstart file after you save
it.
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Chapter 2. Kickstart Configurator
2.10. Pre-Installation Script
Figure 2-13. Pre-Installation Script
You can add commands to run on the system immediately after the kickstart file has been
parsed and before the installation begins. If you have configured the network in the kickstart
file, the network is enabled before this section is processed. If you would like to include a
pre-installation script, type it in the text area.
Caution
Do not include the %pre command. It will be added for you.
Chapter 2. Kickstart Configurator
55
2.11. Post-Installation Script
Figure 2-14. Post-Installation Script
You can also add commands to execute on the system after the installation is completed. If
you have properly configured the network in the kickstart file, the network is enabled. If you
would like to include a post-installation script, type it in the text area.
Caution
Do not include the %post command. It will be added for you.
For example, to change the message of the day for the newly installed system, add the following command to the %post section:
echo "Hackers will be punished!" > /etc/motd
2.11.1. Chroot Environment
If you want your post-installation script to run outside of the chroot environment, click the
checkbutton next to this option on the top of the Post-Installation window. This is equivalent
to the using the --nochroot option in the %post section.
Tip
If you want to make any changes to the newly installed filesystem in the post-installation section
outside of the chroot environment, you must append the directory name with /mnt/sysimage.
For example, if you check the Run outside of the chroot environment button, the previous
example needs to be changed to the following:
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Chapter 2. Kickstart Configurator
echo "Hackers will be punished!" > /mnt/sysimage/etc/motd
2.11.2. Use an Interpreter
If you want to specify a scripting language to use to execute your script, click the Use an
interpreter button and enter the interpreter in the text box beside the button. For example,
/usr/bin/perl can be specified for a Perl script. This option corresponds to using %post
--interpreter /usr/bin/perl in your kickstart file.
2.11.3. Examples
The post-installation script can be used to perform any useful functions such as the following
examples.
Turn services on and off:
/sbin/chkconfig
/sbin/chkconfig
/sbin/chkconfig
/sbin/chkconfig
--level
--level
--level
--level
345
345
345
345
telnet off
finger off
lpd off
httpd on
Run a script named runme from an NFS share:
mkdir /mnt/temp
mount 10.10.0.2:/usr/new-machines /mnt/temp
open -s -w -- /mnt/temp/runme
umount /mnt/temp
Add a user to the system:
/usr/sbin/useradd bob
/usr/bin/chfn -f "Bob Smith" bob
/usr/sbin/usermod -p ’kjdf$04930FTH/ ’ bob
2.12. Saving the File
After you have finished choosing your kickstart options, click the Save File button. A dialog
box similar to Figure 2-15 will appear to allow you to review your choices before saving the
file.
Chapter 2. Kickstart Configurator
57
Figure 2-15. Confirm Options
If you are happy with your choices, click the Save File button within the dialog box. A save
file dialog box will appear and allow you to choose where to save the file. The default file
name to save it as is ks.cfg.
After saving the file, refer to Section 1.6 for information on how to start the kickstart installation.
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Chapter 2. Kickstart Configurator
Chapter 3.
Rescue Mode
When things go wrong, there are ways to fix problems. However, these methods require that
you understand the system well. This chapter describes how to boot into rescue mode and
single user mode, where you can use your own knowledge to repair the system.
3.1. What is Rescue Mode?
Rescue mode provides the ability to boot a small Linux environment entirely from a diskette,
CD-ROM, or using some other method.
As the name implies, rescue mode is provided to rescue you from something. During normal
operation, your Red Hat Linux system uses files located on your system’s hard drive to do
everything — run programs, store your files, and more.
However, there may be times when you are unable to get Linux running completely enough
to access its files on your system’s hard drive. Using rescue mode, you can access the files
stored on your system’s hard drive, even if you cannot actually run Linux from that hard
drive.
Normally, you will need to get into rescue mode for one of two reasons:
•
You are unable to boot Linux.
•
You are having hardware or software problems, and you want to get a few important files
off your system’s hard drive.
Next, we take a closer look at each of these scenarios.
3.1.1. Unable to Boot Linux
This problem is often caused by the installation of another operating system after you have
installed Red Hat Linux. Some other operating systems assume that you have no other operating systems on your computer, and they overwrite the Master Boot Record (MBR) that
originally contained the GRUB or LILO boot loader. If the boot loader is overwritten in this
manner, you will not be able to boot Red Hat Linux unless you can get into rescue mode.
Another common problem occurs when using a partitioning tool to resize a partition or
create a new partition from free space after installation and it changes the order of your
partitions. If the partition number of your / partition changes, the boot loader will not be
able to find it to mount the partition. To fix this problem, boot in rescue mode and modify
/boot/grub/grub.conf if you are using GRUB or /etc/lilo.conf if you are using LILO.
3.1.2. Hardware/Software Problems
This category includes a wide variety of different situations. Two examples include failing
hard drives and forgetting to run LILO after building a new kernel (if you are using LILO as
your boot loader). If you are using GRUB, you do not have to execute a command to reread
the GRUB configuration file. However, if you specify an invalid root device or kernel in the
GRUB configuration file, you might not know until you reboot your computer.
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Chapter 3. Rescue Mode
In these situations, you may be unable to boot Red Hat Linux. If you can get into rescue
mode, you might be able to resolve the problem or at least get copies of your most important
files.
3.2. Booting Rescue Mode
To boot your system in rescue mode, boot from a Red Hat Linux boot disk or the Red Hat
Linux CD-ROM #1, and enter the following command at the installation boot prompt:
boot: linux rescue
You can get to the installation boot prompt in one of these ways:
•
By booting your system from an installation boot diskette made from the boot.img image.
This method requires that the Red Hat Linux CD-ROM #1 be inserted as the rescue image
or that the rescue image be on the hard drive as an ISO image. 1
•
By booting your system from the Red Hat Linux CD-ROM #1.
•
By booting from a network disk made from the bootnet.img or PCMCIA boot disk made
from pcmcia.img. You can only do this if your network connection is working. You will
need to identify the network host and transfer type. For an explanation of how to specify
this information, refer to the Official Red Hat Linux Installation Guide.
After booting off a boot disk or Red Hat Linux CD-ROM #1 and providing a valid rescue
image, you will see the following message:
The rescue environment will now attempt to find your Red Hat
Linux installation and mount it under the directory
/mnt/sysimage. You can then make any changes required to your
system. If you want to proceed with this step choose
’Continue’. You can also choose to mount your filesystem
read-only instead of read-write by choosing ’Read-only’.
If for some reason this process fails you can choose ’Skip’
and this step will be skipped and you will go directly to a
command shell.
If you select Continue, it will attempt to mount your filesystem under the directory
/mnt/sysimage. If it fails to mount a partition, it will notify you. If you select Read-Only, it
will attempt to mount your filesystem under the directory /mnt/sysimage, but in read-only
mode. If you select Skip, your filesystem will not be mounted. Choose Skip if you think
your filesystem is corrupted.
Once you have your system in rescue mode, a prompt appears on VC (virtual console) 1 and
VC 2 (use the [Ctrl]-[Alt]-[F1] key combination to access VC 1 and [Ctrl]-[Alt]-[F2] to access
VC 2):
sh-2.05a#
If you selected Continue to mount your partitions automatically and they were mounted
successfully, you are in single-user mode.
To mount a Linux partition manually inside rescue mode, create a directory such as /foo,
and type the following command:
1.
To create an installation boot diskette, insert a blank floppy disk and use the images/boot.img file
on the Red Hat Linux CD-ROM #1 with the command dd if=boot.img of=/dev/fd0.
Chapter 3. Rescue Mode
61
mount -t ext3 /dev/hda5 /foo
In the above command, /foo is a directory that you have created and /dev/hda5 is the
partition you want to mount. If the partition is of type ext2, replace ext3 with ext2.
If you do not know the names of your partitions, use the following command to list them:
fdisk -l
If your filesystem is mounted and you want to make your system the root partition, use the
command chroot /mnt/sysimage. This is useful if you need to run commands such as rpm
that require your root partition to be mounted as /. To exit the chroot environment, type
exit, and you will return to the prompt.
From the bash# prompt, you can run many useful commands including:
anaconda
badblocks
bash
cat
chattr
chmod
chroot
clock
collage
cp
cpio
dd
ddcprobe
depmode
df
e2fsck
fdisk
fsck
fsck.ext2
fsck.ext3
ftp
gnome-pty-helper
grep
gunzip
gzip
head
hwclock
ifconfig
init
insmod
less
ln
loader
ls
lsattr
lsmod
mattrib
mbadblocks
mcd
mcopy
mdel
mdeltree
mdir
mdu
mformat
minfo
mkdir
mke2fs
mkfs.ext2
mknod
mkraid
mkswap
mlabel
mmd
mmount
mmove
modprobe
mount
mpartition
mrd
mread
mren
mshowfat
mt
mtools
mtype
mv
mzip
open
pico
ping
probe
ps
python
python1.5
raidstart
raidstop
rcp
rlogin
rm
rmmod
route
rpm
rsh
sed
sh
sync
tac
tail
tar
touch
traceroute
umount
uncpio
uniq
zcat
3.3. Booting Single-User Mode
You may be able to boot single-user mode directly. If your system boots, but does not allow
you to log in when it has completed booting, try single-user mode.
If you are using GRUB, use the following steps to boot into single-user mode:
1. If you have a GRUB password configured, type p and enter the password.
2. Select Red Hat Linux with the version of the kernel that you wish to boot and type e
for edit. You will be presented with a list of items in the configuration file for the title
you just selected.
3. Select the line that starts with kernel and type e to edit the line.
4. Go to the end of the line and type single as a separate word (press the [Spacebar] and
then type single). Press [Enter] to exit edit mode.
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Chapter 3. Rescue Mode
5. Back at the GRUB screen, type b to boot into single user mode.
If you are using LILO, specify one of these options at the LILO boot prompt (if you are using
the graphical LILO, you must press [Ctrl]-[x] to exit the graphical screen and go to the boot:
prompt):
boot: linux single
boot: linux emergency
In single-user mode, you computer boots to runlevel 1. Your local filesystems will
be mounted, but your network will not be activated. You will have a usable system
maintenance shell.
In emergency mode, you are booted into the most minimal environment possible. The root
filesystem will be mounted read-only and almost nothing will be set up. The main advantage of emergency mode over linux single is that your init files are not loaded. If init is
corrupted or not working, you can still mount filesystems to recover data that could be lost
during a re-installation.
Have you ever rebuilt a kernel and, eager to try out your new handiwork, rebooted before
running /sbin/lilo? If you did not have an entry for an older kernel in lilo.conf, you
had a problem. If you would like to know a solution to this problem, read this section.
In many cases, you can boot your Red Hat Linux system from the Red Hat Linux boot disk 1
with your root filesystem mounted and ready to go. Here is how to do it:
Enter the following command at the boot disk’s boot: prompt:
linux single root=/dev/hdXX initrd=
Replace the XX in /dev/hdXX with the appropriate letter and number for your root partition.
What does this command do? First, it starts the boot process in single-user mode, with
the root partition set to your root partition. The empty initrd specification bypasses the
installation-related image on the boot disk, which will cause you to enter single-user mode
immediately.
Is there a negative side to using this technique? Unfortunately, yes. Because the kernel on
the Red Hat Linux boot disk only has support for IDE built-in, if your system is SCSI-based,
you will not be able to do this. In that case, you will have to access rescue mode using the
linux rescue command mentioned above.
1.
To create an installation boot diskette, insert a blank floppy disk and use the images/boot.img file
on the Red Hat Linux CD-ROM #1 with the command dd if=boot.img of=/dev/fd0.
Chapter 4.
Redundant Array of Independent Disks (RAID)
4.1. What is RAID?
The basic idea behind RAID is to combine multiple small, inexpensive disk drives into an
array to accomplish performance or redundancy goals not attainable with one large and
expensive drive. This array of drives will appear to the computer as a single logical storage
unit or drive.
RAID is a method in which information is spread across several disks, using techniques
such as disk striping (RAID Level 0), disk mirroring (RAID level 1), and disk striping with parity
(RAID Level 5) to achieve redundancy, lower latency and/or increase bandwidth for reading
or writing to disks, and maximize the ability to recover from hard disk crashes.
The underlying concept of RAID is that data may be distributed across each drive in the
array in a consistent manner. To do this, the data must first be broken into consistently-sized
"chunks" (often 32K or 64K in size, although different sizes can be used). Each chunk is then
written to a hard drive in RAID according to the RAID level used. When the data is to be
read, the process is reversed, giving the illusion that multiple drives are actually one large
drive.
4.2. Who Should Use RAID?
Anyone who needs to keep large quantities of data on hand (such as an average system administrator) would benefit by using RAID technology. Primary reasons to use RAID include:
•
Enhanced speed
•
Increased storage capacity using a single virtual disk
•
Lessening the impact of a disk failure
4.3. Hardware RAID versus Software RAID
There are two possible RAID approaches: Hardware RAID and Software RAID.
4.3.1. Hardware RAID
The hardware-based system manages the RAID subsystem independently from the host and
presents to the host only a single disk per RAID array.
An example of a Hardware RAID device would be one that connects to a SCSI controller and
presents the RAID arrays as a single SCSI drive. An external RAID system moves all RAID
handling "intelligence" into a controller located in the external disk subsystem. The whole
subsystem is connected to the host via a normal SCSI controller and appears to the host as a
single disk.
RAID controllers also come in the form of cards that act like a SCSI controller to the operating
system but handle all of the actual drive communications themselves. In these cases, you
plug the drives into the RAID controller just like you would a SCSI controller, but then you
64
Chapter 4. Redundant Array of Independent Disks (RAID)
add them to the RAID controller’s configuration, and the operating system never knows the
difference.
4.3.2. Software RAID
Software RAID implements the various RAID levels in the kernel disk (block device) code. It
offers the cheapest possible solution, as expensive disk controller cards or hot-swap chassis
1
are not required. Software RAID also works with cheaper IDE disks as well as SCSI disks.
With today’s fast CPUs, Software RAID performance can excel against Hardware RAID.
The MD driver in the Linux kernel is an example of a RAID solution that is completely hardware independent. The performance of a software-based array is dependent on the server
CPU performance and load.
For information on configuring Software RAID in the Red Hat Linux installation program,
refer to the Chapter 5.
For those interested in learning more about what Software RAID has to offer, here is a brief
list of the most important features:
•
Threaded rebuild process
•
Fully kernel-based configuration
•
Portability of arrays between Linux machines without reconstruction
•
Backgrounded array reconstruction using idle system resources
•
Hot-swappable drive support
•
Automatic CPU detection to take advantage of certain CPU optimizations
4.4. RAID Levels and Linear Support
RAID supports various configurations, including levels 0, 1, 4, 5, and linear. These RAID
types are defined as follows:
•
Level 0 — RAID level 0, often called "striping," is a performance-oriented striped data
mapping technique. This means the data being written to the array is broken down into
strips and written across the member disks of the array, allowing high I/O performance
at low inherent cost but provides no redundancy. The storage capacity of a level 0 array is
equal to the total capacity of the member disks in a Hardware RAID or the total capacity
of member partitions in a Software RAID.
•
Level 1 — RAID level 1, or "mirroring," has been used longer than any other form of RAID.
Level 1 provides redundancy by writing identical data to each member disk of the array,
leaving a "mirrored" copy on each disk. Mirroring remains popular due to its simplicity and high level of data availability. Level 1 operates with two or more disks that may
use parallel access for high data-transfer rates when reading but more commonly operate independently to provide high I/O transaction rates. Level 1 provides very good data
reliability and improves performance for read-intensive applications but at a relatively
1.
A hot-swap chassis allows you to remove a hard drive without having to power-down your
system.
Chapter 4. Redundant Array of Independent Disks (RAID)
65
high cost. 2 The storage capacity of the level 1 array is equal to the capacity of one of the
mirrored hard disks in a Hardware RAID or one of the mirrored partitions in a Software
RAID.
•
Level 4 — Level 4 uses parity 3 concentrated on a single disk drive to protect data. It is better suited to transaction I/O rather than large file transfers. Because the dedicated parity
disk represents an inherent bottleneck, level 4 is seldom used without accompanying technologies such as write-back caching. Although RAID level 4 is an option in some RAID
partitioning schemes, it is not an option allowed in Red Hat Linux RAID installations 4
The storage capacity of Hardware RAID level 4 is equal to the capacity of member disks,
minus the capacity of one member disk. The storage capacity of Software RAID level 4 is
equal to the capacity of the member partitions, minus the size of one of the partitions if
they are of equal size.
•
Level 5 — This is the most common type of RAID. By distributing parity across some or all
of an array’s member disk drives, RAID level 5 eliminates the write bottleneck inherent
in level 4. The only performance bottleneck is the parity calculation process. With modern CPUs and Software RAID, that usually isn’t a very big problem. As with level 4, the
result is asymmetrical performance, with reads substantially outperforming writes. Level
5 is often used with write-back caching to reduce the asymmetry. The storage capacity of
Hardware RAID level 5 is equal to the capacity of member disks, minus the capacity of
one member disk. The storage capacity of Software RAID level 5 is equal to the capacity
of the member partitions, minus the size of one of the partitions if they are of equal size.
•
Linear RAID — Linear RAID is a simple grouping of drives to create a larger virtual drive.
In linear RAID, the chunks are allocated sequentially from one member drive, going to the
next drive only when the first is completely filled. This grouping provides no performance
benefit, as it is unlikely that any I/O operations will be split between member drives.
Linear RAID also offers no redundancy and, in fact, decreases reliability — if any one
member drive fails, the entire array cannot be used. The capacity is the total of all member
disks.
2.
RAID level 1 comes at a high cost because you write the same information to all of the disks in
the array, which wastes drive space. For example, if you have RAID level 1 set up so that your root (/)
partition exists on two 40G drives, you have 80G total but are only able to access 40G of that 80G. The
other 40G acts like a mirror of the first 40G.
3. Parity information is calculated based on the contents of the rest of the member disks in the array.
This information can then be used to reconstruct data when one disk in the array fails. The reconstructed data can then be used to satisfy I/O requests to the failed disk before it is replaced and to
repopulate the failed disk after it has been replaced.
4. RAID level 4 takes up the same amount of space as RAID level 5, but level 5 has more advantages
than level 4. For this reason, level 4 is not supported.
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Chapter 4. Redundant Array of Independent Disks (RAID)
Chapter 5.
Software RAID Configuration
Read Chapter 4 first to learn about RAID, the differences between Hardware and Software
RAID, and the differences between RAID 0, 1, and 5.
Software RAID can be configured during the graphical installation of Red Hat Linux or
during a kickstart installation. You can use fdisk or Disk Druid to create your RAID configuration, but these instructions will focus mainly on using Disk Druid to complete this
task.
Before you can create a RAID device, you must first create RAID partitions, using the following step-by-step instructions.
Tip
If you are using fdisk to create a RAID partition, remember that instead of creating a partition as
type 83, which is Linux native, you must create the partition as type fd (Linux RAID). Also, for best
performance, partitions within a given RAID array should span identical cylinders on drives.
•
Create a partition. In Disk Druid, choose New to create a new partition (see Figure 5-1).
Figure 5-1. Creating a New RAID Partition
•
Choose software RAID from the Filesystem Type pull-down menu.
•
You will not be able to enter a mount point (you will be able to do that once you have
created your RAID device).
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Chapter 5. Software RAID Configuration
•
For Allowable Drives, select the drive on which RAID will be created. If you have multiple drives, all drives will be selected here and you must deselect those drives which will
not have the RAID array on them.
•
Enter the size that you want the partition to be.
•
Select Fill to maximum allowable size if you want the partition to grow to fill all available
space on the hard disk. If you make more than one partition growable, the partitions will
share the available free space on the disk.
•
Select Force to be a primary partition if you want the partition to be a primary partition.
•
Select Check for bad blocks? if you want the installation program to check for bad blocks
on the hard drive before formatting it.
Continue these steps to create as many partitions as needed for your RAID setup. Notice that
all the partitions do not have to be RAID partitions. For example, you can configure only the
/home partition as a software RAID device.
Once you have all of your partitions created as software RAID partitions, select the Make
RAID button on the Disk Druid main partitioning screen (see Figure 5-3).
Next, Figure 5-2 will appear, where you can make a RAID device.
Figure 5-2. Making a RAID Device
•
First, enter a mount point.
•
Next, choose the filesystem type for the partition.
•
Choose your RAID level. You can choose from RAID 0, RAID 1, and RAID 5.
Note
If you are making a RAID partition of /boot, you must choose RAID level 1 and it must use one of
the first two drives (IDE first, SCSI second). If you are not creating a RAID partition of /boot, and
you are making a RAID partition of /, it must be RAID level 1 and it must use one of the first two
drives (IDE first, SCSI second).
Chapter 5. Software RAID Configuration
69
•
Select which partitions will go into this RAID array and click OK.
•
A spare partition can be specified for RAID 1 and RAID 5. If a software RAID partition
fails, the spare will automatically be used as a replacement. For each spare you want to
specify, you must create an additional software RAID partition (in addition to the partitions for the RAID device). In the previous step, select the partitions for the RAID device
and the partition(s) for the spare(s). Select the number of spares.
•
Select whether you want the partition formatted.
•
The RAID device will appear in the Drive Summary list as shown in Figure 5-3. At this
point, you can continue with your installation process. Refer to the Official Red Hat Linux
Installation Guide for further instructions.
Figure 5-3. Creating a RAID Array
70
Chapter 5. Software RAID Configuration
Network-Related References
Chapter 6.
Network Configuration
To communicate with other computers, computers need a network connection. This is accomplished by having the operating system recognize an interface card (such as Ethernet,
ISDN modem, or token ring) and configuring the interface to connect to the network.
The Red Hat Network Administration Tool can be used to configure the following types of
network interfaces:
•
Ethernet
•
ISDN
•
modem
•
xDSL
•
token ring
•
CIPE
•
wireless devices
To use the Red Hat Network Administration Tool, you must be running the X Window
System and have root privileges. To start the application, use one of the following methods:
•
On the GNOME desktop, go to the Main Menu Button (on the Panel) => Programs =>
System => Network Configuration.
•
On the KDE desktop, go to the Main Menu Button (on the Panel) => System => Network
Configuration.
•
Type the command redhat-config-network at a shell prompt (for example, in an XTerm
or a GNOME terminal).
If you prefer modifying the configuration files directly, refer to the Official Red Hat Linux
Reference Guide for information on their location and contents.
Tip
Go to the Red Hat Hardware Compatibility List (http://hardware.redhat.com/hcl/) to determine if Red
Hat Linux supports your hardware device.
6.1. Overview
To configure a network connection with the Network Administration Tool, perform the
following steps:
1. Add the physical hardware device to the hardware list.
2. Add a network device associated with the physical hardware device.
3. Configure any hosts that can not be looked up through DNS.
4. Configure the hostname and DNS settings.
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Chapter 6. Network Configuration
This chapter will discuss each of these steps for each type of network connection.
6.2. Establishing an Ethernet Connection
To establish an Ethernet connection, you need a network interface card (NIC), a network
cable (usually a CAT5 cable), and a network to connect to. There are different speeds to
networks; make sure your NIC is compatible with the network to which you want to connect.
To add an Ethernet connection, follow these steps:
1. Click the Devices tab.
2. Click the Add button.
3. Select Ethernet connection from the Device Type list, and click Next.
4. If you have already added the network interface card to the hardware list, select it
from the Ethernet card list. Otherwise, select Other Ethernet Card to add the hardware
device.
Note
The installation program usually detects supported Ethernet devices and prompts you to configure them. If you configured any Ethernet devices during the installation, they will already
appear in the hardware list on the Hardware tab.
5. If you selected Other Ethernet Card, the Select Ethernet Adapter window appears.
Select the manufacturer and model of the Ethernet card. Select the device name. If this
is the system’s first Ethernet card, select eth0 as the device name, if this is the second
Ethernet card, select eth1, and so on. The Network Administration Tool also allows
you to configure the resources for the NIC. Click Next to continue.
6. On the Configure Network Settings page as shown in Figure 6-1, choose between
DHCP and a static IP address. You may also specify a hostname for the device. If the
device receives a different IP address each time the network is started, do not specify a
hostname. Click Next to continue.
Figure 6-1. Ethernet Settings
7. Click Finish on the Create Ethernet Device page.
Chapter 6. Network Configuration
75
After configuring the Ethernet device, it appears in the device list as shown in Figure 6-2.
Figure 6-2. Ethernet Device
Be sure to click Apply to save the changes.
After adding the Ethernet device, you can edit its configuration by selecting the device from
the device list and clicking Edit. For example, when the device is added, it is configured to
start at boot time by default. You can edit its configuration to modify this setting.
When the device is added, it is not activated, as seen by its Inactive status. To activate the
device, select it from the device list, and click the Activate button.
6.3. Establishing an ISDN Connection
An ISDN connection is an Internet connection established with a ISDN modem card through
a special phone line installed by the phone company. ISDN connections are popular in Europe.
To add an ISDN connection, follow these steps:
1. Click the Devices tab.
2. Click the Add button.
3. Select ISDN connection from the Device Type list, and click Next.
4. Select the ISDN adapter from the pulldown menu. Then configure the resources and D
channel protocol for the adapter. Click Next to continue.
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Chapter 6. Network Configuration
Figure 6-3. ISDN Settings
5. If your ISP is in the pre-configured list, select it. Otherwise, enter the required information about your ISP account. If you do not know the values, contact your ISP. Click
Next.
6. On the Create Dialup Connection page, click Finish.
After configuring the ISDN device, it appears in the device list as an ippp device as shown
in Figure 6-4.
Figure 6-4. ISDN Device
Be sure to click Apply to save the changes.
After adding the modem device, you can edit its configuration by selecting the device from
the device list and clicking Edit. For example, when the device is added, it is configured not
to start at boot time by default. Edit its configuration to modify this setting. Compression,
PPP options, login name, password, and more can be changed.
When the device is added, it is not activated, as seen by its Inactive status. To activate the
device, select it from the device list, and click the Activate button.
Chapter 6. Network Configuration
77
6.4. Establishing a Modem Connection
A modem can be used to configure an Internet connection over an active phone line. An
Internet Service Provider (ISP) account (also called a dial-up account) is required.
To add a modem connection, follow these steps:
1. Click the Devices tab.
2. Click the Add button.
3. Select Modem connection from the Device Type list, and click Next.
4. If there is a modem already configured in the hardware list (on the Hardware tab),
Network Administration Tool assumes you want to use it to establish a modem connection. If there is not modem already configured, it tries to detect any modems in the
system. This probe might take a while.
5. After probing, the window in Figure 6-5 appears.
Figure 6-5. Modem Settings
6. Configure the baud rate, flow control, and modem volume. If you do not know these
values, accept the defaults. If you do not have touch tone dialing, uncheck the corresponding checkbox.
7. Click Next.
8. If your ISP is in the pre-configured list, select it. Otherwise, enter the required information about your ISP account. If you do not know the values, contact your ISP. Click
Next.
9. On the Create Dialup Connection page, click Finish.
After configuring the modem device, it appears in the device list as shown in Figure 6-6.
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Chapter 6. Network Configuration
Figure 6-6. Modem Device
Be sure to click Apply to save the changes.
After adding the modem device, you can edit its configuration by selecting the device from
the device list and clicking Edit. For example, when the device is added, it is configured not
to start at boot time by default. Edit its configuration to modify this setting. Compression,
PPP options, login name, password, and more can also be changed.
When the device is added, it is not activated, as seen by its Inactive status. To activate the
device, select it from the device list, and click the Activate button.
6.5. Establishing an xDSL Connection
DSL stands for Digital Subscriber Lines. There are different types of DSL such as ADSL,
IDSL, and SDSL. Network Administration Tool uses the term xDSL to mean all types of
DSL connections.
Some DSL providers require you to configure your system to obtain an IP address through
DHCP with an Ethernet card. Some DSL providers require you to configure a PPPoE (Pointto-Point Protocol over Ethernet) connection with an Ethernet card. Ask your DSL provider
which method to use.
If you are required to use DHCP, refer to Section 6.2 to configure your Ethernet card.
If you are required to use PPPoE, follow these steps:
1. Click the Devices tab.
2. Click the Add button.
3. Select xDSL connection from the Device Type list, and click Next.
4. If your Ethernet card is already in the hardware list, select the Ethernet Device from
the pull-down menu from the page shown in Figure 6-7. Otherwise, the Select Ethernet
Adapter window appears.
Note
The installation program usually detects supported Ethernet devices and prompts you to configure them. If you configured any Ethernet devices during the installation, they will already
appear in the hardware list on the Hardware tab.
Chapter 6. Network Configuration
79
Figure 6-7. xDSL Settings
5. If the Select Ethernet Adapter window appears, select the manufacturer and model
of the Ethernet card. Select the device name. If this is the system’s first Ethernet card,
select eth0 as the device name, if this is the second Ethernet card, select eth1, and so
on. The Network Administration Tool also allows you to configure the resources for
the NIC. Click Next to continue.
6. Enter the Provider Name, Login Name, and Password.
7. Click Next.
8. On the Create DSL Connection page, click Finish.
After configuring the DSL connect, it appears in the device list as shown in Figure 6-6.
Figure 6-8. xDSL Device
Be sure to click Apply to save the changes.
After adding the xDSL connection, you can edit its configuration by selecting the device from
the device list and clicking Edit. For example, when the device is added, it is configured not
to start at boot time by default. Edit its configuration to modify this setting.
When the device is added, it is not activated, as seen by its Inactive status. To activate the
device, select it from the device list, and click the Activate button.
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Chapter 6. Network Configuration
6.6. Establishing a Token Ring Connection
A token ring network is a network in which all the computers are connected in a circular
pattern. A token, or a special network packet, travels around the token ring and allows computers to send information to each other.
Tip
For more information on using token ring under Linux, refer to the Linux Token Ring Project website
available at http://www.linuxtr.net.
To add a token ring connection, follow these steps:
1. Click the Devices tab.
2. Click the Add button.
3. Select Token Ring connection from the Device Type list, and click Next.
4. If you have already added the token ring card to the hardware list, select it from the
Ethernet card list. Otherwise, select Other Tokenring Card to add the hardware device.
5. If you selected Other Tokenring Card, the Select Token Ring Adapter window as
shown in Figure 6-9 appears. Select the manufacturer and model of the adapter. Select
the device name. If this is the system’s first token ring card, select tr0, if this is the
second token ring card, select tr1, and so on. The Network Administration Tool also
allows the user to configure the resources for the adapter. Click Next to continue.
Figure 6-9. Token Ring Settings
6. On the Configure Network Settings page, choose between DHCP and static IP address. You may specify a hostname for the device. If the device receives a dynamic
IP address each time the network is started, do not specify a hostname. Click Next to
continue.
7. Click Finish on the Create Ethernet Device page.
After configuring the token ring device, it appears in the device list as shown in Figure 6-10.
Chapter 6. Network Configuration
81
Figure 6-10. Token Ring Device
Be sure to click Apply to save the changes.
After adding the device, you can edit its configuration by selecting the device from the device
list and clicking Edit. For example, you can configure whether the device is started at boot
time.
When the device is added, it is not activated, as seen by its Inactive status. To activate the
device, select it from the device list, and click the Activate button.
6.7. Establishing a CIPE Connection
CIPE stands for Crypto IP Encapsulation. It is used to configure an IP tunneling device. For
example, CIPE can be used to grant access from the outside world into a Virtual Private
Network (VPN). If you need to setup a CIPE device, contact your system administrator for
the correct values.
Figure 6-11. CIPE Settings
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6.8. Establishing a Wireless Connection
Wireless Ethernet devices are becoming increasingly popular. The configuration is similar
to the Ethernet configuration except that it allows you to configure ESSID, mode, frequency,
channel, transmit rate, and key for your wireless device.
To add a wireless Ethernet connection, follow these steps:
1. Click the Devices tab.
2. Click the Add button.
3. Select Wireless connection from the Device Type list, and click Next.
4. If you have already added the wireless network interface card to the hardware list,
select it from the Ethernet card list. Otherwise, select Other Ethernet Card to add the
hardware device.
Note
The installation program usually detects supported wireless Ethernet devices and prompts you
to configure them. If you configured them during the installation program, they will already
appear in the hardware list on the Hardware tab.
5. If you selected Other Ethernet Card, the Select Ethernet Adapter window appears.
Select the manufacturer and model of the Ethernet card and the device. If this is the
first Ethernet card for the system, select eth0, if this is the second Ethernet card for
the system, select eth1, and so on. The Network Administration Tool also allows the
user to configure the resources for the wireless network interface card. Click Next to
continue.
6. On the Configure Wireless Connection page as shown in Figure 6-12, configure the
ESSID, mode, frequency, channel, transmit rate, and key for your wireless device.
Figure 6-12. Wireless Settings
7. On the Configure Network Settings page, choose between DHCP and static IP address. You may specify a hostname for the device. If the device receives a dynamic
IP address each time the network is started, do not specify a hostname. Click Next to
continue.
8. Click Finish on the Create Wireless Device page.
Chapter 6. Network Configuration
83
After configuring the wireless device, it appears in the device list as shown in Figure 6-13.
Figure 6-13. Wireless Device
Be sure to click Apply to save the changes.
After adding the wireless device, you can edit its configuration by selecting the device from
the device list and clicking Edit. For example, you can configure the device to activate at
boot time.
When the device is added, it is not activated, as seen by its Inactive status. To activate the
device, select if from the device list, and click the Activate button.
6.9. Managing Hosts
The Hosts tab allows you to add, edit, or remove hosts from the /etc/hosts file. This file
contains IP addresses and their corresponding hostnames.
When your system tries to resolve a hostname to an IP address or determine the hostname
for an IP address, it refers to the /etc/hosts file before using the name servers (if you are
using the default Red Hat Linux configuration). If the IP address is listed in the /etc/hosts
file, the name servers are not used. If your network contains computers whose IP addresses
are not listed in DNS, it is recommended that you add them to the /etc/hosts file.
To add an entry to the /etc/hosts file, click Add in the Hosts tab, provide the requested
information, and click OK. Click Apply to write the entry to the file.
Warning
Do not remove the localhost entry.
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Chapter 6. Network Configuration
Figure 6-14. Hosts Configuration
Tip
To change lookup order, edit the /etc/host.conf file. The line order hosts, bind specifies that
the /etc/hosts takes precedence over the name servers. Changing the line to order bind, hosts
configures your system to resolve hostnames and IP addresses using the name servers first. If the
IP address can not be resolved through the name servers, your system looks for the IP address in
the /etc/hosts file.
6.10. Managing DNS Settings
The DNS tab allows you to configure the system’s hostname, domain, name servers, and
search domain. Name servers are used to look up other hosts on the network.
Figure 6-15. DNS Configuration
Chapter 6. Network Configuration
85
Note
The name servers section does not configure the system to be a name server.
If the DNS server names are retrieved from DHCP (or retrieved from the ISP of a modem
connection) do not add primary, secondary, or tertiary DNS servers.
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Chapter 6. Network Configuration
Chapter 7.
Basic Firewall Configuration
Just as a firewall in a building attempts to prevent a fire from spreading, a computer firewall attempts to prevent computer viruses from spreading to your computer and to prevent
unauthorized users from accessing your computer. A firewall exists between your computer
and the network. It determines which services on your computer remote users on the network can access. A properly configured firewall can greatly increase the security of your
system. It is recommended that you configure a firewall for any Red Hat Linux system with
an Internet connection.
During the Firewall Configuration screen of the Red Hat Linux installation, you were given
the option to choose a high, medium, or no security level as well as allow specific devices,
incoming services, and ports. These levels are based on the GNOME Lokkit firewall configuration application.
After installation, you can change the security level of your system by using GNOME
Lokkit.
GNOME Lokkit allows you to configure firewall settings for an average user by constructing basic ipchains networking rules. Instead of having to write the rules, this program asks
you a series of questions about how you use your system and then writes it for you in the
file /etc/sysconfig/ipchains.
You should not try to use GNOME Lokkit to generate complex firewall rules. It is intended
for average users who want to protect themselves while using a modem, cable, or DSL Internet connection. To configure specific firewall rules, refer to the Firewalling with iptables
chapter in the Official Red Hat Linux Reference Guide.
To disable specific services and deny specific hosts and users, refer to Chapter 8.
To start GNOME Lokkit, type the command gnome-lokkit at a shell prompt as root. If you
do not have the X Window System installed or if you prefer a text-based program, use the
command lokkit to start the text-mode version of GNOME Lokkit.
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7.1. Basic
Figure 7-1. Basic
After starting the program, choose the appropriate security level for your system:
•
High Security — This option disables almost all network connects except DNS replies and
DHCP so that network interfaces can be activated. IRC, ICQ, and other instant messaging
services as well as RealAudio™ will not work without a proxy.
•
Low Security — This option will not allow remote connections to the system, including
NFS connections and remote X Window System sessions. Services that run below port
1023 will not accept connections, including FTP, SSH, Telnet, and HTTP.
•
Disable Firewall — This option does not create any security rules. It is recommended that
this option only be chosen if the system is on a trusted network (not on the Internet), if the
system is behind a larger firewall, or if you write your own custom firewall rules. If you
choose this option and click Next, proceed to Section 7.5. The security of your system will
not be changed.
7.2. Local Hosts
If there are Ethernet devices on the system, the Local Hosts page allows you to configure
whether the firewall rules apply to connection requests sent to each device. If the device
connects the system to a local area network behind a firewall and does not connect directly
to the Internet, select Yes. If the Ethernet card connects the system to a cable or DSL modem,
it is recommended that you select No.
Chapter 7. Basic Firewall Configuration
89
Figure 7-2. Local Hosts
7.3. DHCP
If you are using DHCP to activate any Ethernet interfaces on the system, you must say Yes to
the DHCP question. If you say no, you will not be able to establish a connect using the Ethernet interface. Many cable and DSL Internet providers require you to use DHCP to establish
an Internet connection.
Figure 7-3. DHCP
7.4. Configuring Services
GNOME Lokkit also allows you to turn common services on and off. If you answer Yes to
configuring services, you are prompted about the following services:
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Chapter 7. Basic Firewall Configuration
•
Web Server — Choose this option if you want people to connect to a Web server such as
Apache running on your system. You do not need to choose this option if you want to
view pages on your own system or on other servers on the network.
•
Incoming Mail — Choose this option if your system needs to accept incoming mail. You
do not need this option if you retrieve email using IMAP, POP3, or fetchmail.
•
Secure Shell — Secure Shell, or SSH, is a suite of tools for logging into and executing
commands on a remote machine over an encrypted connection. If you need to access your
machine remotely through ssh, select this option.
•
Telnet — Telnet allows you to log into your machine remotely; however, it is not secure. It
sends plain text (including passwords) over the network. It is recommended that you use
SSH to log into your machine remotely. If you are required to have telnet access to your
system, select this option.
To disable other services that you do not need, use Serviceconf (see Section 8.3) or ntsysv
(see Section 8.4), or chkconfig (see Section 8.5).
7.5. Activating the Firewall
Clicking Finish on the Activate the Firewall page will write the firewall rules to
/etc/sysconfig/ipchains and start the firewall by starting the ipchains service.
It is highly recommended that you run GNOME Lokkit from the machine, not from a remote
X session. If you disable remote access to your system, you will no longer be able to access it
or disable the firewall rules.
Click Cancel if you do not want to write the firewall rules.
7.5.1. Mail Relay
A mail relay is a system that allows other systems to send email through it. If your system is
a mail relay, someone can possibly use it to spam others from your machine.
If you chose to enable mail services, after you click Finish on the Activate the Firewall
page, you will be prompted to check for mail relay. If you choose Yes to check for mail relay, GNOME Lokkit will attempt to connect to the Mail Abuse Prevention System website at
http://www.mail-abuse.org/ and run a mail relay test program. The results of the test will
be displayed when it is finished. If your system is open to mail relay, it is highly recommended that you configure Sendmail to prevent it.
7.5.2. Activating the ipchains Service
The firewall rules will only be active if the ipchains service is running. To manual start the
service, use the command:
/sbin/service ipchains restart
To ensure that it is started when the system is booted, issue the command:
/sbin/chkconfig --level 345 ipchains on
You can also use Serviceconf to activate ipchains. See Section 8.3.
Chapter 8.
Controlling Access to Services
Maintaining security on your Red Hat Linux system is extremely important. One way to
manage security on your system is to carefully manage access to system services. Your system may need to provide open access to particular services (for example, httpd if you are
running a Web server). However, if you do not need to provide a service, you should turn it
off — this will minimize your exposure to possible bug exploits.
There are several different methods for managing access to system services. You must decide
which method you would like to use based on the service, your system’s configuration, and
your level of Linux expertise.
The easiest way to deny access to a service is to simply turn it off. Both the services managed by xinetd (which we will talk about more later in this section) and the services in the
/etc/rc.d hierarchy can be configured to start or stop using three different applications:
•
serviceconf — a graphical application that displays a description of each service, displays
whether each service is started at boot time (for runlevels 3, 4, and 5), and allows you to
start, stop, and restart each service.
•
ntsysv — a text-based application that allows you to configure which services are started
at boot time for each runlevel. Changes do not take effect immediately. Services can not be
started, stopped, or restarted using this program.
— a command-line utility that allows you to turn services on and off for the
different runlevels. Changes do not take effect immediately. Services can not be started,
stopped, or restarted using this utility.
• chkconfig
You may find that these tools are easier to use than the alternatives — editing the numerous
symbolic links located in the directories below /etc/rc.d by hand or editing the xinetd
configuration files in /etc/xinetd.d.
Another way to manage access to system services is by using iptables to configure an
IP firewall. If you are a new Linux user, please realize that iptables may not be the best
solution for you. Setting up iptables can be complicated and is best tackled by experienced
UNIX/Linux system administrators.
On the other hand, the benefit of using iptables is flexibility. For example, if you need a
customized solution which provides certain hosts access to certain services, iptables can
provide it for you. See the Official Red Hat Linux Reference Guide for more information about
iptables.
Alternatively, if you are looking for a utility which will set general access rules for your
home machine, and/or if you are new to Linux, you should try the GNOME Lokkit utility.
GNOME Lokkit is a GUI utility which will ask you questions about how you want to use
your machine. Based on your answers, it will then configure a simple firewall for you. Refer
to Chapter 7 for more information.
8.1. Runlevels
Before you can configure access to services, you must understand Linux runlevels.
A runlevel is a state, or mode, that is defined by the services listed in the directory
/etc/rc.d/rc x .d, where x is the number of the runlevel.
7 8
9 :
Red Hat Linux uses the following runlevels:
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Chapter 8. Controlling Access to Services
•
0 — Halt
•
1 — Single-user mode
•
2 — Not used (user-definable)
•
3 — Full multi-user mode
•
4 — Not used (user-definable)
•
5 — Full multi-user mode (with an X-based login screen)
•
6 — Reboot
If you configured the X Window System during the Red Hat Linux installation program, you
had the option of choosing a graphical or text login screen. If you chose a text login screen,
you are operating in runlevel 3. If you chose a graphical login screen, you are operating in
runlevel 5.
The default runlevel can be changed by modifying the /etc/inittab file, which contains a
line near the top of the file similar to the following:
id:3:initdefault:
Change the number in this line to the desired runlevel. The change will not take effect until
you reboot the system.
To change the runlevel immediately, use the command telinit followed by the runlevel
number. You must be root to use this command.
8.2. TCP Wrappers
Many UNIX system administrators are accustomed to using TCP wrappers to manage access to certain network services. Any network services managed by xinetd (as well as any
program with built-in support for libwrap) can use TCP wrappers to manage access. xinetd
can use the /etc/hosts.allow and /etc/hosts.deny files to configure access to system
services. As the names imply, hosts.allow contains a list of rules clients allowed to access
the network services controlled by xinetd, and hosts.deny contains rules to deny access.
The hosts.allow file takes precedence over the hosts.deny file. Permissions to grant or
deny access can be based on individual IP address (or hostnames) or on a pattern of clients.
See the Official Red Hat Linux Reference Guide and the hosts_access man page for details.
8.2.1. xinetd
To control access to Internet services, use xinetd, which is a secure replacement for inetd.
The xinetd daemon conserves system resources, provides access control and logging, and
can be used to start special-purpose servers. xinetd can be used to provide access only to
particular hosts, to deny access to particular hosts, to provide access to a service at certain
times, to limit the rate of incoming connections and/or the load created by connections, etc.
xinetd runs constantly and listens on all of the ports for the services it manages. When a
connection request arrives for one of its managed services, xinetd starts up the appropriate
server for that service.
The configuration file for xinetd is /etc/xinetd.conf, but you will notice upon
inspection of the file that it only contains a few defaults and an instruction to include the
/etc/xinetd.d directory. To enable or disable a xinetd service, edit its configuration file in
the /etc/xinetd.d directory. If the disable attribute is set to yes, the service is disabled.
If the disable attribute is set to no, the service is enabled. If you edit any of the xinetd
configuration files or change its enabled status using Serviceconf, ntsysv, or chkconfig,
you must restart xinetd with the command service xinetd restart before the changes
Chapter 8. Controlling Access to Services
93
will take effect. For a list of network services controlled by xinetd list of the contents of the
/etc/xinetd.d directory with the command ls /etc/xinetd.d.
8.3. Serviceconf
Serviceconf is a graphical application developed by Red Hat to configure which SysV services in /etc/rc.d/init.d are started at boot time (for runlevels 3, 4, and 5) and which
xinetd services are enabled. It also allows you to start, stop, and restart SysV services as
well as restart xinetd.
To start Serviceconf, use one of the following commands:
•
On the GNOME desktop, go to the Main Menu Button (on the Panel) => Programs =>
System => Serviceconf.
•
On the KDE desktop, go to the Main Menu Button (on the Panel) => Red Hat => System
=> Serviceconf.
•
Type the command serviceconf at a shell prompt (for example, in an XTerm or a
GNOME terminal).
Figure 8-1. Serviceconf
Serviceconf displays the current runlevel as well as which runlevel you are currently editing. To edit a different runlevel, select Edit Runlevel from the pulldown menu and select
runlevel 3, 4, or 5. Refer to Section 8.1 for a description of runlevels.
Serviceconf lists the services from /etc/rc.d/init.d as well as the services controlled by
xinetd. Click on a service to display a brief description of that service at the bottom of the
window.
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To start, stop, or restart a service immediately, select the service and choose the action from
the Actions pulldown menu. You can also select the service and click the start, stop, or restart
button on the toolbar.
If you select an xinetd service such as telnet, the Start, Stop, and Restart buttons will not be
active. If you change the Start at Boot value of an xinetd service, you must click the Save
Changes button to restart xinetd and disable/enable the xinetd services that you changed.
To enable a service at boot time for the currently selected runlevel, check the checkbox beside
the name of the service under the Start at Boot column. After configuring the runlevel, you
must apply the changes. Select File => Save Changes from the pulldown menu or click the
Save Changes button.
Warning
When you save changes to xinetd services, xinetd is restarted. When you save changes to other
services, the runlevel is reconfigured, but the changes do not take effect immediately.
If you check or uncheck the Start at Boot value for a service in /etc/rc.d/init.d, the Save
Changes button will become active. Click it to reconfigure the currently selected runlevel.
The changes do not affect the system immediately. For example, assume you are configuring
runlevel 3. If you change the Start at Boot value for the anacron service from checked to
unchecked and then click the Save Changes button, the runlevel 3 configuration changes so
that anacron is not started at boot time. However, runlevel 3 is not reinitialized, so anacron
is still running. Select one of following options at this point:
1. Stop the anacron service — Stop the service by selecting it from the list and clicking the
Stop the selected service button. A message will be displayed stating that the service
was stopped successfully.
2. Re-initialize the runlevel — Reinitialize the runlevel by going to a shell prompt (such as
an XTerm or GNOME terminal) and typing the command telinit 3 (where 3 is the
runlevel number). This option is recommended if you change the Start at Boot value
of more than one service and want to activate the changes immediately.
3. Do nothing else — You do not have to stop the anacron service. You can wait until
the system is rebooted for the service to stop. The next time the system is booted, the
runlevel will be initialized without the anacron service running.
8.4. ntsysv
The ntsysv utility provides a simple interface for activating or deactivating services. You can
use ntsysv to turn an xinetd-managed service on or off. You can also use ntsysv to start or
stop a service in the /etc/rc.d hierarchy; in that case, the ntsysv command (without options) is used to configure current runlevel. If you want to configure a different runlevel, use
something like ntsysv --levels 016. (In this example, you would be setting the services
for runlevels 0, 1 and 6.)
The ntsysv interface works like the text mode installation program. Use the up and down
arrows to navigate up and down the list. The space bar selects/unselects services and is also
used to "press" the Ok and Cancel buttons. To move between the list of services and the Ok
and Cancel buttons, use the [Tab] key. An * signifies that a service is set to on. The [F1] key
will pop up a short description of each service.
Chapter 8. Controlling Access to Services
95
Warning
Changes do not take effect immediately after using ntsysv. You must stop or start the individual
service with the command service daemon stop. In the previous example, replace daemon with
the name of the service you want to stop; for example, httpd. Replace stop with start or restart
to start or restart the service. If you want to start or stop a service which is managed by xinetd, use
the command service xinetd restart.
8.5. chkconfig
The chkconfig command can also be used to activate and deactivate services. If you use the
chkconfig --list command, you will see a list of system services and whether they are
started (on) or stopped (off) in runlevels 0-6 (at the end of the list, you will see a section for
the services managed by xinetd.
If you use chkconfig --list to query a service managed by xinetd, you will see whether
the xinetd service is enabled (on) or disabled (off). For example, the following command
shows that finger is enabled as an xinetd service:
$ chkconfig --list finger
finger
on
As shown above, if xinetd is running, finger is enabled.
If you use chkconfig --list to query a service in /etc/rc.d, you will see the service’s
settings for each runlevel, like the following:
$ chkconfig --list anacron
anacron
0:off
1:off
2:on
3:on
4:on
5:on
6:off
More importantly, chkconfig can be used to set a service to be started (or not) in a specific
runlevel. For example, to turn nscd off in runlevels 3, 4, and 5, use the command:
chkconfig --level 345 nscd off
See the chkconfig man page for more information on how to use it.
Warning
Services managed by xinetd are immediately affected by chkconfig. For example, if xinetd is
running, finger is disabled, and the command chkconfig finger on is executed, finger is immediately enabled without having to restart xinetd manually. Changes for other services do not
take effect immediately after using chkconfig. You must stop or start the individual service with the
command service daemon stop. In the previous example, replace daemon with the name of the
service you want to stop; for example, httpd. Replace stop with start or restart to start or restart
the service.
8.6. Additional Resources
For more information on xinetd, refer to the following resources.
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Chapter 8. Controlling Access to Services
8.6.1. Installed Documentation
• man ntsysv
— The ntsysv man page.
• man chkconfig —
• man xinetd
The chkconfig man page.
— The xinetd man page.
• man xinetd.conf —
The man page for the xinetd.conf configuration file.
— The man page for the format of host access control files (in section 5 of the man pages).
• man 5 hosts_access
8.6.2. Useful Websites
•
http://www.xinetd.org — The xinetd webpage. It contains the a more detailed list of
features and sample configuration files.
Chapter 9.
OpenSSH
OpenSSH is a free, open source implementation of the SSH (Secure SHell) protocols. It replaces telnet, ftp, rlogin, rsh, and rcp with secure, encrypted network connectivity tools.
OpenSSH supports versions 1.3, 1.5, and 2 of the SSH protocol. Since OpenSSH version 2.9,
the default protocol is version 2, which uses RSA keys as the default.
9.1. Why Use OpenSSH?
If you use OpenSSH tools, you are enhancing the security of your machine. All communications using OpenSSH tools, including passwords, are encrypted. Telnet and ftp use
plaintext passwords and send all information unencrypted. The information can be intercepted, the passwords can be retrieved, and then your system can be compromised by an
unauthorized person logging in to your system using one of the intercepted passwords. The
OpenSSH set of utilities should be used whenever possible to avoid these security problems.
Another reason to use OpenSSH is that it automatically forwards the DISPLAY variable to
the client machine. In other words, if you are running the X Window System on your local
machine, and you log in to a remote machine using the ssh command, when you execute a
program on the remote machine that requires X, it will be displayed on your local machine.
This is convenient if you prefer graphical system administration tools but do not always
have physical access to your server.
9.2. Configuring an OpenSSH Server
To run an OpenSSH server, you must first make sure that you have the proper RPM packages
installed. The openssh-server package is required and depends on the openssh package.
Both of these packages are included in Red Hat Linux 7.3.
The OpenSSH daemon uses the configuration file /etc/ssh/sshd_config. The default configuration file installed with Red Hat Linux 7.3 should be sufficient for most purposes. If you
want to configure the daemon in ways not provided by the default sshd_config, read the
sshd man page for a list of the keywords that can be defined in the configuration file.
To start the OpenSSH service, use the command /sbin/service sshd start. To stop the
OpenSSH server, use the command /sbin/service sshd stop. If you want the daemon to
start automatically at boot time, see Chapter 8 for information on how to manage services.
9.3. Configuring an OpenSSH Client
To connect to an OpenSSH server from a client machine, you must have the openssh-
clients and openssh packages installed on the client machine.
9.3.1. Using the ssh Command
The ssh command is a secure replacement for the rlogin, rsh, and telnet commands. It
allows you to log in to and execute commands on a remote machine.
Logging in to a remote machine with ssh is similar to using telnet. To log in to a remote
machine named penguin.example.net, type the following command at a shell prompt:
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Chapter 9. OpenSSH
ssh penguin.example.net
The first time you ssh to a remote machine, you will see a message similar to the following:
The authenticity of host ’penguin.example.net’ can’t be established.
DSA key fingerprint is 94:68:3a:3a:bc:f3:9a:9b:01:5d:b3:07:38:e2:11:0c.
Are you sure you want to continue connecting (yes/no)?
Type yes to continue. This will add the server to your list of known hosts as seen in the
following message:
Warning: Permanently added ’penguin.example.net’ (DSA) to the list of known hosts.
Next, you’ll see a prompt asking for your password for the remote machine. After entering
your password, you will be at a shell prompt for the remote machine. If you use ssh without
any command line options, the username that you are logged in as on the local client machine is passed to the remote machine. If you want to specify a different username, use the
following command:
ssh -l username penguin.example.net
You can also use the syntax ssh [email protected].
The ssh command can be used to execute a command on the remote machine without logging in to a shell prompt. The syntax is ssh hostname command . For example, if you want
to execute the command ls /usr/share/doc on the remote machine penguin.example.net,
type the following command at a shell prompt:
ssh penguin.example.net ls /usr/share/doc
After you enter the correct password, the contents of /usr/share/doc will be displayed,
and you will return to your shell prompt.
9.3.2. Using the scp Command
The scp command can be used to transfer files between machines over a secure, encrypted
connection. It is similar to rcp.
The general syntax to transfer a local file to a remote system is scp localfile
username@tohostname:/newfilename. The localfile specifies the source, and the
group of username@tohostname:/newfilename specifies the destination.
To transfer the local file shadowman to your account on penguin.example.net, type the following at a shell prompt (replace username with your username):
scp shadowman [email protected]:/home/username
This will transfer the local file shadowman to /home/username/shadowman on
penguin.example.net.
The
general syntax to transfer a remote file to the local system is scp
username@tohostname:/remotefile /newlocalfile. The remotefile specifies the
source, and newlocalfile specifies the destination.
Multiple files can be specified as the source files. For example, to transfer the contents of
the directory /downloads to an existing directory called uploads on the remote machine
penguin.example.net, type the following at a shell prompt:
scp /downloads/* [email protected]:/uploads/
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99
9.3.3. Using the sftp Command
The sftp utility can be used to open a secure, interactive FTP session. It is similar to
ftp except that it uses a secure, encrypted connection. The general syntax is sftp
[email protected]. Once authenticated, you can use a set of commands similar to
using FTP. Refer to the sftp man page for a list of these commands. To read the man page,
execute the command man sftp at a shell prompt. The sftp utility is only available in
OpenSSH version 2.5.0p1 and higher.
9.3.4. Generating Key Pairs
If you do not want to enter your password every time you use ssh, scp, or sftp to connect
to a remote machine, you can generate an authorization key pair.
Keys must be generated for each user. To generate keys for a user, follow the following steps
as the user who wants to connect to remote machines. If you complete the following steps as
root, only root will be able to use the keys.
Important
Starting with OpenSSH version 3.0, ~/.ssh/authorized_keys2, ~/.ssh/known_hosts2, and
/etc/ssh_known_hosts2 are obsolete. SSH Protocol 1 and 2 share the ~/.ssh/authorized_keys,
~/.ssh/known_hosts, and /etc/ssh/ssh_known_hosts files.
9.3.4.1. Generating a DSA Key Pair for Version 2
Use the following steps to generate a DSA key pair for version 2 of the SSH Protocol.
1. To generate a DSA key pair to work with version 2 of the protocol, type the following
command at a shell prompt:
ssh-keygen -t dsa
Accept the default file location of ~/.ssh/id_dsa. Enter a passphrase different from
your account password and confirm it by entering it again. 1
Tip
A passphrase is a string of words and characters used to authenticate a user. Passphrases
differ from passwords in that you can use spaces or tabs in the passphrase. Passphrases are
generally longer than passwords because they are usually phrases instead of just a word.
The public key is written to ~/.ssh/id_dsa.pub. The private key is written to
~/.ssh/id_dsa. It is important never to give anyone the private key.
1.
The ~ stands for the home directory of the currently logged in user. See the Official Red Hat Linux
Getting Started Guide for more details.
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Chapter 9. OpenSSH
2. Change the permissions of your .ssh directory using the command chmod 755
~/.ssh.
3. Copy the contents of ~/.ssh/id_dsa.pub to ~/.ssh/authorized_keys on the machine to which you want to connect. If the file ~/.ssh/authorized_keys does not
exist, you can copy the file ~/.ssh/id_dsa.pub to the file ~/.ssh/authorized_keys
on the other machine.1
4. If you are running GNOME, skip to Section 9.3.4.4. If you are not running the X Window System, skip to Section 9.3.4.5.
9.3.4.2. Generating an RSA Key Pair for Version 2
Use the following steps to generate a RSA key pair for version 2 of the SSH protocol. This is
the default starting with OpenSSH 2.9.
1. To generate a RSA key pair to work with version 2 of the protocol, type the following
command at a shell prompt:
ssh-keygen -t rsa
Accept the default file location of ~/.ssh/id_rsa. Enter a passphrase different from
your account password and confirm it by entering it again. 1
The public key is written to ~/.ssh/id_rsa.pub. The private key is written to
~/.ssh/id_rsa. Never distribute your private key to anyone.
2. Change the permissions of your .ssh directory using the command chmod 755
~/.ssh.
3. Copy the contents of ~/.ssh/id_rsa.pub to ~/.ssh/authorized_keys on the machine to which you want to connect. If the file ~/.ssh/authorized_keys does not
exist, you can copy the file ~/.ssh/id_rsa.pub to the file ~/.ssh/authorized_keys
on the other machine.1
4. If you are running GNOME, skip to Section 9.3.4.4. If you are not running the X Window System, skip to Section 9.3.4.5.
9.3.4.3. Generating an RSA Key Pair for Version 1.3 and 1.5
Use the following steps to generate an RSA key pair, which is used by version 1 of the SSH
Protocol. If you are only connecting between Red Hat Linux 7.3 systems, you do not need an
RSA version 1.3 or RSA version 1.5 key pair.
1. To generate an RSA (for version 1.3 and 1.5 protocol) key pair, type the following
command at a shell prompt:
ssh-keygen -t rsa1
1.
The ~ stands for the home directory of the currently logged in user. See the Official Red Hat Linux
Getting Started Guide for more details.
1. The ~ stands for the home directory of the currently logged in user. See the Official Red Hat Linux
Getting Started Guide for more details.
1. The ~ stands for the home directory of the currently logged in user. See the Official Red Hat Linux
Getting Started Guide for more details.
Chapter 9. OpenSSH
101
Accept the default file location (~/.ssh/identity). Enter a passphrase different from
your account password. Confirm the passphrase by entering it again.
The public key is written to ~/.ssh/identity.pub. The private key is written to
~/.ssh/identity. Do not give anyone the private key.
2. Change the permissions of your .ssh directory and your key with the commands
chmod 755 ~/.ssh and chmod 644 ~/.ssh/identity.pub.
3. Copy the contents of ~/.ssh/identity.pub to the file ~/.ssh/authorized_keys on
the machine to which you wish to connect. If the file ~/.ssh/authorized_keys
does not exist, you can copy the file ~/.ssh/identity.pub to the file
~/.ssh/authorized_keys on the remote machine. 1
4. If you are running GNOME, skip to Section 9.3.4.4. If you are not running GNOME,
skip to Section 9.3.4.5.
9.3.4.4. Configuring ssh-agent with GNOME
The ssh-agent utility can be used to save your passphrase so that you do not have to enter
it each time you initiate an ssh or scp connection. If you are using GNOME, the opensshaskpass-gnome utility can be used to prompt you for your passphrase when you log in to
GNOME and save it until you log out of GNOME. You will not have to enter your password
or passphrase for any ssh or scp connection made during that GNOME session. If you are
not using GNOME, refer to Section 9.3.4.5.
To save your passphrase during your GNOME session, follow the following steps:
1. You’ll need to have the package openssh-askpass-gnome installed; you can use the
command rpm -q openssh-askpass-gnome to determine if it is installed or not. If it
is not installed, install it from your Red Hat CD-ROM set, from a Red Hat FTP mirror
site, or using Red Hat Network.
2. If you do not have an ~/.Xclients file, you can run switchdesk to create it. In your
~/.Xclients file, edit the following line:
exec $HOME/.Xclients-default
Change the line so that it instead reads:
exec /usr/bin/ssh-agent $HOME/.Xclients-default
3. Open the GNOME Control Center (GNOME Main Menu Button => Programs => Settings => GNOME Control Center) and go to Session => Startup Programs. Click Add
and enter /usr/bin/ssh-add in the Startup Command text area. Set it a priority to
a number higher than any existing commands to ensure that it is executed last. A good
priority number for ssh-add is 70 or higher. The higher the priority number, the lower
the priority. If you have other programs listed, this one should have the lowest priority.
Click OK to save your settings, and exit the GNOME Control Center.
4. Log out and then log back into GNOME; in other words, restart X. After GNOME
is started, a dialog box will appear prompting you for your passphrase(s). Enter the
passphrase requested. If you have both DSA and RSA key pairs configured, you will
1.
The ~ stands for the home directory of the currently logged in user. See the Official Red Hat Linux
Getting Started Guide for more details.
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Chapter 9. OpenSSH
be prompted for both. From this point on, you should not be prompted for a password
by ssh, scp, or sftp.
9.3.4.5. Configuring ssh-agent
The ssh-agent can be used to store your passphrase so that you do not have to enter it
each time you make a ssh or scp connection. If you are not running the X Window System,
follow these steps from a shell prompt. If you are running GNOME but you do not want to
configure it to prompt you for your passphrase when you log in (see Section 9.3.4.4), this
procedure will work in a terminal window, such as an xterm. If you are running X but not
GNOME, this procedure will work in a terminal window, such as an xterm. However, your
passphrase will only be remembered for that terminal window; it is not a global setting.
1. At a shell prompt, type the following command:
exec /usr/bin/ssh-agent $SHELL
Then type the command:
ssh-add
and enter your passphrase(s). If you have more than one key pair configured, you will
be prompted for each one.
2. When you log out, your passphrase(s) will be forgotten. You must execute these two
commands each time you log in to a virtual console or open a terminal window.
9.4. Additional Resources
The OpenSSH and OpenSSL projects are in constant development, so the most up-to-date
information for them will be found on their websites. The man pages for OpenSSH and
OpenSSL tools are also good sources of detailed information.
9.4.1. Installed Documentation
•
The ssh, scp, sftp, sshd, and ssh-keygen commands — These man pages include information on how to use these commands as well as all the parameters that can be used with
them.
9.4.2. Useful Websites
•
http://www.openssh.com — The OpenSSH FAQ page, bug reports, mailing lists, project
goals, and a more technical explanation of the security features.
•
http://www.openssl.org — The OpenSSL FAQ page, mailing lists, and a description of
the project goal.
•
http://www.freessh.org — SSH client software for other platforms.
Chapter 10.
Network File System (NFS)
Network File System (NFS) is a way to share files between machines on a network as if the
files were located on the client’s local hard drive. Red Hat Linux can be both an NFS server
and an NFS client, which means that it can export filesystems to other systems and mount
filesystems exported from other machines.
10.1. Why Use NFS?
NFS is useful for sharing directories of files between multiple users on the same network.
For example, a group of users working on the same project can have access to the files for
that project using a shared directory of the NFS filesystem (commonly known as an NFS
share) mounted in the directory /myproject. To access the shared files, the user goes into the
/myproject directory on his machine. There are no passwords to enter or special commands
to remember. Users work as if the directory is on their local machines.
10.2. Mounting NFS Filesystems
Use the mount command to mount an NFS filesystem from another machine:
mount shadowman.example.com:/mnt/export /mnt/local
Warning
The mount point directory on local machine (/mnt/local in the above example) must exist.
In this command, shadowman.example.com is the hostname of the NFS fileserver,
/mnt/export is the filesystem that shadowman is exporting, and /mnt/local is the location
to mount the filesystem on the local machine. After the mount command runs (and if
the client has proper permissions from the shadowman.example.com NFS server) the
client user can execute the command ls /mnt/local to display a listing of the files in
/mnt/export on shadowman.example.com.
10.2.1. Mounting NFS Filesystems using /etc/fstab
An alternate way to mount an NFS share from another machine is to add a line to the
/etc/fstab file. The line must state the hostname of the NFS server, the directory on the
server being exported, and the directory on the local machine where the NFS share is to be
mounted. You must be root to modify the /etc/fstab file.
The general syntax for the line in /etc/fstab is as follows:
server:/usr/local/pub
/pub
nfs
rsize=8192,wsize=8192,timeo=14,intr
The mount point /pub must exist on the client machine. After adding this line to /etc/fstab
on the client system, type the command mount /pub at a shell prompt, and the mount point
/pub will be mounted from the server.
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Chapter 10. Network File System (NFS)
10.2.2. Mounting NFS Filesystems using autofs
A third option for mounting an NFS share is the use of autofs. Autofs uses the automount
daemon to manage your mount points by only mounting them dynamically when they are
accessed.
Autofs consults the master map configuration file /etc/auto.master to determine which
mount points are defined. It then starts an automount process with the appropriate parameters for each mount point. Each line in the master map defines a mount point and a separate
map file that defines the filesystems to be mounted under this mount point. For example,
the /etc/auto.mnt file might define mount points in the /mnt directory; this relationship
would be defined in the /etc/auto.master file.
Each entry in auto.master has three fields. The first field is the mount point. The second
field is the location of the map file, and the third field is optional. The third field can contain
information such as a timeout value.
For example, to mount the directory /project52 on the remote machine penguin.host.net at
the mount point /mnt/myproject on your machine, add the following line to auto.master:
/mnt
/etc/auto.mnt --timeout 60
Add the following line to /etc/auto.mnt:
myproject
-rw,soft,intr,rsize=8192,wsize=8192
penguin.host.net:/project52
The first field in /etc/auto.mnt is the name of the /mnt subdirectory. This directory is created dynamically by automount. It should not actually exist on the client machine. The second field contains mount options such as rw for read and write access. The third field is the
location of the NFS export including the hostname and directory.
Note
The directory /mnt must exist on the local filesystem. There should be no subdirectories to /mnt on
the local filesystem.
Autofs is a service. To start the service, at a shell prompt, type the following commands:
service autofs restart
To view the active mount points, type the following command at a shell prompt:
service autofs status
If you modify the /etc/auto.master configuration file while autofs is running, you must
tell the automount daemon(s) to reload by typing the following command at a shell prompt:
service autofs reload
To learn how to configure autofs to start at boot time, refer to Chapter 8 for information on
managing services.
Chapter 10. Network File System (NFS)
105
10.3. Exporting NFS Filesystems
The /etc/exports file controls what filesystems the NFS server exports. Its format is as
follows:
directory
hostname(options)
The (options) are not required. For example:
/mnt/export
speedy.redhat.com
would allow users from speedy.redhat.com to mount /mnt/export with the default readonly permissions, but:
/mnt/export
speedy.redhat.com(rw)
would allow users from speedy.redhat.com to mount /mnt/export with read-write privileges.
Caution
Be careful with spaces in the /etc/exports file. If there are no spaces between the hostname and
the options in parentheses, the options apply only to the hostname. If there is a space between
the hostname and the options, the options apply to the rest of the world. For example, examine the
following lines:
/mnt/export speedy.redhat.com(rw)
/mnt/export speedy.redhat.com (rw)
The first line grants users from speedy.redhat.com read-write access and denies all other users.
The second line grants users from speedy.redhat.com read-only access (the default) and allows the
rest of the world read-write access.
Refer to the Official Red Hat Linux Reference Guide for a list of options that can be specified in
the /etc/exports file.
Each time you change /etc/exports, you must tell the NFS daemons to examine it for new
information, or reload the configuration file:
/sbin/service nfs reload
10.3.1. Starting and Stopping the Server
On the server that is exporting NFS filesystems, the nfs service must be running.
View the status of the NFS daemon with the command
/sbin/service nfs status
Start the NFS daemon with the command
/sbin/service nfs start
Stop the NFS daemon with the command
/sbin/service nfs stop
To start the nfs service at boot time, use the command:
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Chapter 10. Network File System (NFS)
/sbin/chkconfig --level 345 nfs on
You can also use ntsysv or serviceconf to configure which services start at boot time. Refer
to Chapter 8 for details.
10.4. Additional Resources
This chapter discusses the basics of using NFS. For more detailed information, refer to the
following resources.
10.4.1. Installed Documentation
•
The man pages for nfsd, mountd, exports, auto.master, and autofs (in manual sections
5 and 8) — These man pages show the correct syntax for the NFS and autofs configuration
files.
10.4.2. Related Books
•
Managing NFS and NIS Services by Hal Stern; O’Reilly & Associates, Inc.
Chapter 11.
Samba
Samba uses the SMB protocol to share files and printers across a network connection. Operating systems that support this protocol include Microsoft Windows (through its Network
Neighborhood), OS/2, and Linux.
11.1. Why Use Samba?
Samba is useful if you have a network of both Windows and Linux machines. Samba will
allow files and printers to be shared by all the systems in your network. If you want to share
files between Red Hat Linux machines only, refer to Chapter 10. If you want to share printers
between Red Hat Linux machines only refer to Chapter 21.
11.2. Configuring Samba
Samba uses /etc/samba/smb.conf as its configuration file. If you change this configuration
file, the changes will not take effect until you restart the Samba daemon with the command
service smb restart.
The default configuration file (smb.conf) in Red Hat Linux 7.3 allows users to view their
Linux home directories as a Samba share on the Windows machine after they log in using
the same username and password. It also shares any printers configured for the Red Hat
Linux system as Samba shared printers. In other words, you can attach a printer to your Red
Hat Linux system and print to it from the Windows machines on your network.
To specify the Windows workgroup and description string, edit the following lines in your
smb.conf file:
workgroup = WORKGROUPNAME
server string = BRIEF COMMENT ABOUT SERVER
Replace WORKGROUPNAME with the name of the Windows workgroup to which this machine
should belong. The BRIEF COMMENT ABOUT SERVER is optional and will be the Windows
comment about the Samba system.
To create a Samba share directory on your Linux system, add the following section to your
smb.conf file (after modifying it to reflect your needs and your system):
[sharename]
comment = Insert a comment here
path = /home/share/
valid users = tfox carole
public = no
writable = yes
printable = no
create mask = 0765
The above example allows the users tfox and carole to read and write to the directory
/home/share, on the Samba server, from a Samba client.
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Chapter 11. Samba
11.2.1. Samba Passwords
In Red Hat Linux 7.3 encrypted passwords are enabled by default because it is more secure. If
encrypted passwords are not used, plain text passwords are used, which can be intercepted
by someone using a network packet sniffer. It is recommended that encrypted passwords be
used.
The Microsoft SMB Protocol originally used plaintext passwords. However, Windows 2000
and Windows NT 4.0 with Service Pack 3 or higher require encrypted Samba passwords. To
use Samba between a Red Hat Linux system and a system with Windows 2000 or Windows
NT 4.0 Service Pack 3 or higher, you can either edit your Windows registry to use plaintext
passwords or configure Samba on your Linux system to use encrypted passwords. If you
choose to modify your registry, you must do so for all your Windows NT or 2000 machines
— this is risky and may cause further conflicts.
To configure Samba on your Red Hat Linux system to use encrypted passwords, follow these
steps:
1. Create a separate password file for Samba. To create one based on your existing
/etc/passwd file, at a shell prompt, type the following command:
cat /etc/passwd | mksmbpasswd.sh > /etc/samba/smbpasswd
If the system uses NIS, type the following command:
ypcat passwd | mksmbpasswd.sh > /etc/samba/smbpasswd
The mksmbpasswd.sh script is installed in your /usr/bin directory with the samba
package.
2. Use the command chmod 600 /etc/samba/smbpasswd to change permissions on the
Samba password file so that only root has read and write permissions.
3. The script does not copy user passwords to the new file. To set each Samba user’s password, use the command smbpasswd username (replace username with each user’s
username). A Samba user account will not be active until a Samba password is set for
it.
4. Encrypted passwords must be enabled in the Samba configuration file. In the file
smb.conf, verify that the following lines are not commented out:
encrypt password = yes
smb passwd file = /etc/samba/smbpasswd
5. Make sure the smb service is started by typing the command service smb restart at
a shell prompt.
6. If you want the smb service to start automatically, use ntsysv, chkconfig, or serviceconf to enable it at runtime. Refer to Chapter 8 for details.
Tip
;
To
<
learn
more
about
encrypted
Samba that you have installed).
=
passwords
read
version
version /docs/htmldocs/ENCRYPTION.html (replace
>
/usr/share/doc/samba-
with the version number of
The pam_smbpass PAM module can be used to sync users’ Samba passwords with their system passwords when the passwd command is used. If a user invokes the passwd command,
Chapter 11. Samba
109
the password he uses to log in to the Red Hat Linux system as well as the password he must
provide to connect to a Samba share are changed.
To enable this feature, add the following line to /etc/pam.d/system-auth below the
pam_cracklib.so invocation:
password required /lib/security/pam_smbpass.so nullok use_authtok try_first_pass
11.3. Connecting to a Samba Share
To connect to a Linux Samba share from a Microsoft Windows machine, use Network Neighborhood or Windows Explorer.
To connect to a Samba share from a Linux system, from a shell prompt, type the following
command:
smbclient //hostname/sharename -U username
You will need to replace hostname with the hostname or IP address of the Samba server you
want to connect to, sharename with the name of the shared directory you want to browse,
and username with the Samba username for the system. Enter the correct password or press
[Enter] if no password is required for the user.
?
If you see the smb:\ prompt, you have successfully logged in. Once you are logged in, type
help for a list of commands. If you wish to browse the contents of your home directory,
replace sharename with your username. If the -U switch is not used, the username of the
current user is passed to the Samba server.
To exit smbclient, type exit at the smb:\
?
prompt.
You can also use Nautilus to view available Samba shares on your network. On the GNOME
desktop, go to the Main Menu Button (on the Panel) => Programs => Applications =>
Nautilus to open a Nautilus window. Type smb: in the Location: bar.
As shown in Figure 11-1, you will see an icon for each available SMB workgroups on your
network. To access one, double-click the icon for it.
Figure 11-1. SMB Browser in Nautilus
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Chapter 11. Samba
If the SMB share you are connecting to requires a user name and password combination, you
must specify them in the Location: bar using the following syntax (replace user, password,
servername, and sharename with the appropriate values):
smb://user:password@servername/sharename/
11.4. Additional Resources
For configuration options not covered here, please refer to the following resources.
11.4.1. Installed Documentation
• smb.conf
• smbd
man page — explains how to configure the Samba configuration file
man page — describes how the Samba daemon works
• /usr/share/doc/samba-version-number/docs/
with the samba package
— HTML and text help files included
11.4.2. Useful Websites
•
http://www.samba.org — The Samba Web page contains useful documentation, information about mailing lists, and a list of GUI interfaces.
Chapter 12.
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) is network protocol for automatically assigning TCP/IP information to client machines. Each DHCP client connects to the centrallylocated DHCP server which returns that client’s network configuration including IP address,
gateway, and DNS servers.
12.1. Why Use DHCP?
DHCP is useful for fast delivery of client network configuration. When configuring the client
system, the administrator can choose DHCP and not have to enter an IP address, netmask,
gateway, or DNS servers. The client retrieves this information from the DHCP server. DHCP
is also useful if an administrator wants to change the IP addresses of a large number of systems. Instead of reconfiguring all the systems, he can just edit one DHCP configuration file
on the server for the new set of IP address. If the DNS servers for an organization changes,
the changes are made on the DHCP server, not on the DHCP clients. Once the network is
restarted on the clients (or the clients are rebooted), the changes will take effect.
Furthermore, if a laptop or any type of mobile computer is configured for DHCP, it can be
moved from office to office without being reconfigured as long as each office has a DHCP
server that allows it to connect to the network.
12.2. Configuring a DHCP Server
You can configure a DHCP server using the configuration file /etc/dhcpd.conf.
DHCP also uses the file /var/lib/dhcp/dhcpd.leases to store the client lease database.
Refer to Section 12.2.2 for more information.
12.2.1. Configuration File
The first step in configuring a DHCP server is to create the configuration file that stores the
network information for the clients. Global options can be declared for all clients, or options
can be declared for each client system.
The configuration file can contain any extra tabs or blank lines for easier formatting. The
keywords are case-insensitive, and lines beginning with a hash mark (#) are considered comments.
There are two types of statements in the configuration file:
•
Parameters — state how to perform a task, whether to perform a task, or what network
configuration options to sent to the client.
•
Declarations — describe the topology of the network, describe the clients, provide addresses for the clients, or apply a group of parameters to a group of declarations.
Some parameters must start with the option keyword. Options configure DHCP options;
whereas, parameters configure values that are not optional or control how the DHCP server
behaves.
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Chapter 12. Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
Important
If you change the configuration file, the changes will not take effect until you restart the DHCP daemon
with the command service dhcpd restart.
Parameters (including options) declared before a section enclosed in curly brackets ({ }) are
considered global parameters. Global parameters apply to all the sections below it.
In Example 12-1, the routers, subnet-mask, domain-name, domain-name-servers, and
time-offset options are used for both the apex and raleigh host statements.
As shown in Example 12-1, you can declare a subnet. You must include a subnet declaration
for every subnet in your network. If you do not, the DHCP server will fail to start.
In this example, there are global options for every DHCP client in the subnet and a range
declared. Clients are assigned an IP address within the range.
Example 12-1. Subnet Declaration
subnet 192.168.1.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 {
option routers
192.168.1.254;
option subnet-mask
255.255.255.0;
option domain-name
option domain-name-servers
"example.com";
192.168.1.1;
option time-offset
-5;
# Eastern Standard Time
range 192.168.1.10 192.168.1.100;
}
All subnets that share the same physical network should be declared within a sharednetwork declaration as shown in Example 12-2. Parameters within the shared-network but
outside the enclosed subnet declarations are considered global parameters. The name of the
shared-network should be a descriptive title for the network such as test-lab to describe all
the subnets in a test lab environment.
Example 12-2. Shared-network Declaration
shared-network name {
option domain-name
"test.redhat.com";
option domain-name-servers
ns1.redhat.com, ns2.redhat.com;
option routers
192.168.1.254;
more parameters for EXAMPLE shared-network
subnet 192.168.1.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 {
parameters for subnet
range 192.168.1.1 192.168.1.31;
}
subnet 192.168.1.32 netmask 255.255.255.0 {
parameters for subnet
range 192.168.1.33 192.168.1.63;
}
}
As demonstrated in Example 12-3, the group declaration can be used to apply global parameters to a group of declarations. You can group shared networks, subnets, hosts, or other
groups.
Chapter 12. Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
113
Example 12-3. Group Declaration
group {
option routers
option subnet-mask
192.168.1.254;
255.255.255.0;
option domain-name
option domain-name-servers
"example.com";
192.168.1.1;
option time-offset
-5;
# Eastern Standard Time
host apex {
option host-name "apex.example.com";
hardware ethernet 00:A0:78:8E:9E:AA;
fixed-address 192.168.1.4;
}
host raleigh {
option host-name "raleigh.example.com";
hardware ethernet 00:A1:DD:74:C3:F2;
fixed-address 192.168.1.6;
}
}
To configure a DHCP server that leases a dynamic IP address to a system within a subnet,
modify Example 12-4 with your values. It declares a default lease time, maximum lease time,
and network configuration values for the clients. This example assigns IP addresses in the
range 192.168.1.10 and 192.168.1.100 to client systems.
Example 12-4. Range Parameter
default-lease-time 600;
max-lease-time 7200;
option subnet-mask 255.255.255.0;
option broadcast-address 192.168.1.255;
option routers 192.168.1.254;
option domain-name-servers 192.168.1.1, 192.168.1.2;
option domain-name "example.com";
subnet 192.168.1.0 netmask 255.255.255.0 {
range 192.168.1.10 192.168.1.100;
}
To assign an IP address to a client based on the MAC address of the network interface card,
use the hardware ethernet parameter within a host declaration. As demonstrated in Example 12-5, the host apex declaration specifies that the network interface card with the
MAC address 00:A0:78:8E:9E:AA always receives the IP address 192.168.1.4.
Notice that you can also use the optional parameter host-name to assign a host name to the
client.
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Example 12-5. Static IP Address using DHCP
host apex {
option host-name "apex.example.com";
hardware ethernet 00:A0:78:8E:9E:AA;
fixed-address 192.168.1.4;
}
Tip
You can use the sample configuration file in Red Hat Linux 7.3 as a starting point and then add your
own custom configuration options to it. Copy it to its proper location with the command
@
A
@
A
cp /usr/share/doc/dhcp- version-number /dhcpd.conf.sample /etc/dhcpd.conf
(where
version-number
is the DHCP version you are using).
For a complete list of option statements and what they do, refer to the dhcp-options man
page.
12.2.2. Lease Database
On the DHCP server, the file /var/lib/dhcp/dhcpd.leases stores the DHCP client lease
database. This file should not be modified by hand. DHCP lease information for each recently assigned IP address is automatically stored in the lease database. The information
includes the length of the lease, to whom the IP address has been assigned, the start and
end dates for the lease, and the MAC address of the network interface card that was used to
retrieve the lease.
All times in the lease database are in Greenwich Mean Time (GMT), not local time.
The lease database is recreated from time to time so that it is not too large. First, all known
leases are saved in a temporary lease database. The dhcpd.leases file is renamed
dhcpd.leases~, and the temporary lease database is written to dhcpd.leases.
The DHCP daemon could be killed or the system could crash after the lease database has
been renamed to the backup file but before the new file has been written. If this happens,
there is no dhcpd.leases file that is required to start the service. Do not create a new lease
file if this occurs. If you do, all the old leases will be lost and cause many problems. The
correct solution is to rename the dhcpd.leases~ backup file to dhcpd.leases and then start
the daemon.
12.2.3. Starting and Stopping the Server
Important
Before you start the DHCP server for the first time, it will fail unless there is an existing dhcpd.leases
file. Use the command touch /var/lib/dhcp/dhcpd.leases to create the file if it does not exist.
Chapter 12. Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
115
To start the DHCP service, use the command /sbin/service dhcpd start. To stop the
DHCP server, use the command /sbin/service dhcpd stop. If you want the daemon to
start automatically at boot time, see Chapter 8 for information on how to manage services.
If you have more than more network interface attached to the system, but you only want
the DHCP server to start on one of the interface, you can configure the DHCP server to start
only on that device. In /etc/sysconfig/dhcpd, add the name of the interface to the list of
DHCPDARGS:
# Command line options here
DHCPDARGS=eth0
This is useful if you have a firewall machine with two network cards. One network card can
be configured as a DHCP client to retrieve an IP address to the Internet. The other network
card can be used as a DHCP server for the internal network behind the firewall. Specifying
only the network card connected to the internal network makes the system more secure
because users can not connect to the daemon via the Internet.
Other command line options that can be specified in /etc/sysconfig/dhcpd include:
B
C
portnum — Specify the udp port number on which dhcpd should listen. The default is port 67. The DHCP server transmits responses to the DHCP clients at a port number one greater than the udp port specified. For example, if you accept the default of port
67, the server listens on port 67 for requests and responses to the client on port 68. If you
specify a port here and use the DHCP relay agent, you must specify the same port on
which the DHCP relay agent should listen. See Section 12.2.4 for details.
• -p
• -f
— Run the daemon as a foreground process. This is mostly used for debugging.
— Log the DCHP server daemon to the standard error descriptor. This is mostly used
for debugging. If this is not specified, the log is written to /var/log/messages.
• -d
• -cf filename
— Specify the location of the configuration file. The default location is
/etc/dhcpd.conf.
• -lf filename Specify the location of the lease database file. If a lease database file already
exists, it is very important that the same file be used every time the DHCP server is started.
It is strongly recommended that this option only be used for debugging purposes on nonproduction machines. The default location is /var/lib/dhcp/dhcpd.leases.
• -q
— Do not print the entire copyright message when starting the daemon.
12.2.4. DHCP Relay Agent
The DHCP Relay Agent (dhcrelay) allows you to relay DHCP and BOOTP requests from a
subnet with no DHCP server on it to one or more DHCP servers on other subnets.
When a DHCP client requests information, the DHCP Relay Agent forwards the request to
the list of DHCP servers specified when the DHCP Relay Agent is started. When a DHCP
server returns a reply, the reply is broadcast or unicast on the network that sent the original
request.
The DHCP Relay Agent listens for DHCP requests on all interfaces unless the -i argument
is used to specify one or more interfaces to listen to.
To start the DHCP Relay Agent, use the dhcrelay command followed by the name of at
least one DHCP server to which the requests should be relayed. It can be started with the
following options:
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Chapter 12. Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
Table 12-1. DHCP Relay Agent Options
Argument
Description
-i
Names of the network interfaces to configure. If no interface is
specified, all network interfaces will be configured, eliminating
non-broadcast interfaces if it can.
-p
Port on which dhcrelay should listen. The DHCP Relay Agent
transmits requests to the servers on this port and transmits responses to
the clients on the port one greater than this port.
-d
Force dhcrelay to run in the foreground always.
-q
Disable printing the network configuration of dhcrelay on startup.
12.3. Configuring a DHCP Client
The first step for configuring a DHCP client is to make sure the kernel recognizes the network
interface card. Most cards are recognized during the installation process, and the system is
configured to use the correct kernel module for the card. If you install a card after installation, Kudzu 1 should recognize it and prompt you to configure the corresponding kernel
module for it. Be sure to check the Red Hat Linux Hardware Compatibility List available at
http://hardware.redhat.com/hcl/. If the network card is not configured by the installation
program or Kudzu and you know which kernel module to load for it, refer to Chapter 24 for
details on loading kernel modules.
To configure a DHCP client manually, you need to modify the /etc/sysconfig/network
file to enable networking and the configuration file for each network device in the
/etc/sysconfig/network-scripts directory. In this directory, each device should have a
configuration file named ifcfg-eth0 where eth0 is the network device name.
The /etc/sysconfig/network file should contain the following line:
NETWORKING=yes
You might have more information in this file, but the NETWORKING variable must be set to
yes if you want networking to start at boot time.
The /etc/sysconfig/network-scripts/ifcfg-eth0 file should contain the following
lines:
DEVICE=eth0
BOOTPROTO=dhcp
ONBOOT=yes
You need a configuration file for each device that you want to configure to use DHCP.
If you prefer a graphical interface for configuring a DHCP client, refer to Chapter 6 for details
on using Network Configurator to configure a network interface to use DHCP.
1.
Kudzu is a hardware probing tool run at system boot time to determine what hardware has been
added or removed from the system.
Chapter 12. Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
117
12.4. Additional Resources
For configuration options not covered here, please refer to the following resources.
12.4.1. Installed Documentation
• dhcpd
man page — describes how the DHCP daemon works
• dhcpd.conf man page — explains how to configure the DHCP configuration file; includes
some examples
• dhcpd.leases man page — explains how to configure the DHCP leases file; includes some
examples
• dhcp-options
man page — explains the syntax for declaring DHCP options in
dhcpd.conf; includes some examples
• dhcrelay
man page — explains the DHCP Relay Agent and its configuration options.
12.4.2. Useful Websites
•
http://www.linuxdoc.org/HOWTO/mini/DHCP/index.html — DHCP mini-HOWTO
from the Linux Documentation Project
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Chapter 13.
Apache Configuration
The Apache Configuration Tool allows you to configure the /etc/httpd/conf/httpd.conf
configuration file for your Apache Web server. It does not use the old srm.conf or access.conf configuration files; leave them empty. Through the graphical interface, you can
configure Apache directives such as virtual hosts, logging attributes, and maximum number
of connections.
Only modules that are shipped with Red Hat Linux can be configured with Apache Configuration Tool. If additional modules are installed, they can not be configured using this
tool.
The Apache Configuration Tool requires the X Window System and root access. To start the
Apache Configuration Tool, use one of the following methods:
•
On the GNOME desktop, go to the Main Menu Button (on the Panel) => Programs =>
System => Apache Configuration.
•
On the KDE desktop, go to the Main Menu Button (on the Panel) => System => Apache
Configuration.
•
Type the command apacheconf at a shell prompt (for example, in an XTerm or GNOMEterminal).
Caution
Do not edit the /etc/httpd/conf/httpd.conf Apache configuration file if you wish to use this tool.
Apache Configuration Tool generates this file after you save your changes and exit the program. If
you want to add additional modules or configuration options that are not available in Apache Configuration Tool, you cannot use this tool.
The general steps for configuring the Apache Web Server using the Apache Configuration
Tool are as following:
1. Configure the basic settings under the Main tab.
2. Click on the Virtual Hosts tab and configure the default settings.
3. Under the Virtual Hosts tab, configure the Default Virtual Host.
4. If you want to serve more than one URL or virtual host, add the additional virtual
hosts.
5. Configure the server settings under the Server tab.
6. Configure the connections settings under the Performance Tuning tab.
7. Copy all necessary files to the DocumentRoot and cgi-bin directories, and save your
settings in the Apache Configuration Tool.
13.1. Basic Settings
Use the Main tab to configure the basic server settings.
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Figure 13-1. Basic Settings
Enter a fully qualified domain name that you have the right to use in the Server Name text
area. This option corresponds to the ServerName directive in httpd.conf. The ServerName
directive sets the hostname of the Web server. It is used when creating redirection URLs. If
you do not define a server name, Apache attempts to resolve it from the IP address of the
system. The server name does not have to be the domain name resolved from the IP address
of the server. For example, you might want to set the server name to www.your_domain.com
when your server’s real DNS name is actually foo.your_domain.com.
Enter the email address of the person who maintains the Web server in the Webmaster email
address text area. This option corresponds to the ServerAdmin directive in httpd.conf. If
you configure the server’s error pages to contain an email address, this email address will
be used so that users can report a problem by sending email to the server’s administrator.
The default value is root@localhost.
Use the Available Addresses area to define the ports on which Apache will accept incoming
requests. This option corresponds to the Listen directive in httpd.conf. By default, Red
Hat configures Apache to listen to port 80 for non-secure Web communications. Click the
Add button to define additional ports on which to accept requests. A window as shown in
Figure 13-2 will appear. Either choose the Listen to all addresses option to listen to all IP
addresses on the defined port or specify a particular IP address over which the server will
accept connections in the Address field. Only specify one IP address per port number. If you
want to specify more than one IP address with the same port number, create an entry for
each IP address. If at all possible, use an IP address instead of a domain name to prevent
a DNS lookup failure. Refer to http://httpd.apache.org/docs/dns-caveats.html for more
information about Issues Regarding DNS and Apache. Entering an asterisk (*) in the Address
field is the same as choosing Listen to all addresses. Clicking the Edit button shows the
same window as the Add button except with the fields populated for the selected entry. To
delete an entry, select it and click the Delete button.
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121
Figure 13-2. Available Addresses
Tip
If you set Apache to listen to a port under 1024, you must be root to start it. For port 1024 and above,
httpd can be started as a regular user.
13.2. Default Settings
After defining the Server Name, Webmaster email address, and Available Addresses, click
the Virtual Hosts tab and click the Edit Default Settings button. The window shown in
Figure 13-3 will appear. Configure the default settings for your Web server in this window.
If you add a virtual host, the settings you configure for the virtual host take precedence for
that virtual host. For a directive not defined within the virtual host settings, the default value
is used.
13.2.1. Site Configuration
The default values for the Directory Page Search List and Error Pages will work for most
servers. If you are unsure of these settings, do not modify them.
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Figure 13-3. Site Configuration
The entries listed in the Directory Page Search List define the DirectoryIndex directive.
The DirectoryIndex is the default page served by the server when a user requests an index
of a directory by specifying a forward slash (/) at the end of the directory name.
For example, when a user requests the page http://your_domain/this_directory/,
they are going to get either the DirectoryIndex page if it exists, or a server-generated directory list. The server will try to find one of the files listed in the DirectoryIndex directive
and will return the first one it finds. If it does not find any of these files and if Options
Indexes is set for that directory, the server will generate and return a list, in HTML format,
of the subdirectories and files in the directory.
Use the Error Code section to configure Apache to redirect the client to a local or external
URL if the event of a problem or error. This option corresponds to the ErrorDocument directive/ If a problem or error occurs when a client tries to connect to the Apache Web server,
the default action is to display the short error message shown in the Error Code column. To
override this default configuration, select the error code and click the Edit button. Choose
Default to display the default short error message. Choose URL to redirect the client to an
external URL and enter a complete URL including the http:// in the Location field. Choose
File to redirect the client to an internal URL and enter a file location under the document root
for the Web server. The location must begin the a slash (/) and be relative to the Document
Root.
For example, to redirect a 404 Not Found error code to a Web page that you created in a
file called 404.html, copy 404.html to DocumentRoot/errors/404.html. In this case,
DocumentRoot is the Document Root directory that you have defined (the default is
/var/www/html). Then, choose File as the Behavior for 404 - Not Found error code and
enter /errors/404.html as the Location.
From the Default Error Page Footer menu, you can choose one of the following options:
•
Show footer with email address — Display the default Apache footer at the bottom of
all error pages along with the email address of the website maintainer specified by the
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123
ServerAdmin directive. Refer to Section 13.3.1.1 for information about configuring the
ServerAdmin directive.
•
Show footer — Display just the default Apache footer at the bottom of error pages.
•
No footer — Do not display a footer at the bottom of error pages.
13.2.2. Logging
By default, Apache writes the transfer log to the file /var/log/httpd/access_log and the
error log to the file /var/log/httpd/error_log.
Figure 13-4. Logging
The transfer log contains a list of all attempts to access the Web server. It records the IP
address of the client that is attempting to connect, the date and time of the attempt, and
the file on the Web server that it is trying to retrieve. Enter the name of the path and file
in which to store this information. If the path and filename does not start with a slash (/),
the path is relative to the server root directory as configured. This option corresponds to the
TransferLog directive.
You can configure a custom log format by checking Use custom logging facilities and entering a custom log string in the Custom Log String field. This configures the LogFormat
directive. Refer to http://httpd.apache.org/docs/mod/mod_log_config.html#formats for
details on the format of this directive.
The error log contains a list of any server errors that occur. Enter the name of the path and
file in which to store this information. If the path and filename does not start with a slash
(/), the path is relative to the server root directory as configured. This option corresponds to
the ErrorLog directive.
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Use the Log Level menu to set how verbose the error messages in the error logs will be. It
can be set (from least verbose to most verbose) to emerg, alert, crit, error, warn, notice, info
or debug. This option corresponds to the LogLevel directive.
The value chosen with the Reverse DNS Lookup menu defines the HostnameLookups directive. Choosing No Reverse Lookup sets the value to off. Choosing Reverse Lookup sets the
value to on. Choosing Double Reverse Lookup sets the value to double.
If you choose Reverse Lookup, your server will automatically resolve the IP address for
each connection which requests a document from your Web server. Resolving the IP address
means that your server will make one or more connections to the DNS in order to find out
the hostname that corresponds to a particular IP address.
If you choose Double Reverse Lookup, your server will perform a double-reverse DNS.
In other words, after a reverse lookup is performed, a forward lookup is performed on the
result. At least one of the IP addresses in the forward lookup must match the address from
the first reverse lookup.
Generally, you should leave this option set to No Reverse Lookup, because the DNS requests
add a load to your server and may slow it down. If your server is busy, the effects of trying
to perform these reverse lookups or double reverse lookups may be quite noticeable.
Reverse lookups and double reverse lookups are also an issue for the Internet as a whole. All
of the individual connections made to look up each hostname add up. Therefore, for your
own Web server’s benefit, as well as for the Internet’s benefit, you should leave this option
set to No Reverse Lookup.
13.2.3. Environment Variables
Apache can use the mod_env module to configure the environment variables which are
passed to CGI scripts and SSI pages. Use the Environment Variables page to configure the
directives for this Apache module.
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125
Figure 13-5. Environment Variables
Use the Set for CGI Scripts section to set an environment variable that is passed to CGI
scripts and SSI pages. For example, to set the environment variable MAXNUM to 50, click the
Add button inside the Set for CGI Script section as shown in Section 13.2.3 and type MAXNUM
in the Environment Variable text field and 50 in the Value to set text field. Click OK. The
Set for CGI Scripts section configures the SetEnv directive.
Use the Pass to CGI Scripts section to pass the value of an environment variable when
Apache was first started to CGI scripts. To see this environment variable, type the command
env at a shell prompt. Click the Add button inside the Pass to CGI Scripts section and enter
the name of the environment variable in the resulting dialog box. Click OK. The Pass to CGI
Scripts section configures the PassEnv directive.
If you want to remove an environment variable so that the value is not passed to CGI scripts
and SSI pages, use the Unset for CGI Scripts section. Click Add in the Unset for CGI Scripts
section, and enter the name of the environment variable to unset. This corresponds to the
UnsetEnv directive.
13.2.4. Directories
D
E
Use the Directories page to configure options for specific directories. This corresponds to
the Directory directive.
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Figure 13-6. Directories
Click the Edit button in the top right-hand corner to configure the Default Directory Options for all directories that are not specified in the Directory list below it. The options that
you choose are listed as the Options directive within the Directory directive. You can
configure the following options:
F
G
•
ExecCGI — Allow execution of CGI scripts. CGI scripts are not executed if this option is
not chosen.
•
FollowSymLinks — Allow symbolic links to be followed.
•
Includes — Allow server-side includes.
•
IncludesNOEXEC — Allow server-side includes, but disable the #exec and #include
commands in CGI scripts.
•
Indexes — Display a formatted list of the directory’s contents, if no DirectoryIndex (such
as index.html) exists in the requested directory.
•
Multiview — Support content-negotiated multiviews; this option is disabled by default.
•
SymLinksIfOwnerMatch — Only follow symbolic links if the target file or directory has
the same owner as the link.
To specify options for specific directories, click the Add button beside the Directory list box.
The window shown in Figure 13-7 appears. Enter the directory to configure in the Directory
text field at the bottom of the window. Select the options in the right-hand list, and configure
the Order directive with the left-hand side options. The Order directive controls the order
in which allow and deny directives are evaluated. In the Allow hosts from and Deny hosts
from text field, you can specify one of the following:
•
Allow all hosts — Type all to allow access to all hosts.
•
Partial domain name — Allow all hosts whose names match or end with the specified
string.
Chapter 13. Apache Configuration
•
Full IP address — Allow access to a specific IP address.
•
A subnet — Such as 192.168.1.0/255.255.255.0
•
A network CIDR specification — such as 10.3.0.0/16
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Figure 13-7. Directory Settings
If you check the Let .htaccess files override directory options, the configuration directives
in the .htaccess file take precedence.
13.3. Virtual Hosts Settings
You can use the Apache Configuration Tool to configure virtual hosts. Virtual hosts
allow you to run different servers for different IP addresses, different host names,
or different ports on the same machine. For example, you can run the website for
http://www.your_domain.com and http://www.your_second_domain.com on the same
VirtualHost
Apache server using virtual hosts. This option corresponds to the
directive for the default virtual host and IP based virtual hosts. It corresponds to the
NameVirtualHost directive for a name based virtual host.
J
K
H
I
The Apache directives set for a virtual host only apply to that particular virtual host. If a directive is set server-wide using the Edit Default Settings button and not defined within the
virtual host settings, the default setting is used. For example, you can define a Webmaster
email address in the Main tab and not define individual email addresses for each virtual
host.
Apache Configuration Tool includes a default virtual host as shown in Figure 13-8. Refer to
Section 13.3.1.1.1 for details about the default virtual host.
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Chapter 13. Apache Configuration
Figure 13-8. Virtual Hosts
http://www.apache.org/docs/vhosts/ and the Apache documentation on your machine
provides more information about virtual hosts.
13.3.1. Adding and Editing a Virtual Host
To add a virtual host, click the Virtual Hosts tab and then click the Add button. You can also
edit a virtual host by selecting it in the list and clicking the Edit button.
13.3.1.1. General Options
The General Options settings only apply to the virtual host that you are configuring. Set the
name of the virtual host in the Virtual Host Name text area. This name is used by Apache
Configuration Tool to distinguish between virtual hosts.
Set the Document Root Directory value to the directory that contains the root document
(such as index.html) for the virtual host. This option corresponds to the DocumentRoot directive within the VirtualHost directive. Before Red Hat Linux 7.0, Apache provided with
Red Hat Linux used /home/httpd/html as the DocumentRoot. In Red Hat Linux 7.3, however, the default DocumentRoot is /var/www/html.
The Webmaster email address corresponds to the ServerAdmin directive within the VirtualHost directive. This email address is used in the footer of error pages if you choose to
show a footer with an email address on the error pages.
In the Host Information section, choose Default Virtual Host, IP based Virtual Host, or
Name based Virtual Host.
13.3.1.1.1. Default Virtual Host
If you choose Default Virtual Host, Figure 13-9 appears. You should only configure one
default virtual host. The default virtual host settings are used when the requested IP address
is not explicitly listed in another virtual host. If there is no default virtual host defined, the
main server settings are used.
Chapter 13. Apache Configuration
129
Figure 13-9. Default Virtual Hosts
13.3.1.1.2. IP based Virtual Host
L
M
If you choose IP based Virtual Host, Figure 13-10 appears to configure the VirtualHost
directive based on the IP address of the server. Specify this IP address in the IP address field.
To specify more than one IP address, separate each IP address with spaces. To specify a port,
use the syntax IP Address:Port. Use :* to configure all ports for the IP address. Specify
the host name for the virtual host in the Server Host Name field.
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Figure 13-10. IP Based Virtual Hosts
13.3.1.1.3. Name based Virtual Host
If you choose Name based Virtual Host, Figure 13-11 appears to configure the NameVirtualHost directive based on the host name of the server. Specify the IP address in the IP
address field. To specify more than one IP address, separate each IP address with spaces.
To specify a port, use the syntax IP Address:Port. Use :* to configure all ports for the
IP address. Specify the host name for the virtual host in the Server Host Name field. In the
Aliases section, click Add to add a host name alias. Adding an alias here adds a ServerAlias directive within the NameVirtualHost directive.
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Figure 13-11. Name Based Virtual Hosts
13.3.1.2. SSL
Note
You can not use name based virtual hosts with SSL, because the SSL handshake (when the browser
accepts the secure Web server’s certificate) occurs before the HTTP request which identifies the
appropriate name based virtual host. If you want to use name-based virtual hosts, they will only work
with your non-secure Web server.
If an Apache server is not configured with SSL support, communications between an Apache
server and its clients are not encrypted. This is appropriate for websites without personal or
confidential information. For example, an open source website that distributes open source
software and documentation has no need for secure communications. However, an ecommerce website that requires credit card information should use the Apache SSL support to
encrypt its communications. Enabling Apache SSL support enables the use of the mod_ssl
security module. To enable it through Apache Configuration Tool you must allow access
through port 443 under the Main tab => Available Addresses. Refer to Section 13.1 for details. Then, select the virtual host name in the Virtual Hosts tab, click the Edit button, choose
SSL from the left-hand menu, and check the Enable SSL Support option as shown in Figure
13-12. The SSL Configuration section is pre-configured with the dummy digital certificate.
The digital certificate provides authentication for your secure Web server and identifies the
secure server to client Web browsers. You must purchase your own digital certificate. Do not
use the dummy one provided in Red Hat Linux for your website. For details on purchasing
a CA-approved digital certificate, refer to the Chapter 14.
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Figure 13-12. SSL Support
13.3.1.3. Additional Virtual Host Options
The Site Configuration, Environment Variables, and Directories options for the virtual
hosts are the same directives that you set when you clicked the Edit Default Settings button,
except the options set here are for the individual virtual hosts that you are configuring. Refer
to Section 13.2 for details on these options.
13.4. Server Settings
The Server tab allows you to configure basic server settings. The default settings for these
options are appropriate for most situations.
Chapter 13. Apache Configuration
133
Figure 13-13. Server Configuration
The Lock File value corresponds to the LockFile directive. This directive sets the path to the
lockfile used when Apache is compiled with either USE_FCNTL_SERIALIZED_ACCEPT or
USE_FLOCK_SERIALIZED_ACCEPT. It must be stored on the local disk. It should be left
to the default value unless the logs directory is located on an NFS share. If this is the case,
the default value should be changed to a location on the local disk and to a directory that is
readable only by root.
The PID File value corresponds to the PidFile directive. This directive sets the file in which
the server records its process ID (pid). This file should only be readable by root. In most
cases, it should be left to the default value.
The Core Dump Directory value corresponds to the CoreDumpDirectory directive. Apache
tries to switch to this directory before dumping core. The default value is the ServerRoot.
However, if the user that the server runs as can not write to this directory, the core dump
can not be written. Change this value to a directory writable by the user the server runs as,
if you want to write the core dumps to disk for debugging purposes.
The User value corresponds to the User directive. It sets the userid used by the server to
answer requests. This user’s settings determine the server’s access. Any files inaccessible to
this user will also be inaccessible to your website’s visitors. The default for User is apache.
The user should only have privileges so that it can access files which are supposed to be
visible to the outside world. The user is also the owner of any CGI processes spawned by
the server. The user should not be allowed to execute any code which is not intended to be
in response to HTTP requests.
Warning
Unless you know exactly what you are doing, do not set the User directive to root. Using root as the
User will create large security holes for your Web server.
The parent httpd process first runs as root during normal operations, but is then immediately handed off to the apache user. The server must start as root because it needs to bind to
a port below 1024. Ports below 1024 are reserved for system use, so they can not be used by
anyone but root. Once the server has attached itself to its port, however, it hands the process
off to the apache user before it accepts any connection requests.
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The Group value corresponds to the Group directive. The Group directive is similar to the
User directive. Group sets the group under which the server will answer requests. The de-
fault group is also apache.
13.5. Performance Tuning
Click on the Performance Tuning tab to configure the maximum number of child server
processes you want and to configure the Apache options for client connections. The default
settings for these options are appropriate for most situations. Altering these settings may
affect the overall performance of your Web server.
Figure 13-14. Performance Tuning
Set Max Number of Connections to the maximum number of simultaneous client requests
that the server will handle. For each connection, a child httpd process is created. After this
maximum number of process is reached, no one else will be able to connect to the Web server
until a child server process is freed. You can not set this value to higher than 256 without
recompiling Apache. This option corresponds to the MaxClients directive.
Connection Timeout defines, in seconds, the amount of time that your server will wait for receipts and transmissions during communications. Specifically, Connection Timeout defines
how long your server will wait to receive a GET request, how long it will wait to receive TCP
packets on a POST or PUT request and how long it will wait between ACKs responding to
TCP packets. By default, Connection Timeout is set to 300 seconds, which is appropriate for
most situations. This option corresponds to the TimeOut directive.
Set the Max requests per connection to the maximum number of requests allowed per persistent connection. The default value is 100, which should be appropriate for most situations.
This option corresponds to the MaxRequestsPerChild directive.
If
you
check
the
Allow
unlimited
requests
per
connection
MaxKeepAliveRequests directive to 0, and unlimited requests are allowed.
option,
the
If you uncheck the Allow Persistent Connections option, the KeepAlive directive is set
to false. If you check it, the KeepAlive directive is set to true, and the KeepAliveTimeout
directive is set to the number that is selected as the Timeout for next Connection value. This
directive sets the number of seconds your server will wait for a subsequent request, after a
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135
request has been served, before it closes the connection. Once a request has been received,
the Connection Timeout value applies instead.
Setting the Persistent Connections to a high value may cause a server to slow down, depending on how many users are trying to connect to it. The higher the number, the more
server processes waiting for another connection from the last client that connected to it.
13.6. Saving Your Settings
If you do not want to save your Apache configuration settings, click the Cancel button in
the bottom right corner of the Apache Configuration Tool window. You will be prompted to
confirm this decision. If you click Yes to confirm this choice, your settings will not be saved.
If you want to save your Apache configuration settings, click the OK button in the
bottom right corner of the Apache Configuration Tool window. The dialog window
shown in Figure 13-15 will appear. If you answer Yes, your settings will be saved in
/etc/httpd/conf/httpd.conf. Remember that your original configuration file will be
overwritten.
Figure 13-15. Save and Exit
If this is the first time that you have used the Apache Configuration Tool, you will see
the dialog window shown in Figure 13-16, warning you that the configuration file has
been manually modified. If the Apache Configuration Tool detects that the httpd.conf
configuration file has been manually modified, it will save the manually modified file as
/etc/httpd/conf/httpd.conf.bak.
Figure 13-16. Configuration File Manually Modified
Important
After saving your settings, you must restart the Apache daemon with the command service httpd
restart. You must be logged in as root to execute this command.
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13.7. Additional Resources
To learn more about Apache, refer to the following resources.
13.7.1. Installed Documentation
•
Apache documentation — If you have the apache-manual package installed and the
Apache Web server daemon (httpd) running, you can view the Apache documentation.
Open a Web browser, and go to the URL http://localhost on the server that is running
Apache. Then, click the Documentation link.
13.7.2. Useful Websites
•
http://www.apache.org — The Apache Software Foundation.
•
http://httpd.apache.org/docs/ — Apache HTTP Server Version 1.3 User’s Guide.
•
http://localhost/manual/index.html — After starting the Apache server on your local
system, you can view the Apache HTTP Server Version 1.3 User’s Guide using this URL.
•
http://www.redhat.com/support/docs/apache.html — Red Hat Support maintains a list
of useful Apace Web Server links.
•
http://www.redhat.com/support/docs/faqs/RH-apache-FAQ/book1.html — The Red
Hat Linux Apache Centralized Knowledgebase compiled by Red Hat.
13.7.3. Related Books
•
Apache: The Definitive Guide by Ben Laurie and Peter Laurie; O’Reilly & Associates, Inc.
Chapter 14.
Apache Secure Server Configuration
14.1. Introduction
This chapter provides basic information on an Apache server with the mod_ssl security
module enabled to use the OpenSSL library and toolkit. The combination of these three
components, provided with Red Hat Linux, will be referred to in this chapter as the secure
Web server or just as the secure server.
The mod_ssl module is a security module for the Apache Web server. The mod_ssl module
uses the tools provided by the OpenSSL Project to add a very important feature to Apache
— the ability to encrypt communications. In contrast, using regular HTTP, communications
between a browser and a Web server are sent in plaintext, which could be intercepted and
read by someone along the route between the browser and the server.
This chapter is not meant to be complete and exclusive documentation for any of these programs. When possible, this guide will point you to appropriate places where you can find
more in-depth documentation on particular subjects.
This chapter will show you how to install these programs. You will also learn the steps
necessary to generate a private key and a certificate request, how to generate your own selfsigned certificate, and how to install a certificate to use with your secure Web server.
14.2. An Overview of Security-Related Packages
To enable the secure server, you need to have the following packages installed at a minimum:
apache
The apache package contains the httpd daemon and related utilities, configuration files,
icons, Apache modules, man pages and other files used by the Apache Web server.
mod_ssl
The mod_ssl package includes the mod_ssl module, which provides strong cryptography for the Apache Web server via the Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) and Transport Layer
Security (TLS) protocols.
openssl
The openssl package contains the OpenSSL toolkit. The OpenSSL toolkit implements
the SSL and TLS protocols and also includes a general purpose cryptography library.
mm
The mm package contains the MM library, which allows multiple instances of the httpd
daemon to share state information.
Additionally, other software packages included with Red Hat Linux can provide certain security functionalities (but are not required by the secure server to function):
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apache-devel
The apache-devel package contains the Apache include files, header files and the APXS
utility. You will need all of these if you intend to load any extra modules, other than the
modules provided with this product. Please see the Official Red Hat Linux Reference Guide
for more information on loading modules onto your secure Web server using Apache’s
DSO functionality.
If you do not intend to load other modules onto your Apache server, you do not need
to install this package.
apache-manual
The apache-manual package contains the Apache Project’s Apache 1.3
User’s Guide in HTML format. This manual is also available on the Web at
http://httpd.apache.org/docs/.
OpenSSH packages
The OpenSSH packages provide the OpenSSH set of network connectivity tools for logging into and executing commands on a remote machine. OpenSSH tools encrypt all
traffic (including passwords), so you can avoid eavesdropping, connection hijacking,
and other attacks on the communications between your machine and the remote machine.
The openssh package includes core files needed by both the OpenSSH client programs
and the OpenSSH server. The openssh package also contains scp, a secure replacement
for rcp (for copying files between machines) and ftp (for transferring files between
machines).
The openssh-askpass package supports the display of a dialog window which
prompts for a password during use of the OpenSSH agent with RSA authentication.
The openssh-askpass-gnome package contains a GNOME GUI desktop environment
dialog window which is displayed when OpenSSH programs prompt for a password. If
you are running GNOME and using OpenSSH utilities, you should install this package.
The openssh-server package contains the sshd secure shell daemon and related files.
The secure shell daemon is the server side of the OpenSSH suite, and must be installed
on your host if you want to allow SSH clients to connect to your host.
The openssh-clients package contains the client programs needed to make encrypted
connections to SSH servers, including the following: ssh, a secure replacement for rsh;
and slogin, a secure replacement for rlogin (for remote login) and telnet (for communicating with another host via the TELNET protocol).
For more information about OpenSSH, see Chapter 9 and the OpenSSH website at
http://www.openssh.com.
openssl-devel
The openssl-devel package contains the static libraries and the include file needed to
compile applications with support for various cryptographic algorithms and protocols.
You need to install this package only if you are developing applications which include
SSL support — you do not need this package to use SSL.
stunnel
The stunnel package provides the Stunnel SSL wrapper. Stunnel supports the SSL encryption of TCP connections, so it can provide encryption for non-SSL aware daemons
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139
and protocols (such as POP, IMAP and LDAP) without requiring any changes to the
daemon’s code.
Table 14-1 displays the location of the secure server packages and additional security-related
packages within the package groups provided by Red Hat Linux. This table also tells you
whether each package is optional or not for the installation of a secure Web server.
Table 14-1. Security Packages
Package Name
Located in Group
Optional?
apache
System Environment/Daemons
no
mod_ssl
System Environment/Daemons
no
openssl
System Environment/Libraries
no
mm
System Environment/Libraries
no
apache-devel
Development/Libraries
yes
apache-manual
Documentation
yes
openssh
Applications/Internet
yes
openssh-askpass
Applications/Internet
yes
openssh-askpass-gnome Applications/Internet
yes
openssh-clients
Applications/Internet
yes
openssh-server
System Environment/Daemons
yes
openssl-devel
Development/Libraries
yes
stunnel
Applications/Internet
yes
14.3. An Overview of Certificates and Security
Your secure Web server provides security using a combination of the Secure Sockets Layer
(SSL) protocol and (in most cases) a digital certificate from a Certificate Authority (CA). SSL
handles the encrypted communications and the mutual authentication between browsers
and your secure Web server. The CA-approved digital certificate provides authentication for
your secure Web server (the CA puts its reputation behind its certification of your organization’s identity). When your browser is communicating using SSL encryption, you will see
the https:// prefix at the beginning of the Uniform Resource Locator (URL) in the navigation
bar.
Encryption depends upon the use of keys (think of them as secret encoder/decoder rings in
data format). In conventional or symmetric cryptography, both ends of the transaction have
the same key, which they use to decode each other’s transmissions. In public or asymmetric
cryptography, two keys co-exist: a public key and a private key. A person or an organization
keeps their private key a secret, and publishes their public key. Data encoded with the public
key can only be decoded with the private key; data encoded with the private key can only
be decoded with the public key.
To set up your secure server, you will use public cryptography to create a public and private
key pair. In most cases, you will send your certificate request (including your public key),
proof of your company’s identity, and payment to a CA. The CA will verify the certificate
request and your identity, and then send back a certificate for your secure Web server.
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A secure server uses a certificate to identify itself to Web browsers. You can generate your
own certificate (called a "self-signed" certificate) or you can get a certificate from a Certificate
Authority or CA. A certificate from a reputable CA guarantees that a website is associated
with a particular company or organization.
Alternatively, you can create your own self-signed certificate. Note, however, that self-signed
certificates should not be used in most production environments. Self-signed certificates will
not be automatically accepted by a user’s browser — the user will be asked by the browser
if they want to accept the certificate and create the secure connection. See Section 14.5 for
more information on the differences between self-signed and CA-signed certificates.
Once you have a self-signed certificate or a signed certificate from the CA of your choice,
you will need to install it on your secure Web server.
14.4. Using Pre-Existing Keys and Certificates
If you already have an existing key and certificate (for example, if you are installing the secure Web server to replace another company’s secure Web server product), you will probably
be able to use your existing key and certificate with the secure Web server. In the following
two situations, you will not be able to use your existing key and certificate:
•
If you are changing your IP address or domain name — You can not use your old key and
certificate if you are changing your IP address or domain name. Certificates are issued for
a particular IP address and domain name pair. You will need to get a new certificate if you
are changing your IP address or domain name.
•
If you have a certificate from VeriSign and you are changing your server software — VeriSign is a
widely used CA. If you already have a VeriSign certificate for another purpose, you may
have been considering using your existing VeriSign certificate with your new secure Web
server. However, you will not be allowed to, because VeriSign issues certificates for one
particular server software and IP address/domain name combination.
If you change either of those parameters (for example, if you previously used another
secure Web server product and now you want to use the secure Web server), the VeriSign
certificate you obtained to use with the previous configuration will not work with the new
configuration. You will need to obtain a new certificate.
If you have an existing key and certificate that you can use, you will not have to generate a
new key and obtain a new certificate. However, you may need to move and rename the files
which contain your key and certificate.
Move your existing key file to:
/etc/httpd/conf/ssl.key/server.key
Move your existing certificate file to:
/etc/httpd/conf/ssl.crt/server.crt
After you have moved your key and certificate, skip to Section 14.9.
If you are upgrading from the Red Hat Secure Web Server versions 1.0 and 2.0, your old key
(httpsd.key) and certificate (httpsd.crt) will be located in /etc/httpd/conf/. You will
need to move and rename your key and certificate, so that the secure Web server can use
them. Use the following two commands to move and rename your key and certificate files:
mv /etc/httpd/conf/httpsd.key /etc/httpd/conf/ssl.key/server.key
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mv /etc/httpd/conf/httpsd.crt /etc/httpd/conf/ssl.crt/server.crt
Then start your secure Web server with the command:
/sbin/service httpd start
For a secure server, you will be prompted to enter your password. After you type it in and
press [Enter], the server will start.
You should not need to get a new certificate, if you are upgrading from a previous version
of the secure Web server.
14.5. Types of Certificates
If you installed your secure Web server using the Red Hat Linux installation program, a
random key and a test certificate are generated and put into the appropriate directories.
Before you begin using your secure server, however, you will need to generate your own
key and obtain a certificate which correctly identifies your server.
You need a key and a certificate to operate your secure Web server — which means that you
can either generate a self-signed certificate or purchase a CA-signed certificate from a CA.
What are the differences between the two?
A CA-signed certificate provides two important capabilities for your server:
•
Browsers will (usually) automatically recognize the certificate and allow a secure connection to be made, without prompting the user.
•
When a CA issues a signed certificate, they are guaranteeing the identity of the organization that is providing the Web pages to the browser.
If your secure server is being accessed by the public at large, your secure Web server needs
a certificate signed by a CA, so that people who visit your website can rely that the website
is owned by the organization who claims to own it. Before signing a certificate, a CA verifies
that the organization requesting the certificate was actually who they claimed to be.
Most Web browsers that support SSL have a list of CAs whose certificates they will automatically accept. If a browser encounters a certificate whose authorizing CA is not in the list, the
browser will ask the user to choose whether to accept or decline the connection.
You can generate a self-signed certificate for your secure Web server, but be aware that a selfsigned certificate will not provide the same functionality as a CA-signed certificate. A selfsigned certificate will not be automatically recognized by users’ browsers, and a self-signed
certificate does not provide any guarantee concerning the identity of the organization that is
providing the website. A CA-signed certificate provides both of these important capabilities
for a secure server. If your secure server will be used in a production environment, you will
probably need a CA-signed certificate.
The process of getting a certificate from a CA is fairly easy. A quick overview is as follows:
1. Create an encryption private and public key pair.
2. Create a certificate request based on the public key. The certificate request contains
information about your server and the company hosting it.
3. Send the certificate request, along with documents proving your identity, to a CA. We
cannot tell you which certificate authority to choose. Your decision may be based on
your past experiences, or on the experiences of your friends or colleagues, or purely on
monetary factors.
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To see a list of CAs, click on the Security button on your Navigator toolbar or on the
padlock icon at the bottom left of the screen, then click on Signers to see a list of certificate signers from whom your browser will accept certificates. You can also search the
Web for CAs. Once you have decided upon a CA, you will need to follow the instructions they provide on how to obtain a certificate from them.
4. When the CA is satisfied that you are indeed who you claim to be, they will send you
a digital certificate.
5. Install this certificate on your Web server, and begin handling secure transactions.
Whether you are getting a certificate from a CA or generating your own self-signed certificate, the first step is to generate a key. See Section 14.6 for instructions on how to generate a
key.
14.6. Generating a Key
First, cd to the /etc/httpd/conf directory. Remove the fake key and certificate that were
generated during the installation with the following commands:
rm ssl.key/server.key
rm ssl.crt/server.crt
Next, you need to create your own random key. Type in the following command:
make genkey
Your system will display a message similar to the following:
umask 77 ; \
/usr/bin/openssl genrsa -des3 1024 > /etc/httpd/conf/ssl.key/server.key
Generating RSA private key, 1024 bit long modulus
.......++++++
................................................................++++++
e is 65537 (0x10001)
Enter PEM pass phrase:
You now need to type in a password. For best security, your password should contain at least
eight characters, include numbers and/or punctuation, and not be a word in a dictionary.
Also, remember that your password is case sensitive.
Note
You will need to remember and enter this password every time you start your secure Web server, so
do not forget it.
You will be asked to re-type the password, to verify that it is correct. Once you have typed it
in correctly, a file called server.key, containing your key, will be created.
Note that if you do not want to type in a password every time you start your secure Web
server, you will need to use the following two commands instead of make genkey to create
the key. Both of these commands should be typed in entirely on one line.
Use the following command:
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143
/usr/bin/openssl genrsa 1024 > /etc/httpd/conf/ssl.key/server.key
to create your key. Then use this command:
chmod go-rwx /etc/httpd/conf/ssl.key/server.key
to make sure that the permissions are set correctly on your key.
After you use the above commands to create your key, you will not need to use a password
to start your secure Web server.
Caution
Disabling the password feature for your secure Web server is a security risk. We DO NOT recommend
that you disable the password feature for your secure Web server.
The problems associated with not using a password are directly related to the security maintained on the host machine. For example, if an unscrupulous individual compromises the
regular UNIX security on the host machine, that person could obtain your private key (the
contents of your server.key file). The key could be used to serve Web pages that will appear
to be from your Web server.
If UNIX security practices are rigorously maintained on the host computer (all operating
system patches and updates are installed as soon as they are available, no unnecessary or
risky services are operating, and so on), the secure Web server’s password may seem unnecessary. However, since your secure Web server should not need to be re-booted very often,
the extra security provided by entering a password is a worthwhile effort in most cases.
The server.key file should be owned by the root user on your system and should not be
accessible to any other user. Make a backup copy of this file and keep the backup copy in a
safe, secure place. You need the backup copy because if you ever lose the server.key file
after using it to create your certificate request, your certificate will no longer work and the
CA will not be able to help you. Your only option would be to request (and pay for) a new
certificate.
If you are going to purchase a certificate from a CA, continue to Section 14.7. If you are
generating your own self-signed certificate, continue to Section 14.8.
14.7. Generating a Certificate Request to Send to a CA
Once you have created a key, the next step is to generate a certificate request which you will
need to send to the CA of your choice. Type in the following command:
make certreq
Your system will display the following output and will ask you for your password (unless
you disabled the password option):
umask 77 ; \
/usr/bin/openssl req -new -key /etc/httpd/conf/ssl.key/server.key
-out /etc/httpd/conf/ssl.csr/server.csr
Using configuration from /usr/share/ssl/openssl.cnf
Enter PEM pass phrase:
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Type in the password that you chose when you were generating your key. Your system will
display some instructions and then ask for a series of responses from you. Your inputs will
be incorporated into the certificate request. The display, with example responses, will look
like this:
You are about to be asked to enter information that will be incorporated
into your certificate request.
What you are about to enter is what is called a Distinguished Name or a
DN.
There are quite a few fields but you can leave some blank
For some fields there will be a default value,
If you enter ’.’, the field will be left blank.
----Country Name (2 letter code) [AU]:US
State or Province Name (full name) [Some-State]:North Carolina
Locality Name (eg, city) []:Durham
Organization Name (eg, company) [Internet Widgits]:Test Company
Organizational Unit Name (eg, section) []:Testing
Common Name (your name or server’s hostname) []:test.example.com
Email Address []:[email protected]
Please enter the following ’extra’ attributes
to be sent with your certificate request
A challenge password []:
An optional company name []:
The default answers appear in brackets [] immediately after each request for input. For
example, the first information required is the name of the country where the certificate will
be used, shown like the following:
Country Name (2 letter code) [AU]:
The default input, in brackets, is AU. To accept the default, just press [Enter], or fill in your
country’s two letter code.
You will have to type in the rest of the inputs (State or Province Name, Locality Name,
Organization Name, Organizational Unit Name, Common Name, and Email address).
All of these should be self-explanatory, but you need to follow these guidelines:
•
Do not abbreviate the locality or state. Write them out (for example, St. Louis should be
written out as Saint Louis).
•
If you are sending this CSR to a CA, be very careful to provide correct information for
all of the fields, but especially for the Organization Name and the Common Name. CAs
check the information provided in the CSR to determine whether your organization is responsible for what you provided as the Common Name. CAs will reject CSRs which include
information they perceive as invalid.
•
For Common Name, make sure you type in the real name of your secure Web server (a valid
DNS name) and not any aliases which the server may have.
•
The Email Address should be the email address for the webmaster or system administrator.
•
Avoid any special characters like @, #, &, !, etc. Some CAs will reject a certificate request
which contains a special character. So, if your company name includes an ampersand (&),
spell it out as "and" instead of "&."
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•
145
Do not use either of the extra attributes (A challenge password and An optional company name). To continue without entering these fields, just press [Enter] to accept the
blank default for both inputs.
When you have finished entering your information, a file named server.csr will be created.
This file is your certificate request, ready to send to your CA.
After you have decided on a CA, follow the instructions they provide on their website. Their
instructions will tell you how to send your certificate request, any other documentation that
they require, and your payment to them.
After you have fulfilled the CA’s requirements, they will send a certificate to you
(usually by email). Save (or cut and paste) the certificate that they send you as
/etc/httpd/conf/ssl.crt/server.crt.
14.8. Creating a Self-Signed Certificate
You can create your own self-signed certificate. Please note that a self-signed certificate will
not provide the security guarantees provided by a CA-signed certificate. See Section 14.5 for
more details about certificates.
If you would like to make your own self-signed certificate, you will first need to create a
random key using the instructions provided in Section 14.6. Once you have a key, use the
following command:
make testcert
You will see the following output and you will be prompted for your password (unless you
generated a key without a password):
umask 77 ; \
/usr/bin/openssl req -new -key /etc/httpd/conf/ssl.key/server.key
-x509 -days 365 -out /etc/httpd/conf/ssl.crt/server.crt
Using configuration from /usr/share/ssl/openssl.cnf
Enter PEM pass phrase:
After you enter your password (or without a prompt if you created a key without a password), you will be asked for more information. The computer’s output and a set of inputs
looks like the following (you will need to provide the correct information for your organization and host):
You are about to be asked to enter information that will be incorporated
into your certificate request.
What you are about to enter is what is called a Distinguished Name or a
DN.
There are quite a few fields but you can leave some blank
For some fields there will be a default value,
If you enter ’.’, the field will be left blank.
----Country Name (2 letter code) [AU]:US
State or Province Name (full name) [Some-State]:North Carolina
Locality Name (eg, city) []:Durham
Organization Name (eg, company) [Internet Widgits]:My Company, Inc.
Organizational Unit Name (eg, section) []:Documentation
Common Name (your name or server’s hostname) []:myhost.example.com
Email Address []:[email protected]
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After you provide the correct information, a self-signed certificate will be created and placed
in /etc/httpd/conf/ssl.crt/server.crt. You will need to restart your secure server after
generating the certificate with following the command:
/sbin/service httpd restart
14.9. Testing Your Certificate
When the secure server is installed by the Red Hat Linux installation program, a random key
and a generic certificate are installed, for testing purposes. You can connect to your secure
server using this certificate. For any purposes other than testing, however, you need to get a
certificate from a CA or generate a self-signed certificate. See Section 14.5 if you need more
information on the different types of certificates available.
If you have purchased a certificate from a CA or generated a self-signed certificate, you
should have a file named /etc/httpd/conf/ssl.key/server.key, containing your key,
and a file named /etc/httpd/conf/ssl.crt/server.crt, containing your certificate. If
your key and certificate are somewhere else, move them to these directories. If you changed
any of the default locations or filenames for the secure Web server in your Apache configuration files, you should put these two files in the appropriate directory, based on your
modifications.
Once these CA files have been moved, restart your server with the command:
/sbin/service httpd restart
If your key file is encrypted, you will be asked for the password. Type in your password to
start your server.
Point your Web browser to your server’s home page. The URL to access your secure Web
server will look like this:
https://your_domain
Note
Note the "s" after "http." The https: prefix is used for secure HTTP transactions.
If you are using a CA-signed certificate from a well-known CA, your browser will probably
automatically accept the certificate (without prompting you for input) and create the secure
connection. Your browser will not automatically recognize a test or a self-signed certificate,
because the certificate is not signed by a CA. If you are not using a certificate from a CA,
follow the instructions provided by your browser to accept the certificate. You can just accept
the defaults by clicking Next until the dialogs are finished.
Once your browser accepts the certificate, your secure Web server will show you a default
home page as shown in Figure 14-1.
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Figure 14-1. The Default Home Page
14.10. Accessing Your Secure Server
To access your secure server, use a URL like this:
https://your_domain
Note that URLs which are intended to connect to your secure Web server should begin with
the https: protocol designator instead of the more common http: protocol designator.
Your non-secure server can be accessed using an URL like this:
http://your_domain
The standard port for secure Web communications is port 443. The standard port for nonsecure Web communications is port 80. The secure Web server default configuration listens
on both of the two standard ports. Therefore, you will not need to specify the port number
in a URL (the port number is assumed).
However, if you configure your server to listen on a non-standard port (i.e., anything besides
80 or 443), you will need to specify the port number in every URL which is intended to
connect to the server on the non-standard port.
For example, you may have configured your server so that you have a virtual host running
non-secured on port 12331. Any URLs intended to connect to that virtual host must specify
the port number in the URL. The following URL example will attempt to connect to a nonsecure Web server listening on port 12331:
http://your_domain:12331
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Chapter 14. Apache Secure Server Configuration
Note
Some of the example URLs used in this manual may need to be changed, depending upon whether
you are accessing your secure Web server or your non-secure Web server. Please view all URLs
in this manual as general examples and not as explicit instructions that will work under all circumstances.
14.11. Additional Resources
If you followed the steps outlined in this chapter, but you experienced a problem, the
first thing you should do is check the Red Hat Errata section of the Red Hat website at
http://www.redhat.com/apps/support/errata/.
If you purchased an Official Red Hat product which included support, you are
entitled to technical support. Be sure to visit the Red Hat Support website at
http://www.redhat.com/support to register for support.
You may also want to subscribe to the redhat-secure-server mailing list. You can subscribe
to this mailing list at http://www.redhat.com/mailing-lists.
You can also subscribe to the redhat-secure-server mailing list by emailing
<[email protected]> and include the word "subscribe"
(without the quotation marks) in the Subject line.
Refer to Section 13.7 for additional references about Apache.
14.11.1. Installed Documentation
— Open a Web browser, and go to the
http://localhost/manual/mod/mod_ssl/ on the server that is running Apache.
• mod_ssl documentation
URL
14.11.2. Useful Websites
•
http://www.modssl.org — The mod_ssl website is the definitive source for information
about mod_ssl. The website includes a wealth of documentation, including a User Manual
at http://www.modssl.org/docs.
14.11.3. Related Books
Apache: The Definitive Guide, 2nd edition, by Ben Laurie and Peter Laurie, O’Reilly & Associates, Inc.
Chapter 15.
BIND Configuration
This chapter assumes that you have a basic understanding of BIND and DNS; it does not
attempt to explain the concepts of BIND and DNS. This chapter does explain how to use the
BIND Configuration Tool (bindconf) to configure basic BIND server zones for BIND version 8. The BIND Configuration Tool creates the /etc/named.conf configuration file and
the zone configuration files in the /var/named directory each time you apply your changes.
If you require more functionality than this tool provides, you can create the
/etc/named.conf configuration file using the BIND Configuration Tool and then add
your customized settings. However, once you manually modify the configuration file, you
cannot use BIND Configuration Tool to edit the custom configuration settings that were
added manually.
Important
Do not edit the /etc/named.conf configuration file. BIND Configuration Tool generates this file
after you apply your changes. If you want to configure settings that are not configurable using BIND
Configuration Tool, then do not use it.
The BIND Configuration Tool requires the X Window System and root access. To start the
BIND Configuration Tool, use one of the following methods:
•
On the GNOME desktop, go to the Main Menu Button (on the Panel) => Programs =>
System => DNS Configuration.
•
On the KDE desktop, go to the Main Menu Button (on the Panel) => System => DNS
Configuration.
•
Type the command bindconf at a shell prompt (for example, in an XTerm or GNOMEterminal).
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Chapter 15. BIND Configuration
Figure 15-1. bindconf
The BIND Configuration Tool configures the default zone directory to be /var/named. All
zone files specified are relative to this directory. The BIND Configuration Tool also includes
basic syntax checking when values are entered. For example, if a valid entry is an IP address,
you are only allowed to type numbers and the dot (.) character into the text area.
The BIND Configuration Tool allows you to add a forward master zone, a reverse master
zone, and a slave zone. After adding the zones, you can edit or delete them from the main
window as shown in Figure 15-1.
After adding, editing, or deleting a zone, you must choose File => Apply to write the
/etc/named.conf configuration file and all the individual zone files in the /var/named directory. Applying your changes will also have the named service reload the configuration
files. You can also choose File => Exit and click Yes to Do you want to apply your changes
before exiting?
15.1. Adding a Forward Master Zone
To add a forward master zone (also known as a primary master), click the Add button, select
Forward Master Zone, and enter the domain name for the master zone in the Domain name
text area.
A new window as shown in Figure 15-2 will appear with the following options:
•
Name — Domain name that was just entered in the previous window.
•
File Name — File name of the DNS database file, relative to /var/named.
•
Contact — Email address of the main contact for the master zone.
•
Primary Name Server (SOA) — State of authority (SOA) record. This specifies the name
server that is the best resource of information for this domain. The default value is @,
which means that the SOA is the same as the domain name entered in the Name field
above.
•
Serial Number — The serial number of the DNS database file. This number must be incremented each time the file is changed, so that the slave name servers for the zone will
retrieve the latest data. The BIND Configuration Tool increments this number each time
Chapter 15. BIND Configuration
151
the configuration changes. It can also be incremented manually by clicking the Set button
next to the Serial Number value.
•
Time Settings — The Refresh, Retry, Expire, and Minimum TTL (Time to Live) values
that are stored in the DNS database file.
•
Records — Add, edit, and delete record resources of type Host, Alias, and Name server.
Figure 15-2. Adding a Forward Master Zone
The configuration shown in Figure 15-2 creates the following entry in /etc/named.conf:
zone "forward.example.com" {
type master;
file "forward.example.com.zone";
};
It also creates the file /var/named/forward.example.com.zone with the following information:
$TTL 86400
@ IN SOA @ root.localhost (
1 ; serial
28800 ; refresh
7200 ; retry
604800 ; expire
86400 ; ttl
)
After configuring the Forward Master Zone, click OK to return to the main window
as shown in Figure 15-1. From the pulldown menu, choose File => Apply to write the
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Chapter 15. BIND Configuration
/etc/named.conf configuration file, write all the individual zone files in the /var/named
directory, and have the daemon reload the configuration files.
15.2. Adding a Reverse Master Zone
To add a reverse master zone, click the Add button and select Reverse Master Zone. Enter
the first three octets of the IP address range that you want to configure. For example, if you
are configuring the IP address range 192.168.10.0/255.255.255.0, enter 192.168.10 in the IP
Address (first 3 Octets) text area.
A new window will appear, as shown in Figure 15-3, with the following options:
1. IP Address — The first three octets that you just entered in the previous window.
2. Reverse IP Address — Non-editable. Pre-populated based on the IP Address entered.
3. File Name — File name of DNS database file in the /var/named directory.
4. Primary Name Server (SOA) — State of authority (SOA) record. This specifies the
name server that is the best resource of information for this domain. The default value
is @, which means that the SOA is the same as the domain name entered in the Name
field above.
5. Time Settings — The Refresh, Retry, Expire, and Minimum TTL (Time to Live) values
that are stored in the DNS database file.
6. Name Servers — Add, edit, and delete name servers for for the reverse master zone.
At least one name server is required.
7. Reverse Address Table — List of IP addresses within the reverse master zone and their
hostnames. For example, for the reverse master zone 1.2.3, you can add 1.2.3.100 in the
Reverse Address Table with the hostname foo.example.com. The hostname must end
with a period (.) to specify that it is a full hostname.
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153
Figure 15-3. Adding a Reverse Master Zone
The configuration shown in Figure 15-3 creates the following entry in /etc/named.conf:
zone "3.2.1.in-addr.arpa" {
type master;
file "3.2.1.in-addr.arpa.zone";
};
It also creates the file /var/named/3.2.1.in-addr.arpa.zone with the following information:
$TTL 86400
@ IN SOA @ root.localhost (
2 ; serial
28800 ; refresh
7200 ; retry
604800 ; expire
86400 ; ttk
)
@ IN NS ns.example.com.
1 IN PTR one.example.com.
2 IN PTR two.example.com.
After configuring the Reverse Master Zone, click OK to return to the main window, as
shown in Figure 15-1. From the pulldown menu, choose File => Apply to write the
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Chapter 15. BIND Configuration
/etc/named.conf configuration file, write all the individual zone files in the /var/named
directory, and have the daemon reload the configuration files.
15.3. Adding a Slave Zone
To add a slave zone (also known as a secondary master), click the Add button and select
Slave Zone. Enter the domain name for the slave zone in the Domain name text area.
A new window will appear, as shown in Figure 15-4, with the following options:
•
Name — The domain name that was entered in the previous window.
•
Masters List — The name server from which the slave zone retrieves its data. This value
must be a valid IP address. You can only enter numbers and dots (.) in the text area.
•
File Name — File name of the DNS database file in /var/named.
Figure 15-4. Adding a Slave Zone
The configuration shown in Figure 15-4 creates the following entry in /etc/named.conf:
zone "slave.example.com" {
type slave;
file "slave.example.com.zone";
masters {
1.2.3.4;
};
};
The configuration file /var/named/slave.example.com.zone is created by the named service when it downloads the zone data from the master server(s).
After configuring the slave zone, click OK to return to the main window as shown in Figure 15-1. From the pulldown menu, choose File => Apply to write the /etc/named.conf
configuration file and have the daemon reload the configuration files.
Chapter 16.
Mail Transport Agent (MTA) Configuration
A Mail Transport Agent (MTA) is essential for sending email from a Red Hat Linux system.
The Mail User Agent (MUA) such as Mozilla Mail, Mutt, Pine, and Evolution is used to read
and compose email. When a user sends an email from an MUA, the messages is handed off
to the MTA, which sends the message to a series of MTAs until it reaches its destination.
Even if a user does not plan to send email from the system, some automated tasks or system
programs might use the /bin/mail command to send email containing log messages to the
root user of the local system.
Red Hat Linux 7.3 provides two MTAs: Sendmail and Postfix. If both are installed, sendmail
is the default MTA. Red Hat Mail Transport Agent Switcher allows a user to select either
sendmail or postfix as the default MTA for the system.
To start Red Hat Mail Transport Agent Switcher, use one of the following methods:
•
On the GNOME desktop, go to the Main Menu Button (on the Panel) => Programs =>
System => Red Hat Mail Transport Agent Switcher.
•
On the KDE desktop, go to the Main Menu Button (on the Panel) System => Red Hat
Mail Transport Agent Switcher.
•
Type the command redhat-switchmail at a shell prompt (for example, in an XTerm or
GNOME terminal).
The program automatically detect if the X Window System is running. If it is running, the
program starts in graphical mode as shown in Figure 16-1. If X is not detected, it starts in
text-mode. To force Red Hat Mail Transport Agent Switch to run in text-mode, use the
command redhat-switchmail-nox.
Figure 16-1. Red Hat Mail Transport Agent Switcher
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Chapter 16. Mail Transport Agent (MTA) Configuration
If you selected Postfix, you must make sure the sendmail service is stopped and the postfix
service is started:
/sbin/service sendmail stop
/sbin/service postfix start
If you selected Sendmail, you must make sure the postfix service is stopped and the sendmail service is started:
/sbin/service postfix stop
/sbin/service sendmail start
Tip
For more information about email protocols and MTAs, refer to the Official Red Hat Linux Reference
Guide.
System Configuration
Chapter 17.
Console Access
When normal (non-root) users log into a computer locally, they are given two types of special
permissions:
1. They can run certain programs that they would not otherwise be able to run
2. They can access certain files (normally special device files used to access diskettes, CDROMs, and so on) that they would not otherwise be able to access
Since there are multiple consoles on a single computer and multiple users can be logged into
the computer locally at the same time, one of the users has to "win" the race to access the
files. The first user to log in at the console owns those files. Once the first user logs out, the
next user who logs in will own the files.
In contrast, every user who logs in at the console will be allowed to run programs that accomplish tasks normally restricted to the root user. If X is running, these actions can be included
as menu items in a graphical user interface. As shipped, the console-accessible programs
include halt, poweroff, and reboot.
17.1. Disabling Shutdown Via Ctrl-Alt-Del
By default, /etc/inittab specifies that your system is set to shutdown and reboot the system in response to a [Ctrl]-[Alt]-[Del] key combination used at the console. If you would
like to completely disable this ability, you will need to comment out the following line in
/etc/inittab by putting a hash mark (#) in front of it:
ca::ctrlaltdel:/sbin/shutdown -t3 -r now
Alternatively, you may just want to allow certain non-root users the right to shutdown the
system from the console using [Ctrl]-[Alt]-[Del]. You can restrict this privilege to certain
users, by taking the following steps:
1. Add a -a option to the /etc/inittab line shown above, so that it reads:
ca::ctrlaltdel:/sbin/shutdown -a -t3 -r now
The -a flag tells shutdown to look for the /etc/shutdown.allow file, which you will
create in the next step.
2. Create a file named shutdown.allow in /etc. The shutdown.allow file should list the
usernames of any users who are allowed to shutdown the system using [Ctrl]-[Alt][Del]. The format of the /etc/shutdown.allow file is a list of usernames, one per line,
like the following:
stephen
jack
sophie
According to this example shutdown.allow file, stephen, jack, and sophie are allowed
to shutdown the system from the console using [Ctrl]-[Alt]-[Del]. When that key
combination is used, the shutdown -a in /etc/inittab checks to see if any of the users in
/etc/shutdown.allow (or root) are logged in on a virtual console. If one of them is, the
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Chapter 17. Console Access
shutdown of the system will continue; if not, an error message will be written to the system
console instead.
For more information on shutdown.allow see the shutdown man page.
17.2. Disabling Console Program Access
In order to disable access by users to console programs, you should run this command as
root:
rm -f /etc/security/console.apps/*
In environments where the console is otherwise secured (BIOS and boot loader passwords
are set, [Ctrl]-[Alt]-[Delete] is disabled, the power and reset switches are disabled, and so
forth), you may not want to allow any user at the console to run poweroff, halt, and reboot,
which are accessible from the console by default.
To remove these abilities, run the following commands as root:
rm -f /etc/security/console.apps/poweroff
rm -f /etc/security/console.apps/halt
rm -f /etc/security/console.apps/reboot
17.3. Disabling All Console Access
The PAM pam_console.so module manages console file permissions and authentication.
(See the Official Red Hat Linux Reference Guide for more information on configuring PAM.) If
you want to disable all console access, including program and file access, comment out all
lines that refer to pam_console.so in the /etc/pam.d directory. As root, the following script
will do the trick:
cd /etc/pam.d
for i in * ; do
sed ’/[^#].*pam_console.so/s/^/#/’
done
N
$i
O
foo && mv foo $i
17.4. Defining the Console
The pam_console.so module uses the /etc/security/console.perms file to determine
the permissions for users at the system console. The syntax of the file is very flexible; you
can edit the file so that these instructions no longer apply. However, the default file has a
line that looks like this:
N
O
console =tty[0-9][0-9]* :[0-9]\.[0-9] :[0-9]
When users log in, they are attached to some sort of named terminal, either an X server with
a name like :0 or mymachine.example.com:1.0 or a device like /dev/ttyS0 or /dev/pts/2.
The default is to define that local virtual consoles and local X servers are considered local,
but if you want to consider the serial terminal next to you on port /dev/ttyS1 to also be
local, you can change that line to read:
N
O
console =tty[0-9][0-9]* :[0-9]\.[0-9] :[0-9] /dev/ttyS1
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161
17.5. Making Files Accessible From the Console
P
In /etc/security/console.perms, there is a section with lines like:
P
Q
floppy =/dev/fd[0-1]* \
/dev/floppy/*
sound =/dev/dsp* /dev/audio* /dev/midi* \
/dev/mixer* /dev/sequencer \
/dev/sound/*
cdrom =/dev/cdrom* /dev/cdwriter*
P
Q
Q
You can add your own lines to this section, if necessary. Make sure that any lines you add
refer to the appropriate device. For example, you could add the following line:
P
Q
scanner =/dev/scanner
(Of course, make sure that /dev/scanner is really your scanner and not, say, your hard
drive.)
That’s the first step. The second step is to define what is done with those files. Look in the
last section of /etc/security/console.perms for lines similar to:
PP
P
console
console
console
P
console
QQ
PP
QQ Q
P
floppy
sound
cdrom
Q
P
scanner
0660
0600
0600
and add a line like:
Q
0600
0660 root.floppy
0640 root
0600 root.disk
Q
0600 root
Then, when you log in at the console, you will be given ownership of the /dev/scanner
device and the permissions will be 0600 (readable and writable by you only). When you log
out, the device will be owned by root and still have 0600 (now: readable and writable by root
only) permissions.
17.6. Enabling Console Access for Other Applications
If you wish to make other applications accessible to console users, you will have to do a bit
more work.
First of all, console access only works for applications which reside in /sbin or /usr/sbin,
so the application that you wish to run must be there. After verifying that, do the following
steps:
1. Create a link from the name of your application, such as our sample foo program, to
the /usr/bin/consolehelper application:
cd /usr/bin
ln -s consolehelper foo
2. Create the file /etc/security/console.apps/foo:
touch /etc/security/console.apps/foo
3. Create a PAM configuration file for the foo service in /etc/pam.d/. An easy way to do
this is to start with a copy of the halt service’s PAM configuration file, and then modify
the file if you want to change the behavior:
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Chapter 17. Console Access
cp /etc/pam.d/halt /etc/pam.d/foo
Now, when you run /usr/bin/foo, it will call consolehelper, which will authenticate the
user with the help of /usr/sbin/userhelper. To authenticate the user, consolehelper will
ask for the user’s password if /etc/pam.d/foo is a copy of /etc/pam.d/halt (otherwise, it
will do precisely what is specified in /etc/pam.d/foo) and then run /usr/sbin/foo with
root permissions.
17.7. The floppy Group
If, for whatever reason, console access is not appropriate for you and you need to give nonroot users access to your system’s diskette drive, this can be done using the floppy group.
Simply add the user(s) to the floppy group using the tool of your choice. Here is an example
showing how gpasswd can be used to add user fred to the floppy group:
[root@bigdog root]# gpasswd -a fred floppy
Adding user fred to group floppy
[root@bigdog root]#
Now, user fred will now be able to access the system’s diskette drive from the console.
Chapter 18.
Time and Date Configuration
Red Hat Linux no longer includes timetool. The dateconfig utility has replaced timetool.
The dateconfig application allows the user to change the system date and time, to configure
the time zone used by the system, and to setup the Network Time Protocol (NTP) daemon
to synchronize the system clock with a time server.
To use dateconfig, you must be running the X Window System and have root privileges. To
start dateconfig, use one of the following methods:
•
On the GNOME desktop, go to the Main Menu Button (on the Panel) => Programs =>
System => Date/Time Properties.
•
On the KDE desktop, go to the Main Menu Button (on the Panel) => System =>
Date/Time Properties.
•
Type the command dateconfig at a shell prompt (for example, in an XTerm or a GNOME
terminal). 1
18.1. Time and Date Properties
As shown in Figure 18-1, the first tabbed window that appears is for configuring the system
date and time and the NTP daemon (ntpd).
1.
If you type timetool at a shell prompt, Dateconfig will start.
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Chapter 18. Time and Date Configuration
Figure 18-1. Time and Date Properties
To change the date, use the arrows to the left and right of the month to change the month.
Use the arrows to the left and right of the year to change the year, and click on the day of the
week to change the day of the week. Changes will not take place until you click the Apply
button.
To change the time, use the up and down arrow buttons beside the Hour, Minute, and Second in the Time section. Changes will not take place until you click the Apply button.
Note
Changing the date and time will change the system clock as well as the hardware clock. Clicking
Apply or Ok is equivalent to executing the date and hwclock commands with the selected date and
time.
The Network Time Protocol (NTP) daemon synchronizes the system clock with a remote
time server or time source (such as a satellite). dateconfig allows you to configure a NTP
daemon to synchronize your system clock with a remote server. To enable this feature, click
the Enable Network Time Protocol button. This will enable the Server pulldown menu.
You can choose one of the predefined servers or type a server name in the pulldown menu.
Your system will not start synchronizing with the NTP server until you click Apply. After
you click Apply, the configuration will be saved and the NTP daemon will be started (or
restarted if it is already running). If you want this daemon to start automatically at boot
time, you need to execute the command /sbin/chkconfig --level 345 ntpd on to enable ntpd for runlevels 3, 4, and 5.
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165
For more information on NTP, read the NTP documentation available in the
/usr/share/doc/ntp-version-number directory.
Clicking the Apply button will apply any changes that you have made to the date and time,
the NTP daemon settings, and the time zone settings. Clicking the Ok button will apply the
changes and then exit the program.
18.2. Time Zone Configuration
To configure the system time zone, click the Time Zone tab as shown in Figure 18-2. The
time zone can be changed by either using the interactive map or by choosing the desired
time zone from the list below the map. To use the map, click on the city that represents the
desired time zone. A red X will appear and the time zone selection will change in the list
below the map. Click Apply to save the changes. Click Ok to apply the changes and exit the
program.
If your system clock is set to use UTC, select the System clock uses UTC option. UTC stands
for the universal time zone, also known as Greenwich mean time (GMT). Other time zones
are determined by adding or subtracting from the UTC time.
Figure 18-2. Timezone Configuration
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Chapter 18. Time and Date Configuration
Chapter 19.
User and Group Configuration
User Manager allows you to view, modify, add, and delete local users and groups.
To use User Manager, you must be running the X Window System and have root privileges.
To start User Manager, use one of the following methods:
•
On the GNOME desktop, go to the Main Menu Button (on the Panel) => Programs =>
System => User Manager.
•
On the KDE desktop, go to the Main Menu Button (on the Panel) => System => redhatconfig-users.
•
Type the command redhat-config-users at a shell prompt (for example, in an XTerm or
a GNOME terminal).
Figure 19-1. Red Hat User Manager
To view a list of all local users on the system, click the Users tab. To view a list of all local
groups on the system, click the Groups tab.
If you need to find a specific user or group, type the first few letters of the name in the Filter
by field. Press [Enter] or click the Apply filter button. The filtered list will be displayed.
To sort the users or groups, click on the column name. The users or groups will be sorted by
the value of that column.
Red Hat Linux reserves user IDs above 500 for system users. By default, Red Hat User Manager does not display system users. To view all users, including the system users, uncheck
Preferences => Filter system users and groups from the pull-down menu.
For more information on users and groups, refer to the Official Red Hat Linux Reference Guide.
19.1. Adding a New User
To add a new user, click the New User button. A window as shown in Figure 19-2 will
appear. Type the username and full name for the new user in the appropriate fields. Type
the user’s password in the Password and Confirm Password fields. The password must be
at least six characters.
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Chapter 19. User and Group Configuration
Tip
The longer the user’s password, the more difficult it is for someone else to guess it and log in to the
user’s account without permission. It is also recommended that the password not be based on a word
and that the password be a combination of letters, numbers, and special characters.
Select a login shell. If you are not sure which shell to select, accept the default value of
/bin/bash. The default home directory is /home/username. You can change the home di-
rectory that is created for the user, or you can choose not to create the home directory by
unselecting Create home directory.
Red Hat Linux uses a user private group (UPG) scheme. The UPG scheme does not add or
change anything in the standard UNIX way of handling groups; it simply offers a new convention. Whenever you create a new user, by default, a unique group with the same name as
the user is created. If you do not want to create this group, unselect Create a private group
for the user.
To specify a user ID for the user, select Specify user ID manually. If the option is not selected,
the next available user ID starting with number 500 will be assigned to the new user. Red
Hat Linux reserves user IDs above 500 for system users.
Click OK to create the user.
Figure 19-2. New User
To configure more advanced user properties such as password expiration, modify the user’s
properties after adding the user. Refer to Section 19.2 for more information.
To add the user to more user groups, click on the User tab, select the user, and click Properties. In the User Properties window, select the Groups tab. Select the groups that you want
the user to be a member of, select the primary group for the user, and click OK.
19.2. Modifying User Properties
To view the properties of an existing user, click on the Users tab, select the user from the
user list, and click Properties from the button menu (or choose Action => Properties from
the pull-down menu). A window similar to Figure 19-3 will appear.
Chapter 19. User and Group Configuration
169
Figure 19-3. User Properties
The User Properties window is divided into tabbed pages:
•
User Data — Basic user information configured when you added the user. Use this tab to
change the user’s full name, password, home directory, or login shell.
•
Account Info — Select Enable account expiration if you want the account to expire on a
certain date. Enter the date in the provided fields. Select User account is locked to lock
the user account so that the user can not log in to the system.
•
Password Info — This tab shows the date that the user lasted changed his password. To
force the user to change his password after a certain number of days, select Enable password expiration. You can also set the number of days before the user is allowed to change
his password, the number of days before the user is warned to change his password, and
days before the account become inactive.
•
Groups — Select the groups that you want the user to be a member of and the user’s
primary group.
19.3. Adding a New Group
To add a new user group, click the New Group button. A window similar to Figure 19-4 will
appear. Type the name of the new group to create. To specify a group ID for the new group,
select Specify group ID manually and select the GID. Red Hat Linux reserves group IDs
lower than 500 for system groups.
Click OK to create the group. The new group will appear in the group list.
Figure 19-4. New Group
To add users to the group, refer to Section 19.4.
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Chapter 19. User and Group Configuration
19.4. Modifying Group Properties
To view the properties of an existing group, select the group from the group list and click
Properties from the button menu (or choose Action => Properties from the pull-down
menu). A window similar to Figure 19-3 will appear.
Figure 19-5. Group Properties
The Group Users tab displays which users are members of the group. Select additional users
to add them to the group, and unselect users to remove from the group. Click OK or Apply
to modify the users in the group.
Chapter 20.
Gathering System Information
Before you learn how to configure your system, you should learn how to gather essential
system information. For example, you should know how to find the amount of free memory,
the amount of available hard drive space, how your hard drive is partitioned, and what
processes are running. This chapter discusses how to retrieve this type of information from
your Red Hat Linux system using simple commands and a few simple programs.
20.1. System Processes
The ps ax command displays a list of current system processes, including processes owned
by other users. To display the owner of the processes along with the processes use the command ps aux. This list is a static list; in other words, it is a snapshot of what is running when
you invoked the command. If you want a constantly updated list of running processes, use
top as described below.
You can use the ps command in combination with the grep command to see if a process is
running. For example, to determine if Gnome-RPM is running, use the following command:
ps ax | grep gnorpm
The top command displays currently running processes and important information about
them including their memory and CPU usage. The list is both real-time and interactive. An
example of top’s output is provided as follows:
6:14pm up 2 days, 19:29, 5 users, load average: 0.10, 0.06, 0.07
71 processes: 68 sleeping, 2 running, 1 zombie, 0 stopped
CPU states: 2.7% user, 0.5% system, 0.0% nice, 96.6% idle
Mem:
256812K av, 252016K used,
4796K free,
97228K shrd,
43300K buff
Swap: 265032K av,
1328K used, 263704K free
86180K cached
PID
15775
14429
17372
17356
14461
1
2
3
4
5
347
357
372
388
389
414
476
USER
joe
root
joe
joe
joe
root
root
root
root
root
root
root
bin
root
root
root
root
PRI
5
15
11
2
1
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
NI SIZE RSS SHARE STAT %CPU %MEM
0 11028 10M 3192 S
1.5 4.2
0 63620 62M 3284 R
0.5 24.7
0 1056 1056
840 R
0.5 0.4
0 4104 4104 3244 S
0.3 1.5
0 3584 3584 2104 S
0.1 1.3
0
544 544
476 S
0.0 0.2
0
0
0
0 SW
0.0 0.0
0
0
0
0 SW
0.0 0.0
0
0
0
0 SW
0.0 0.0
0
0
0
0 SW
0.0 0.0
0
556 556
460 S
0.0 0.2
0
712 712
360 S
0.0 0.2
0
692 692
584 S
0.0 0.2
0
0
0
0 SW
0.0 0.0
0
0
0
0 SW
0.0 0.0
0
436 432
372 S
0.0 0.1
0
592 592
496 S
0.0 0.2
TIME
0:46
63:33
0:00
0:00
0:17
0:06
0:00
0:24
0:00
0:29
0:00
0:00
0:00
0:00
0:00
0:00
0:00
COMMAND
emacs
X
top
gnome-terminal
sawfish
init
kflushd
kupdate
kpiod
kswapd
syslogd
klogd
portmap
lockd
rpciod
apmd
automount
To exit top, press the [q] key.
Useful interactive commands that you can use with top include the following:
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Table 20-1. Interactive top commands
Command
Description
[Space]
Immediately refresh the display
[h]
Display a help screen
[k]
Kill a process. You will be prompted for the
process ID and the signal to send to it.
[n]
Change the number of processes displayed.
You will be prompted to enter the number.
[u]
Sort by user.
[M]
Sort by memory usage.
[P]
Sort by CPU usage.
If you would like to use a graphical interface for top, you can use the GNOME System
Monitor. To start it on the GNOME desktop, go to the Main Menu Button (on the Panel) =>
Programs => System => System Monitor or type gtop at a shell prompt from within any X
Window System desktop.
Figure 20-1. GNOME System Monitor
Chapter 20. Gathering System Information
173
20.2. Memory Usage
The free command displays the total amount of physical memory and swap space for the
system as well as the amount of memory that are used, free, shared, in kernel buffers, and
cached.
total
Mem:
256812
-/+ buffers/cache:
Swap:
265032
used
240668
108300
780
free
16144
148512
264252
shared
105176
buffers
50520
cached
81848
The command free -m shows the same information in megabytes, which are easier to read.
total
Mem:
250
-/+ buffers/cache:
Swap:
258
used
235
105
0
free
15
145
258
shared
102
buffers
49
cached
79
If you would like to use a graphical interface with free, you can use the GNOME System
Monitor. To start it on the GNOME desktop, go to the Main Menu Button (on the Panel) =>
Programs => System => System Monitor or type gtop at a shell prompt from within any X
Window System desktop. Then choose the Memory Usage tab.
Figure 20-2. GNOME System Monitor
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20.3. Filesystems
The df command reports the system’s disk space usage. If you type the command df at a
shell prompt, the output looks similar to the following:
Filesystem
/dev/hda2
/dev/hda1
/dev/hda3
1k-blocks
10325716
15554
20722644
Used Available Use% Mounted on
2902060
6899140 30% /
8656
6095 59% /boot
2664256 17005732 14% /home
By default, this utility shows the partition size in 1 kilobyte blocks and the amount of used
and available disk space in kilobytes. To view the information in megabytes and gigabytes,
use the command df -h. The -h argument stands for human-readable format. The output
looks similar to the following:
Filesystem
/dev/hda2
/dev/hda1
/dev/hda3
Size
9.8G
15M
20G
Used Avail Use% Mounted on
2.8G 6.5G 30% /
8.5M 5.9M 59% /boot
2.6G
16G 14% /home
To view the system’s disk space usage in a graphical format, use the Filesystems tab in the
GNOME System Monitor. To start it on the GNOME desktop, go to the Main Menu Button
(on the Panel) => Programs => System => System Monitor or type gtop at a shell prompt
from within any X Window System desktop. Then choose the Filesystems tab.
Figure 20-3. GNOME System Monitor
The du command displays the estimated amount of space being used by files in a directory. If
you type du at a shell prompt, the disk usage for each of the subdirectories will be displayed
in a list. The grand total for the current directory and subdirectories will also be shown, as
Chapter 20. Gathering System Information
175
the last line in the list. If you do not want to see all the subdirectories, use the command
du -hs to see only the grand total for the directory in human-readable format. Use the du
--help command to see more options.
20.3.1. Monitoring Filesystems
Red Hat Linux provides a utility called diskcheck that monitors the amount of free disk
space on the system. Based on the configuration file, it will send email to the system administrator when one or more disk drives reach a specified capacity.
This utility is run as an hourly cron 1 task.
The following variables can be defined in /etc/diskcheck.conf:
— When disk drives reach this percent capacity, it will be reported. For
example, if defaultCutoff = 90, an email will be sent when the monitored disk drives
reach 90% capacity.
• defaultCutoff
• cutoff[/dev/partition] — Override the defaultCutoff for the partition. For example,
if cutoff[’/dev/hda3’] = 50 is specified, diskcheck will alert the system administrator
when the partition /dev/hda3 reaches 50% capacity.
— Override the defaultCutoff for the mount point. For example, if cutoff[’/home’] = 50 is specified, diskcheck will alert the system administrator
when the mount point /home reaches 50% capacity.
• cutoff[/mountpoint]
— Specify one or more partitions for diskcheck to ignore. For example, if exclude = "/dev/sda2 /dev/sda4" is specified, diskcheck will not alert the system administrator if /dev/sda2 or /dev/sda4 reaches the specified cutoff percentage.
• exclude
— Specify one or more filesystem types to ignore in the format -x filesystemtype. For example, if ignore = "-x nfs -x iso9660" is specified, the system adminis-
• ignore
trator will not be alerted about nfs or iso9660 filesystems reaching capacity.
— Email address of the system administrator to alert when partitions and mount
points reach the specified capacity. For example, if mailTo = "[email protected]"
is specified, [email protected] will be emailed alerts.
• mailTo
— Specify the identity of the email sender. This is useful if the system administrator wants to filter the mail from diskcheck. For example, if mailFrom = "Disk Usage
Monitor" is specified, email will be sent to the system administrator with the sender Disk
Usage Monitor.
• mailFrom
• mailProg — Specify the mail program to use to sent email alerts. For example, if mailProg
= "/usr/sbin/sendmail" is specified, Sendmail will be used as the mail program.
You do not have to restart a service if you change the configuration file because it is read
each time the cron task is run.
20.4. Hardware
If you are having trouble configuring your hardware or just want to know what hardware
is in your system, you can use the Hardware Browser application to display the hardware
that can be probed. To start the program, type hwbrowser at a shell prompt. As shown in
Figure 20-4, it displays your CD-ROM devices, floppy disks, hard drives and their partitions,
1.
Refer to Chapter 22 for more information on cron.
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Chapter 20. Gathering System Information
network devices, pointing devices, system devices, and video cards. Click on the category
name in the left menu, and the information will be displayed.
Figure 20-4. Hardware Browser
You can also use the lspci command to list all PCI devices. Use the command lspci -v for
more verbose information or lspci -vv for very verbose output.
For example, lspci can be used to determine the manufacturer, model, and memory size of
a system’s video card:
01:00.0 VGA compatible controller: Matrox Graphics, Inc. MGA G400 AGP (rev 04) (progif 00 [VGA])
Subsystem: Matrox Graphics, Inc. Millennium G400 Dual Head Max
Flags: medium devsel, IRQ 16
Memory at f4000000 (32-bit, prefetchable) [size=32M]
Memory at fcffc000 (32-bit, non-prefetchable) [size=16K]
Memory at fc000000 (32-bit, non-prefetchable) [size=8M]
Expansion ROM at 80000000 [disabled] [size=64K]
Capabilities: [dc] Power Management version 2
Capabilities: [f0] AGP version 2.0
20.5. Additional Resources
To learn more about gathering system information, refer to the following resources.
20.5.1. Installed Documentation
• ps --help
• top
— The ps --help displays a list of options that can be used with ps.
manual page — Type man top to learn more about top and its many options.
• free
manual page — type man free to learn more about free and its many options.
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177
manual page — Type man df to learn more about the df command and its many options.
• df
manual page — Type man du to learn more about the du command and its many options.
• du
— The contents of the /proc directory can also be used to gather more detailed
system information. Refer to the Official Red Hat Linux Reference Guide for additional information about the /proc directory.
• /proc
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Chapter 21.
Printer Configuration
The printconf application allows users to configure a printer in Red Hat Linux. It helps
maintain the /etc/printcap configuration file, print spool directories, and print filters.
Starting with version 7.3, Red Hat Linux ships with two printing systems. The printconf
application configures the printing system called LPRng. LPRng is also the default printing
system. This chapter focuses on using Printconf to configure LPRng. For more information
on the alternate printing system called CUPS, refer to Section 21.11.
To use printconf, you must have root privileges. To start printconf, use one of the following
methods:
•
On the GNOME desktop, select Main Menu Button (on the Panel) => Programs => System => Printer Configuration to start the graphical version.
•
On the KDE desktop, select Main Menu Button (on the Panel) => System => Printer
Configuration to start the graphical version.
•
Type the command printconf-gui at a shell prompt (for example, in an XTerm or a
GNOME terminal) to start the graphical version. 1
•
You can also run printconf as a text-based application if you do not have the X Window System installed, or you just prefer the text-based interface. To run it, log in as root
(or use the command su to temporarily change to the root user), and type the command
/usr/sbin/printconf-tui from a shell prompt.
Important
Do not edit the /etc/printcap file. Each time the printer daemon (lpd) is started or restarted, a new
/etc/printcap file is dynamically created.
If you want to add a printer without using printconf, edit the /etc/printcap.local file.
The entries in /etc/printcap.local are not displayed in printconf but are read by the
printer daemon. If you upgrade your system from a previous version of Red Hat Linux, your
existing configuration file is converted to the new format used by printconf. Each time a new
configuration file is generated by printconf, the old file is saved as /etc/printcap.old.
1.
If you type printtool at a shell prompt, printconf will start.
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Chapter 21. Printer Configuration
Figure 21-1. printconf
Five types of print queues can be configured with printconf:
•
Local Printer — a printer attached directly to your computer through a parallel or USB
port. In the main printer list as shown in Figure 21-1, the Queue Type for a local printer is
set to LOCAL.
•
Unix Printer (lpd Spool) — a printer attached to a different UNIX system that can be
accessed over a TCP/IP network (or example, a printer attached to another Red Hat Linux
system on your network). In the main printer list as shown in Figure 21-1, the Queue Type
for a remote UNIX printer is set to LPD.
•
Windows Printer (SMB) — a printer attached to a different system which is sharing a
printer over a SMB network (for example, a printer attached to a Microsoft Windows machine). In the main printer list as shown in Figure 21-1, the Queue Type for a remote
Windows printer is set to SMB.
•
Novell Printer (NCP Queue) — a printer attached to a different system which uses Novell’s NetWare network technology. In the main printer list as shown in Figure 21-1, the
Queue Type for a remote Novell printer is set to NCP.
•
JetDirect Printer — a printer connected directly to the network instead of to a computer.
In the main printer list as shown in Figure 21-1, the Queue Type for a JetDirect printer is
set to JETDIRECT.
Important
If you add a new print queue or modify an existing one, you need to restart the printer daemon (lpd)
for the changes to take effect.
Clicking the Apply button saves any changes that you have made and restarts the printer
daemon. The changes are not written to the /etc/printcap configuration file until the
printer daemon (lpd) is restarted. Alternatively, you can choose File => Save Changes and
then choose File => Restart lpd to save your changes and then restart the printer daemon.
If a printer appears in the main printer list with the Queue Type set to INVALID, the printer
configuration is missing options that are required for the printer to function properly. To
remove this printer from the list, select it from the list and click the Delete button.
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181
21.1. Adding a Local Printer
To add a local printer such as one attached to the parallel port or USB port of your computer,
click the New button in the main printconf window. The window shown in Figure 21-2 will
appear. Click Next to proceed.
Figure 21-2. Adding a Printer
You will then see the screen shown in Figure 21-3. Enter a unique name for the printer in the
Queue Name text field. This can be any descriptive name for your printer. The printer name
cannot contain spaces and must begin with a letter a through z or A through Z. The valid
characters are a through z, A through Z, 0 through 9, -, and _.
Select Local Printer from the Queue Type menu, and click Next.
Figure 21-3. Adding a Local Printer
printconf attempts to detect your printer device and display it as shown in Figure 21-4.
If your printer device is not shown, click Custom Device. Type the name of your printer
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Chapter 21. Printer Configuration
device and click OK to add it to the printer device list. A printer device attached to the
parallel port is usually referred to as /dev/lp0. A printer device attached to the USB port is
usually referred to as /dev/usblp0. After selecting your printer device, click Next.
Figure 21-4. Local Printer Device
Next, printconf will try to detect which printer is attached to the printer device. Skip to
Section 21.6 to continue.
21.2. Adding a Remote UNIX Printer
To add a remote UNIX printer, such as one attached to a different Linux system on the same
network, click the New button in the main printconf window. The window shown in Figure
21-2 will appear. Click Next to proceed.
You will then see the screen shown in Figure 21-5. Enter a unique name for the printer in the
Queue Name text field. The printer name cannot contain spaces and must begin with a letter
a through z or A through Z. The valid characters are a through z, A through Z, 0 through 9,
-, and _.
Select Unix Printer from the Queue Type menu, and click Next.
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183
Figure 21-5. Adding a Remote Printer
Text fields for the following options appears as shown in Figure 21-6:
•
Server — The hostname or IP address of the remote machine to which the printer is attached.
•
Queue — The remote printer queue. The default printer queue is usually lp.
By default, the Strict RFC1179 Compliance option is not chosen. If you are having problems
printing to a non-Linux lpd queue, choose this option to disable enhanced LPRng printing
features.
Click Next to continue.
Figure 21-6. Choosing the Printer Server
The next step is to select the type of printer that is connected to the remote system. Skip to
Section 21.6 to continue.
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Chapter 21. Printer Configuration
Important
The remote machine must be configured to allow the local machine to print on the desired queue.
As root, create the file /etc/hosts.lpd on the remote machine to which the printer is attached. On
separate lines in the file, add the IP address or hostname of each machine which should have printing
privileges.
21.3. Adding a Samba (SMB) Printer
To add printer which is accessed using the SMB protocol, click the New button in the main
printconf window. The window shown in Figure 21-2 will appear. Click Next to proceed.
You will see the screen shown in Figure 21-7. Enter a unique name for the printer in the
Queue Name text field. The printer name cannot contain spaces and must begin with a letter
a through z or A through Z. The valid characters are a through z, A through Z, 0 through 9,
-, and _.
Select Windows Printer from the Queue Type menu, and click Next. If the printer is attached
to a Microsoft Windows system, choose this queue type.
Figure 21-7. Adding a SMB Printer
Text fields for the following options appear as shown in Figure 21-8:
•
Share — The name of the shared printer on which you want to print. This name must be
the same name defined as the Samba printer on the remote Windows machine. Notice the
syntax of //machinename/sharename.
•
User — The name of the user you must log in as to access the printer. This user must exist
on the Windows system, and the user must have permission to access the printer. The user
name is typically guest for Windows servers, or nobody for Samba servers.
•
Host IP — The hostname or IP address of the remote system that is sharing the SMB
printer.
•
Password — The password (if required) for the user specified in the User field.
Chapter 21. Printer Configuration
•
185
Workgroup — The name of the workgroup on the machine running Samba.
Click the Translate \n => \r\n button to translate the end of line characters to a form that is
readable by a Microsoft Windows system.
Click Next to continue.
Figure 21-8. Choosing the Print Server
The next step is to select the type of printer that is connected to the remote SMB system. Skip
to Section 21.6 to continue.
Note
If you require a username and password for an SMB (LAN Manager) or NCP (NetWare) print queue,
they are stored unencrypted in a local script, Thus, it is possible for another person to learn the
username and password. To avoid this, the username and password to use the printer should be
different from the username and password used for the user’s account on the local Red Hat Linux
system. If they are different, then the only possible security compromise would be unauthorized use
of the printer. If there are file shares from the SMB server, it is recommended that they also use a
different password than the one for the print queue.
21.4. Adding a Novell NetWare (NCP) Printer
To add a Novell NetWare (NCP) printer, click the New button in the main printconf window.
The window shown in Figure 21-1 will appear. Click Next to proceed.
You will see the screen shown in Figure 21-9. Enter a unique name for the printer in the
Queue Name text field. The printer name cannot contain spaces and must begin with a letter
a through z or A through Z. The valid characters are a through z, A through Z, 0 through 9,
-, and _.
Select Novell Printer from the Queue Type menu, and click Next.
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Chapter 21. Printer Configuration
Figure 21-9. Adding an NCP Printer
Text fields for the following options appear below the Queue Type menu as shown in Figure
21-10:
•
Server — The hostname or IP address of the NCP system to which the printer is attached.
•
Queue — The remote queue for the printer on the NCP system.
•
User — The name of the user you must log in as to access the printer.
•
Password — The password for the user specified in the User field above.
Figure 21-10. Choosing the Print Server
The next step is to select the type of printer that is connected to the remote NCP system. Skip
to Section 21.6 to continue.
Chapter 21. Printer Configuration
187
21.5. Adding a JetDirect Printer
To add a JetDirect printer, click the New button in the main printconf window. The window
shown in Figure 21-1 will appear. Click Next to proceed.
You will see the screen shown in Figure 21-11. Enter a unique name for the printer in the
Queue Name text field. The printer name cannot contain spaces and must begin with a letter
a through z or A through Z. The valid characters are a through z, A through Z, 0 through 9,
-, and _.
Select JetDirect Printer from the Queue Type menu, and click Next.
Figure 21-11. Adding a JetDirect Printer
Text fields for the following options appear below the Queue Type menu as shown in Figure
21-12:
•
Printer IP — The hostname or IP address of the JetDirect printer.
•
Port — The port on the JetDirect printer that is listening for print jobs.
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Chapter 21. Printer Configuration
Figure 21-12. Choosing a Print Server
The next step is to select the type of printer that is connected to the JetDirect system. Skip to
Section 21.6 to continue.
21.6. Selecting the Print Driver and Finishing
After selecting the queue type of the printer, the next step in adding a printer is to select the
print driver.
You will see a window similar to Figure 21-13. If you are configuring a local printer, select
the print driver from the list. The printers are divided by manufacturers. Click the arrow
beside the manufacturer for your printer. Find your printer from the expanded list, and click
the arrow beside the printer name. A list of drivers for your printer will appear. Select one.
Tip
To learn more about the print drivers, go to http://www.linuxprinting.org/printer_list.cgi.
Tip
You can select a different print driver after adding a printer by starting printconf, selecting the printer
from the list, clicking Edit, clicking the Driver tab, selecting a different print driver, and applying the
changes.
Chapter 21. Printer Configuration
189
Figure 21-13. Selecting a Print Driver
As shown in Figure 21-14, the print driver processes the data that you want to print into a
format the printer can understand. Since a local printer is attached directly to your computer,
you need to select a print driver to process the data that is sent to the printer.
Figure 21-14. Correct Print Driver Configuration
If you are configuring a remote printer (LPD, SMB, or NCP), the remote print server usually
has its own print driver. If you select an additional print driver on your local computer, the
data will be filtered more than once, and the data will be converted to a format that the
printer can not understand.
To make sure the data is not filtered more than once, first try selecting Raw Print Queue or
Postscript Printer if you are configuring a remote printer. After applying the changes, print
a test page to test this configuration. If the test fails, the remote print server might not have
a print driver configured. Try selecting a print driver according to the manufacturer and
model of the remote printer, applying the changes, and printing a test page.
Figure 21-15. Incorrect Print Driver Configuration
21.6.1. Confirming Printer Configuration
The last step is to confirm your printer configuration. Click Finish if this is the printer that
you want to add. Click Back to modify the printer configuration.
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Chapter 21. Printer Configuration
Click the Apply button in the main window to save your changes to the /etc/printcap
configuration file and restart the printer daemon (lpd). After applying the changes, print a
test page to ensure the configuration is correct. Refer to Section 21.7 for details.
If you need to print characters beyond the basic ASCII set (including those used for
languages such as Japanese), you need to go to your driver options and select Prerender
Postscript. Refer to Section 21.8 for details. You can also configure options such as paper
size if you edit the print queue after adding it.
21.7. Printing a Test Page
After you have configured your printer, you should print a test page to make sure the printer
is functioning properly. To print a test page, select the printer that you want to test from the
printer list, and select the appropriate test page from the Test pulldown menu.
If you change the print driver or modify the driver options, you should print a test page to
test the different configuration.
21.8. Modifying Existing Printers
To delete an existing printer, select the printer and click the Delete button on the toolbar. The
printer will be removed from the printer list. Click Apply to save the changes and restart the
printer daemon.
To set the default printer, select the printer from the printer list and click the Default button
on the toolbar. The default printer icon
beside the default printer.
appears in the first column of the printer list
If you want to modify an imported printer’s settings, you cannot modify its settings directly.
You must override the printer. You can only override an imported printer that has been
imported using the alchemist libraries. Imported printers have the
in the first column of the printer list.
symbol beside them
To override the printer, select the printer, and choose File => Override Queue from the
pulldown menu. After overriding a printer, the original imported printer will have the
symbol beside it in the first column of the printer list.
After adding your printer(s), you can edit settings by selecting the printer from the printer
list and clicking the Edit button. The tabbed window shown in Figure 21-16 will appear.
The window contains the current values for the printer that you selected to edit. Make any
changes, and click OK. Click Apply in the main printconf window to save the changes and
restart the printer daemon.
Chapter 21. Printer Configuration
191
Figure 21-16. Editing a Printer
21.8.1. Names and Aliases
If you want to rename a printer, change the value of Queue Name in the Names and Aliases
tab. Click OK to return to the main window. The name of the printer should change in the
printer list. Click Apply to save the change and restart the printer daemon.
A printer alias is an alternate name for a printer. To add an alias for an existing printer, click
the Add button in the Name and Aliases tab, enter the name of the alias, and click OK.
Click OK again to return to the main window. Click Apply to save the aliases and restart the
printer daemon. A printer can have more than one alias.
21.8.2. Queue Type
The Queue Type tab shows queue type that you selected when adding the printer and its
settings. You can change the queue type of the printer or just change the settings. After making modifications, click OK to return to the main window. Click Apply to save the change
and restart the printer daemon.
Depending on which queue type you choose, you will see different different options. Refer
to the appropriate section on adding a printer for a description of the options.
21.8.3. Driver
The Driver tab shows which print driver is currently being used. This is the same list that
you used when adding the printer. If you change the print driver, click OK to return to the
main window. Click Apply to save the change and restart the printer daemon.
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21.8.4. Driver Options
The Driver Options tab displays advanced printer options. Options vary for each print
driver. Common options include:
•
Send Form-Feed (FF) should be selected if the last page of your print job is not ejected from
the printer (for example, the form feed light flashes). If this does not work, try selecting
Send End-of-Transmission (EOT) instead. Some printers require both Send Form-Feed
(FF) and Send End-of-Transmission (EOT) to eject the last page.
•
Send End-of-Transmission (EOT) if sending a form-feed does not work. Refer to Send FF
above.
•
Assume Unknown Data is Text should be selected if your print driver does not recognize
some of the data sent to it. Only select it if you are having problems printing. If this option
is selected, the print driver will assume that any data that it can not recognize is text and
try to print it as text. If you select this option and Convert Text to Postscript, the print
driver will assume the unknown data is text and then convert it to PostScript.
•
Prerender Postscript should be selected if you are printing characters beyond the basic
ASCII set but they are not printing correctly (such as Japanese characters). This option
will prerender non-standard PostScript fonts so that they are printed correctly.
If your printer does not support the fonts you are trying to print, try selecting this option.
For example, you should select this option if you are printing Japanese fonts to a nonJapanese printer.
Extra time is required to perform this action. Do not choose it unless you are having problems printing the correct fonts.
•
Convert Text to Postscript is selected by default. If your printer can print plain text, try
unselecting this when printing plain text documents to decrease the time it takes to print.
•
Page Size allows you to select the paper size for your printer such as US Letter, US Legal,
A3, and A4.
•
Effective Filter Locale defaults to C. If you are printing Japanese characters, select ja_JP.
Otherwise, accept the default of C.
If you modify the driver options, click OK to return to the main window. Click Apply to
save the change and restart the printer daemon.
21.9. Saving the Configuration File
When you save your printer configuration using printconf, it creates its own configuration
file that is used to create the /etc/printcap file that the printer daemon (lpd) reads. You can
use the command line options to save or restore this file. If you save your /etc/printcap
file and overwrite your existing /etc/printcap file with the saved file, your printer configuration will not be restored. Each time the printer daemon is restarted, it creates a new
/etc/printcap file from the special printconf configuration file. If you have configured a
backup system for your configuration files, you should use the following method to save
your printer configuration. If you added any custom settings in the /etc/printcap.local
file, you should save it as part of your backup system also.
To save your printer configuration, type this command as root:
/usr/sbin/printconf-tui --Xexport > settings.xml
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193
Your configuration is saved to the file settings.xml.
If you save this file, you can restore your printer settings. This is useful if your printer configuration is deleted, you reinstall Red Hat Linux and do not have your printer configuration
file anymore, or you want to use the same printer configuration on multiple systems. To
restore the configuration, type this command as root:
/usr/sbin/printconf-tui --Ximport < settings.xml
If you already have a configuration file (you have configured one or more printers on the
system already) and you try to import another configuration file, the existing configuration
file will be overwritten. If you want to keep your existing configuration and add the configuration in the saved file, you can merge the files with the following command (as root):
/usr/sbin/printconf-tui --Ximport --merge < settings.xml
Your printer list will then consist of the printers you configured on the system as well as the
printers you imported from the saved configuration file. If the imported configuration file
has a print queue with the same name as an existing print queue on the system, the print
queue from the imported file will override the existing printer.
After importing the configuration file (with or without the merge command), you must
restart the printer daemon with the command /sbin/service lpd restart or by starting
printconf and clicking Apply.
21.10. Managing Your Print Jobs
When you send a print job to the printer daemon such as printing text file from Emacs or
printing an image from The GIMP, the print job is added to the print spool queue. The print
spool queue is a list of print jobs that have been sent to the printer and information about
each print request such as the status of the request, the username of the person who sent the
request, the hostname of the system that sent the request, the job number, and more. To view
the list of print jobs in the print spool, open a shell prompt and type the command lpq. The
last few lines will look similar to the following:
Example 21-1. Example of lpq output
Rank
Owner/ID
active user@localhost+902
Class
A
Job Files
902 sample.txt
Size Time
2050 01:20:46
If you want to cancel a print job, find the job number of the request with the command lpq
and then use the command lprm job number . For example, lprm 902 would cancel the
print job in Example 21-1. You must have proper permissions to cancel a print job. You can
not cancel print jobs that were started by other users unless you are logged in as root on
machine to which the printer is attached.
You can also print a file directly from a shell prompt. For example, the command lpr sample.txt will print the text file sample.txt. The print filter determines what type of file it is
and converts it a format the printer can understand.
21.11. Configuring the CUPS Printing System
CUPS (Common UNIX Printing System) can be used instead of the default LPRng printing
system. Some of the advantages of CUPS include:
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Chapter 21. Printer Configuration
•
Support for IPP (next generation network printing protocol)
•
Autodetection of network printers
•
Web interface configuration tool
•
Support for PPD printer description files
•
Support for a wide-range of printers
21.11.1. Switching Print Systems
To use the CUPS printing system instead of LPRng, run the redhat-switch-printer application using one of the following methods:
•
On the GNOME desktop, go to the Main Menu Button (on the Panel) => Programs =>
System => redhat-switch-printer.
•
On the KDE desktop, go to the Main Menu Button (on the Panel) => System => redhatswitch-printer.
•
Type the command redhat-switch-printer at a shell prompt (for example, in an XTerm
or GNOME terminal).
The program automatically detect if the X Window System is running. If it is running, the
program starts in graphical mode as shown in Figure 21-17. If X is not detected, it starts in
text-mode.
Figure 21-17. redhat-switch-printer
If you selected CUPS, you must make sure the lpd service is stopped and the cups service
is started:
/sbin/service lpd stop
/sbin/service cups start
If you selected LPRng, you must make sure the cups service is stopped and the lpd service
is started:
/sbin/service cups stop
/sbin/service lpd start
Also use chkconfig, ntsysv, or serviceconf to configure your sytsem to start the cups service automatically and disable the lpd service. Refer to Chapter 8 for details.
Chapter 21. Printer Configuration
195
21.11.2. CUPS Configuration Interface
After starting the cups daemon, open a Web browser and connect to the URL
http://localhost:631 as shown in Figure 21-18.
Figure 21-18. CUPS Configuration Tool
To add a printer, click Manage Printers, and then click the Add Printer button. For more
information, click the Help button.
21.12. Additional Resources
To learn more about printing on Red Hat Linux, refer to the following resources.
21.12.1. Installed Documentation
• man printcap —
The manual page for the /etc/printcap printer configuration file.
— The manual page for the lpr command that allows you to print files from the
command line.
• map lpr
• man lpd
— The manual page for the LPRng printer daemon.
— The manual page on the command line utility to remove print jobs from the
LPRng spool queue.
• man lprm
— The manual page on the command line utility to print multiple pages on
one sheet of paper.
• man mpage
• man cupsd
— The manual page for the CUPS printer daemon.
• man cupsd.conf —
The manual page for the CUPS printer daemon configuration file.
• man classes.conf —
The manual page for the class configuration file for CUPS.
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21.12.2. Useful Websites
•
http://www.linuxprinting.org — GNU/Linux Printing contains a large amount information about printing in Linux.
•
http://www.cups.org/ — Documentation, FAQs, and newsgroups about CUPS.
Chapter 22.
Automated Tasks
In Linux, tasks can be configured to run automatically within a specified period of time,
on a specified date, or when the system load average is below a specified number. Red Hat
Linux comes preconfigured to run important system tasks to keep the system updated. For
example, the slocate database used by the locate command is updated daily. A system
administrator can use automated tasks to perform periodic backups, monitor the system,
run custom scripts, and more.
Red Hat Linux comes with four automated tasks utilities: cron, anacron, at, and batch.
22.1. Cron
Cron is a daemon that can be used to schedule the execution of recurring tasks according to
a combination of the time, day of the month, month, day of the week, and week.
Cron assumes that the system is on continuously. If the system is not on when a task is
scheduled, it is not executed. To configure tasks based on time periods instead of exact times,
refer to Section 22.2. To schedule one-time tasks, refer to Section 22.3.
To use the cron service, you must have the vixie-cron RPM package installed, and the
crond service must be running. To determine if the package is installed, use the rpm
-q vixie-cron command. To determine if the service is running, use the command
/sbin/service crond status.
22.1.1. Configuring Cron Tasks
The main configuration file for cron, /etc/crontab, contains the following lines:
SHELL=/bin/bash
PATH=/sbin:/bin:/usr/sbin:/usr/bin
MAILTO=root
HOME=/
# run-parts
01 * * * * root
02 4 * * * root
22 4 * * 0 root
42 4 1 * * root
run-parts
run-parts
run-parts
run-parts
/etc/cron.hourly
/etc/cron.daily
/etc/cron.weekly
/etc/cron.monthly
The first four lines are variables used to configure the environment in which the cron tasks
are run. The value of the SHELL variable tells the system which shell environment to use (in
this example the bash shell), and the PATH variable defines the path used to execute commands. The output of the cron tasks are emailed to the username defined with the MAILTO
variable. If the MAILTO variable is defined as an empty string (MAILTO=""), email will not
be sent. The HOME variable can be used to set the home directory to use when executing
commands or scripts.
Each line in the /etc/crontab file represents a task and has the format:
minute
hour
day
month
dayofweek
command
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Chapter 22. Automated Tasks
• minute
• hour
• day
— any integer from 1 to 31 (must be a valid day if a month is specified)
• month
on)
— any integer from 0 to 59
— any integer from 0 to 23
— any integer from 1 to 12 (or the short name of the month such as jan, feb, and so
— any integer from 0 to 7 where 0 or 7 represents Sunday (or the short name
of the week such as sun, mon, and so on)
• dayofweek
• command
— the command to execute. The command can either be a command such as ls
/proc >> /tmp/proc or the command to execute a custom script that you wrote.
For any of the above values, an asterisk (*) can be used to specify all valid values. For example, an asterisk for the month value means execute the command every month within the
constraints of the other values.
A hyphen (-) between integers specifies a range of integers. For example, 1-4 means the
integers 1, 2, 3, and 4.
A list of values separated by commas (,) specifies a list. For example, 3, 4, 6, 8 indicates
those four specific integers.
R
S
The forward slash (/) can be used to specify step values. The value of an integer can be
skipped within a range by following the range with / integer . For example, 0-59/2
can be used to define every other minute in the minute field. Step values can also be used
with an asterisk. For instance, the value */3 can be used in the month field to run the task
every third month.
Any lines that begin with a hash mark (#) are comments and are not processed.
Example 22-1. Examples of crontabs
# record the memory usage of the system every monday
# at 3:30AM in the file /tmp/meminfo
30 3 * * mon cat /proc/meminfo >> /tmp/meminfo
# run custom script the first day of every month at 4:10AM
10 4 1 * * /root/scripts/backup.sh
As you can see from the /etc/crontab file, it uses the run-parts script to execute the scripts
in the /etc/cron.hourly, /etc/cron.daily, /etc/cron.weekly, and /etc/cron.monthly
directories on an hourly, daily, weekly, or monthly basis respectively. The files in these directory should be shell scripts.
If a cron tasks needs to be executed on a schedule other than hourly, daily, weekly, or
monthly, it can be added to the /etc/cron.d directory. All files in this directory use the
same syntax as /etc/crontab.
Users other than root can configure cron tasks by using the crontab utility. All user-defined
crontabs are stored in the /var/spool/cron directory and are executed using the usernames
of the users that created them. To create a crontab as a user, login as that user and type the
command crontab -e to edit the user’s crontab using the editor specified by the VISUAL
or EDITOR environment variable. The file uses the same format as /etc/crontab. When the
changes to the crontab are saved, the crontab is stored according to username and written to
the file /var/spool/cron/username.
The cron daemon checks the etc/crontab file, the etc/cron.d/ directory, and the
/var/spool/cron directory every minute for any changes. If any changes are found, they
are loaded into memory. Thus, the daemon does not need to be restarted if a crontab file is
changed.
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199
22.1.2. Controlling Access to Cron
The /etc/cron.allow and /etc/cron.deny files are used to restrict access to cron. The
format of both access control files is one username on each line. Whitespace is not permitted
in either file. The cron daemon (crond) does not have to be restarted if the access control files
are modified. The access control files are read each time a user tries to add or delete a cron
task.
The root user can always use cron, regardless of the user names listed in the access control
files.
If the file cron.allow exists, only users listed in it are allowed to use cron, and the at.deny
file is ignored.
If cron.allow does not exist, all users listed in cron.deny are not allowed to use cron.
22.1.3. Starting and Stopping the Service
To start the cron service, use the command /sbin/service crond start. To stop the service, use the command /sbin/service crond stop. It is recommended that you start the
service at boot time. Refer to Chapter 8 for details on starting the cron service automatically
at boot time.
22.2. Anacron
Anacron is a task scheduler similar to cron except that it does not require the system to run
continuously. It can be used to run the daily, weekly, and monthly jobs usually run by cron.
To use the Anacron service, you must have the anacron RPM package installed and the
anacron service must be running. To determine if the package is installed, use the rpm -q
anacron command. To determine if the service is running, use the command /sbin/service
anacron status.
22.2.1. Configuring Anacron Tasks
Anacron tasks are listed in the configuration file /etc/anacrontab. Each line in the configuration file corresponds to a task and has the format:
period
delay
• period
• delay
job-identifier
command
— frequency (in days) to execute the command
— delay time in minutes
• job-identifier —
description of the task, used in Anacron messages and as the name of
the job’s timestamp file, can contain any non-blank characters (except slashes).
• command
— command to execute
For each tasks, Anacron determines if the task has been executed within the period specified
in the period field of the configuration file. If it has not been executed within the given period, Anacron executes the command specified in the command field after waiting the number
of minutes specified in the delay field.
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Chapter 22. Automated Tasks
After the task is completed, Anacron records the date in a timestamp file in the
/var/spool/anacron directory. Only the date is used (not the time), and the value of the
job-identifier is used as the filename for the timestamp file.
Environment variables such as SHELL and PATH can be defined at the top of
/etc/anacrontab as with the cron configuration file.
The default configuration file looks similar to the following:
# /etc/anacrontab: configuration file for anacron
# See anacron(8) and anacrontab(5) for details.
SHELL=/bin/sh
PATH=/usr/local/sbin:/usr/local/bin:/sbin:/bin:/usr/sbin:/usr/bin
# These
1
7
30
entries
5
10
15
are useful for a Red Hat Linux system.
cron.daily
run-parts /etc/cron.daily
cron.weekly
run-parts /etc/cron.weekly
cron.monthly
run-parts /etc/cron.monthly
Figure 22-1. Default anacrontab
As you can see in Figure 22-1, anacron for Red Hat Linux is configured to make sure the
daily, weekly, and monthly cron tasks are run.
22.2.2. Starting and Stopping the Service
To start the anacron service, use the command /sbin/service anacron start. To stop
the service, use the command /sbin/service anacron stop. It is recommended that you
start the service at boot time. Refer to Chapter 8 for details on starting the anacron service
automatically at boot time.
22.3. At and Batch
While cron and anacron are used to schedule recurring tasks, the at command is used to
schedule a one-time task at a specific time. The batch command is used to schedule a onetime task to be executed when the systems load average drops below 0.8.
To use at or batch you must have the at RPM package installed, and the atd service must be
running. To determine if the package is installed, use the rpm -q at command. To determine
if the service is running, use the command /sbin/service atd status.
22.3.1. Configuring At Jobs
To schedule a one-time job at a specific time, type the command at time, where time is the
time to execute the command.
The argument time can be one of the following:
•
HH:MM format — For example, 04:00 specifies 4:00AM. If the time is already pasted, it is
executed at the specified time the next day.
•
midnight — Specifies 12:00AM.
•
noon — Specifies 12:00PM.
Chapter 22. Automated Tasks
201
•
teatime — Specifies 4:00PM.
•
month-name day year format — For example, January 15 2002 specifies the 15th day of
January in the year 2002. The year is optional.
•
MMDDYY, MM/DD/YY, or MM.DD.YY formats — For example, 011502 for the 15th day
of January in the year 2002.
•
now + time — time is in minutes, hours, days, or weeks. For example, now + 5 days
specifies that the command should be executed at the same time in five days.
T
U
The time must be specified first, followed by the optional date. For more information about
the time format, read the /usr/share/doc/at- version /timespec text file.
After typing the at command with the time argument, the at> prompt is displayed. Type the
command to execute, press [Enter], and type Ctrl-D. More than one command can be specified by typing each command followed by the [Enter] key. After typing all the commands,
press [Enter] to go to a blank line and type Ctrl-D. Alternatively, a shell script can be entered
at the prompt, pressing [Enter] after each line in the script, and typing Ctrl-D on a blank line
to exit. If a script is entered, the shell used is the shell set in the user’s SHELL environment,
the user’s login shell, or /bin/sh (whichever is found first).
If the set of commands or script tries to display information to standard out, the output is
emailed to the user.
Use the command atq to view pending jobs. Refer to Section 22.3.3 for more information.
Usage of the at command can be restricted. Refer to Section 22.3.5 for details.
22.3.2. Configuring Batch Jobs
To execute a one-time task when the load average is below 0.8, use the batch command.
After typing the batch command, the at> prompt is displayed. Type the command to execute, press [Enter], and type Ctrl-D. More than one command can be specified by typing
each command followed by the [Enter] key. After typing all the commands, press [Enter] to
go to a blank line and type Ctrl-D. Alternatively, a shell script can be entered at the prompt,
pressing [Enter] after each line in the script, and typing Ctrl-D on a blank line to exit. If a
script is entered, the shell used is the shell set in the user’s SHELL environment, the user’s
login shell, or /bin/sh (whichever is found first). As soon as the load average is below 0.8,
the set of command or script is executed.
If the set of commands or script tries to display information to standard out, the output is
emailed to the user.
Use the command atq to view pending jobs. Refer to Section 22.3.3 for more information.
Usage of the batch command can be restricted. Refer to Section 22.3.5 for details.
22.3.3. Viewing Pending Jobs
To view pending at and batch jobs, use the atq command. It displays a list of pending
jobs, with each job on a line. Each line is in the format job number, date, hour, job class, and
username. Users can only view their own jobs. If the root user executes the atq command,
all jobs for all users are displayed.
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Chapter 22. Automated Tasks
22.3.4. Additional Command Line Options
Additional command line options for at and batch include:
Table 22-1. at and batch Command Line Options
Option
Description
-f
Read the commands or shell script from a file instead of
specifying them at the prompt.
-m
Send email to the user when the job has been completed.
-v
Display the time that the job will be executed.
22.3.5. Controlling Access to At and Batch
The /etc/at.allow and /etc/at.deny files can be used to restrict access to the at and
batch commands. The format of both access control files is one username on each line.
Whitespace is not permitted in either file. The at daemon (atd) does not have to be restarted
if the access control files are modified. The access control files are read each time a user tries
to execute the at or batch commands.
The root user can always execute at and batch commands, regardless of the access control
files.
If the file at.allow exists, only users listed in it are allowed to use at or batch, and the
at.deny file is ignored.
If at.allow does not exist, all users listed in at.deny are not allowed to use at or batch.
22.3.6. Starting and Stopping the Service
To start the at service, use the command /sbin/service atd start. To stop the service,
use the command /sbin/service atd stop. It is recommended that you start the service
at boot time. Refer to Chapter 8 for details on starting the cron service automatically at boot
time.
22.4. Additional Resources
To learn more about configuring automated tasks, refer to the following resources.
22.4.1. Installed Documentation
• cron
man page — overview of cron.
• crontab man pages in sections
1 and 5 — The man page in section 1 contains an overview
of the crontab file. The man page in section 5 contains the format for the file and some
example entries.
V
W
• /usr/share/doc/at- version /timespec
the times that can be specified for cron jobs.
• anacron
contains more detailed information about
man page — description of anacron and its command line options.
Chapter 22. Automated Tasks
• anacrontab
X
203
Y
man page — brief overview of the anacron configuration file.
• /usr/share/doc/anacron- version /README describes
• at
Anacron and why it is useful.
man page — description of at and batch and their command line options.
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Chapter 22. Automated Tasks
Chapter 23.
Ugrading the Kernel
The Red Hat Linux kernel is custom built by the Red Hat kernel team to ensure its integrity
and compatibility with supported hardware. Before Red Hat releases a kernel, it must pass
a rigorous set of quality assurance tests.
Official Red Hat Linux kernels are packaged in RPM format so that they are easy to upgrade
and verify. For example, the kernel RPM package creates the initrd image; it is not necessary to use the mkinitrd command after installing a different kernel if you install the kernel
from the Red Hat RPM package. It also modifies the boot loader configuration file to boot
the new kernel if either GRUB or LILO is installed.
This chapter discusses the steps necessary to upgrade the kernel on an x86 system only.
Warning
Building your own custom kernel is not supported by the Red Hat Linux Installation Support Team.
For more information on building a custom kernel from the source code, refer to Appendix A.
23.1. The 2.4 Kernel
Red Hat Linux ships with a custom 2.4 kernel, which offers the following features:
•
The directory for the kernel source is /usr/src/linux-2.4 instead of /usr/src/linux.
•
Support for the ext3 filesystem.
•
Multi-processor (SMP) support.
•
Support for up to 64 gigabytes of physical RAM — the kernel-bigmem package in Red
Hat Linux 7.3 is compiled to support 64 gigabytes of physical memory.
•
USB support.
•
Preliminary support for IEEE 1394, also referred to as FireWire™, devices.
23.2. Preparing to Upgrade
Before you upgrade your kernel, you must take a few precautionary steps. The first step is
to make sure you have a working boot diskette for your system in case a problem occurs.
If the boot loader is not configured properly to boot the new kernel, you will not be able to
boot your system unless you have a boot diskette.
To create a boot diskette for your system, you need to determine which version of the kernel
you are currently running. Execute the following command:
uname -r
You must be root to create a boot diskette for your system. Login as root at a shell prompt,
and type the following command (where kernelversion is the output of the uname -r
command):
/sbin/mkbootdisk kernelversion
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Chapter 23. Ugrading the Kernel
Tip
Refer to the man page for mkbootdisk for more options.
Reboot your machine with the boot diskette and verify that it works before continuing.
Hopefully, you will not have to use the diskette, but you should store it in a safe place just
in case.
To determine which kernel packages you have installed, execute the following command at
a shell prompt:
rpm -qa | grep kernel
The output will contain some or all of the following packages, depending on what type of
installation you performed (your version numbers and packages may differ):
kernel-utils-2.4.18-0.12
kernel-2.4.18-0.12
kernel-source-2.4.18-0.12
kernel-doc-2.4.18-0.12
kernel-pcmcia-cs-3.1.27-12
kernel-smp-2.4.18-0.12
From the output, you can determine which packages you need to download for the kernel
upgrade. For a single processor system, the only required package is the kernel package.
If you have a computer with more than one processor, you need the kernel-smp package
that contains support for multiple processors. It is recommended that you also install the
kernel package in case the multi-processor kernel does not work properly for your system.
If you have a computer with more than four gigabytes of memory, you need the kernelbigmem package that contains support for up to 64 gigabyte of memory. Again, it is recommended that you also install the kernel package for debugging purposes. The kernelbigmem package is only built for the i686 architecture.
If you are uprgrading the kernel on a laptop or are using PCMCIA, the kernel-pcmcia-cs
package is also required.
You do not need the kernel-source package unless you plan to recompile the kernel yourself or plan to perform kernel development. The kernel-doc package contains kernel development documentation and is not required. The kernel-util package includes utilities
that can be used to control the kernel or the system’s hardware and is not required.
Red Hat builts kernels that are optimized for different x86 versions. The options are athlon
for AMD Athlon™ and AMD Duron™ systems, i686 for Intel® Pentium® II, Intel® Pentium® III, and Intel® Pentium® 4 systems, and i586 for Intel® Pentium® and AMD K6™
systems. If you do not know the version of your x86 system, use the kernel built for the i386
version; it is built for all x86-based systems.
The x86 version of the RPM package is included in the file name. For example, kernel2.4.18-0.12.athlon.rpm is optimized for AMD Athlon™ and AMD Duron™ systems and
kernel-2.4.18-0.12.i686.rpm is optimized for Intel® Pentium® II, Intel® Pentium® III,
and Intel® Pentium® 4 systems. When you have determined which packages you need
to upgrade your kernel, select the proper architecture for the kernel, kernel-smp, and
kernel-bigmem packages. Use the i386 versions of the other packages.
Chapter 23. Ugrading the Kernel
207
23.3. Downloading the Upgraded Kernel
There are several ways to determine if there is an updated kernel available for your system.
•
Go to http://www.redhat.com/apps/support/errata/, choose the version of Red Hat
Linux you are using, and view the errata for it. Kernel errata are usually under the
Security Advisories section. From the list of errata, click the kernel errata to view
the detailed errata report for it. In the errata report, there is a list of required RPM
packages and a link to download them from the Red Hat FTP site. You can also
download them from a Red Hat FTP mirror site. A list of mirror sites is available at
http://www.redhat.com/download/mirror.html.
•
Use Red Hat Network. You can use Red Hat Network to download the kernel RPM packages and then manually upgrade to the latest kernel. Or, if you have elected to let the Red
Hat Update Agent upgrade packages for you, Red Hat Network can download the lastest
kernel, upgrade the kernel on your system, create an initial RAM disk if needed, and configure the boot loader to boot the new kernel. All you have to do is reboot into the new
kernel. For more information, refer to the Red Hat Network User Reference Guide available
at http://www.redhat.com/docs/manuals/RHNetwork/.
If there is an updated kernel for the version of Red Hat Linux you are running, download the
appropriate packages using one of these methods. If you used Red Hat Network to upgrade
your kernel automatically, you are finished — just reboot your system to use the new kernel.
If you just downloaded the RPM packages from the Red Hat Linux errata page or from Red
Hat Network, proceed to Section 23.4.
23.4. Performing the Upgrade
Now that you have the necessary kernel RPM packages, you can upgrade your existing kernel. At a shell prompt as root, change to the directory that contains the kernel RPM packages
and follow these steps.
You probably want to keep the older kernel in case you have problems with the new kernel.
Use the -i argument instead of -U to install the kernel package (the kernel version and x86
version might vary):
rpm -ivh kernel-2.4.18-0.12.i386.rpm
If the system is a multi-processor system, install the kernel-smp packages as well (the kernel
version and x86 version might vary):
rpm -ivh kernel-smp-2.4.18-0.12.i386.rpm
If the system is i686-based and contains more than 4 gigabytes of RAM, install the kernelbigmem package built for the i686 architecture as well (the kernel version might vary):
rpm -ivh kernel-bigmem-2.4.18-0.12.i686.rpm
If you plan to upgrade the kernel-source, kernel-docs, or kernel-utils packages, you
probably do not need to keep the older versions. Use the following commands to upgrade
these packages (the versions might vary):
rpm -Uvh kernel-source-2.4.18-0.12.i386.rpm
rpm -Uvh kernel-docs-2.4.18-0.12.i386.rpm
rpm -Uvh kernel-utils-2.4.18-0.12.i386.rpm
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Chapter 23. Ugrading the Kernel
If you are using PCMCIA (for example, a laptop), you also need to install the kernelpcmcia-cs and keep the old version. If you use the -i switch, it will probably return a
conflict because the older kernel needs this package to boot with PCMCIA support. To work
around this, use the --force switch as follows (the version might vary):
rpm -ivh --force kernel-pcmcia-cs-3.1.24-2.i386.rpm
If you are using the ext3 file system or a SCSI controller, you need an initial RAM disk. The
purpose of the initial RAM disk is to allow a modular kernel to have access to modules that
it might need to boot from before the kernel has access to the device where the modules
normally reside.
The initial RAM disk is created by using the mkinitrd command. However, the Red Hat
kernel RPM package performs this step for you. To verify that it was created, use the command ls -l /boot. You should see the file initrd-2.4.18-0.12.img (the version should
match the version of the kernel you just installed).
Now that you have installed the new kernel, you need to configure the boot loader to boot
the new kernel. Refer to Section 23.5 for details.
23.5. Configuring the Boot Loader
The kernel RPM package configures the GRUB or LILO boot loader to boot the newly installed kernel if either boot loader is installed. However, it is always a good idea to confirm
that the boot loader has been configured to boot the new kernel. This is a crucial step. If the
boot loader is configured incorrectly, you will not be able to boot your system. If this happens, boot your system with the boot diskette you created earlier and try configuring the
boot loader again.
23.5.1. GRUB
If you selected GRUB as your boot loader, confirm that the file /boot/grub/grub.conf contains a title section with the same version as the kernel package you just installed (if you
installed the kernel-smp and/or kernel-bigmem, you will have a section for it has well):
# NOTICE: You have a /boot partition. This means that
#
all kernel paths are relative to /boot/
default=0
timeout=30
splashimage=(hd0,0)/grub/splash.xpm.gz
title Red Hat Linux (2.4.18-0.12)
root (hd0,0)
kernel /vmlinuz-2.4.18-0.12 ro root=/dev/hda3
initrd /initrd-2.4.18-0.12.img
If you created a separate /boot partition, the paths to the kernel and initrd image are relative
to the /boot partition.
You can begin testing your new kernel by rebooting your computer and watching the messages to ensure your hardware is detected properly.
23.5.2. LILO
If you selected LILO as your boot loader, confirm that the file /etc/lilo.conf contains an
image section with the same version as the kernel package you just installed:
Chapter 23. Ugrading the Kernel
209
boot=/dev/hda
map=/boot/map
install=/boot/boot.b
prompt
timeout=50
message=/boot/message
linear
default=linux
image=/boot/vmlinuz-2.4.18-0.12
label=linux
initrd=initrd-2.4.18-0.12.img
read-only
root=/dev/hda5
The kernel RPM package activates the changes by running the command /sbin/lilo. It is
a good idea to run it again, otherwise, the system will not boot the new kernel. After running
it, you will see output similar to the following:
Added linux *
The * after linux means that the section labeled linux is the default kernel that LILO will
boot.
You can begin testing your new kernel by rebooting your computer and watching the messages to ensure your hardware is detected properly.
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Chapter 23. Ugrading the Kernel
Chapter 24.
Kernel Modules
The Linux kernel has a modular design. At boot time, only a minimal resident kernel is
loaded into memory. Thereafter, whenever a user requests a feature that is not present in
the resident kernel, a kernel module is dynamically loaded into memory. After a specified
period of inactivity, the module may be removed from memory.
The mechanism that supports dynamic loading of modules is a kernel thread called kmod.
Modules are not loaded unless they are needed. When the kernel requests a module, the
module is loaded along with all its module dependencies.
Red Hat Linux also includes a cron task that removes all unused modules every ten minutes. The cron task is located in the file /etc/cron.d/kmod. Refer to Section 22.1 for more
information on cron tasks.
When you install Red Hat Linux, the hardware on your system is probed and you provide
information about how the system will be typically used and which programs should be
loaded. Based on this probing and the information you provide, the installation program
decides which modules need to be loaded at boot time. The installation program sets up the
dynamic loading mechanism to work transparently. If you build your own custom kernel,
you can make all of these decisions for yourself.
If you add new hardware after installation and the hardware requires a kernel module, you
need to set up the dynamic loading mechanism. Kudzu usually detects new hardware. You
can also add the new driver by editing the module configuration file, /etc/modules.conf.
For example, if your system included a model SMC EtherPower 10 PCI network adapter at
the time of installation, the module configuration file will contain the following line:
alias eth0 tulip
After installation, if you install a second identical network adapter to your system, add the
following line to /etc/modules.conf:
alias eth1 tulip
See the Official Red Hat Linux Reference Guide for an alphabetical list of kernel modules and
the hardware supported by the modules.
24.1. Kernel Module Utilities
You can also use a group of commands to list, load, or unload kernel modules. These commands are useful if you want to try different modules or see if a module has been loaded
successfully.
The command /sbin/lsmod displays a list of currently loaded modules.
Example 24-1. Example lsmod output
Module
sr_mod
mga
agpgart
nfs
lockd
Size
15264
95984
23392
79008
52464
Used by
0 (autoclean)
1
3
1 (autoclean)
1 (autoclean) [nfs]
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Chapter 24. Kernel Modules
sunrpc
autofs
3c59x
ipchains
ide-scsi
scsi_mod
ide-cd
cdrom
usb-uhci
usbcore
61328
11264
25344
38976
8352
95104
26848
27232
20720
49664
1
4
1
0
0
2
0
0
0
1
(autoclean) [nfs lockd]
(autoclean)
(autoclean)
(unused)
[sr_mod ide-scsi]
[sr_mod ide-cd]
(unused)
[usb-uhci]
As you can see in Example 24-1, lsmod displays the size, use count, and referring modules
for each module currently loaded.
To load a kernel module, you can use the command /sbin/insmod followed by
the kernel module name. By default, insmod tries to load the module from the
/lib/modules/ kernel-version /kernel/drivers
subdirectories. There is a
subdirectory for each type of module, such as the net subdirectory for network interface
drivers. Some kernel modules have module dependencies — other modules must be
loaded first for it to load. To resolve these dependencies, you can either load the module
dependencies and then load the module you want, or you can use the command
/sbin/modprobe followed by the module name to load the module along with its
dependencies.
Z
[
For example, the command
/sbin/modprobe tulip
loads the tulip network interface module.
To unload kernel modules, use the command /sbin/rmmod followed by the module name.
The rmmod utility will only unload modules that are not in use and that are not a dependency
of other modules in use.
For example, the command
/sbin/rmmod tulip
unloads the tulip network interface module.
Another useful kernel module utility is modinfo. You can use the command /sbin/modinfo
to display information about a kernel module. The general syntax is:
/sbin/modinfo [options]
Z
module
[
Options include -d that displays a brief description of the module and -p that lists the parameters the module supports. For a complete list of options, refer to the modinfo man page
(man modinfo).
24.2. Additional Resources
For more information on kernel modules and their utilities, refer to the following resources.
24.2.1. Installed Documentation
• lsmod
man page — description and explanation of its output.
• insmod
man page — description and list of command line options.
Chapter 24. Kernel Modules
• modprobe
• rmmod
213
man page — description and list of command line options.
man page — description and list of command line options.
• modinfo
man page — description and list of command line options.
• /usr/src/linux-2.4/Documentation/kmod.txt
placed kerneld.
— description of kmod and why it re-
• /usr/src/linux-2.4/Documentation/modules.txt
modules.
— how to compile and use kernel
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Chapter 24. Kernel Modules
Package Management
Chapter 25.
Package Management with RPM
The Red Hat Package Manager (RPM) is an open packaging system, available for anyone to
use, which runs on Red Hat Linux as well as other Linux and UNIX systems. Red Hat, Inc.
encourages other vendors to use RPM for their own products. RPM is distributable under
the terms of the GPL.
For the end user, RPM makes system updates easy. Installing, uninstalling, and upgrading
RPM packages can be accomplished with short commands. RPM maintains a database of
installed packages and their files, so you can invoke powerful queries and verifications on
your system. If you prefer a graphical interface, you can use Gnome-RPM to perform many
RPM commands.
During upgrades, RPM handles configuration files carefully, so that you never lose your
customizations — something that you will not accomplish with regular .tar.gz files.
For the developer, RPM allows you to take software source code and package it into source
and binary packages for end users. This process is quite simple and is driven from a single
file and optional patches that you create. This clear delineation of "pristine" sources and your
patches and build instructions eases the maintenance of the package as new versions of the
software are released.
Note
Because RPM makes changes to your system, you must be root in order to install, remove, or upgrade
an RPM package.
25.1. RPM Design Goals
In order to understand how to use RPM, it can be helpful to understand RPM’s design goals:
Upgradability
Using RPM, you can upgrade individual components of your system without completely reinstalling. When you get a new release of an operating system based on RPM
(such as Red Hat Linux), you don’t need to reinstall on your machine (as you do with
operating systems based on other packaging systems). RPM allows intelligent, fullyautomated, in-place upgrades of your system. Configuration files in packages are preserved across upgrades, so you won’t lose your customizations. There are no special
upgrade files need to upgrade a package because the same RPM file is used to install
and upgrade the package on your system.
Powerful Querying
RPM is designed to provide powerful querying options. You can do searches through
your entire database for packages or just for certain files. You can also easily find out
what package a file belongs to and from where the package came. The files an RPM
package contains are in a compressed archive, with a custom binary header containing
useful information about the package and its contents, allowing you to query individual
packages quickly and easily.
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Chapter 25. Package Management with RPM
System Verification
Another powerful feature is the ability to verify packages. If you are worried that you
deleted an important file for some package, simply verify the package. You will be notified of any anomalies. At that point, you can reinstall the package if necessary. Any
configuration files that you modified are preserved during reinstallation.
Pristine Sources
A crucial design goal was to allow the use of "pristine" software sources, as distributed
by the original authors of the software. With RPM, you have the pristine sources along
with any patches that were used, plus complete build instructions. This is an important
advantage for several reasons. For instance, if a new version of a program comes out,
you do not necessarily have to start from scratch to get it to compile. You can look at
the patch to see what you might need to do. All the compiled-in defaults, and all of the
changes that were made to get the software to build properly are easily visible using
this technique.
The goal of keeping sources pristine may only seem important for developers, but it
results in higher quality software for end users, too. We would like to thank the folks
from the BOGUS distribution for originating the pristine source concept.
25.2. Using RPM
RPM has five basic modes of operation (not counting package building): installing,
uninstalling, upgrading, querying, and verifying. This section contains an overview of each
mode. For complete details and options try rpm --help, or turn to Section 25.5 for more
information on RPM.
25.2.1. Finding RPM Packages
Before using an RPM, you must know where to find them. An Internet search will return
many RPM repositories, but if you are looking for RPM packages built by Red Hat, they can
be found at the following locations:
•
The official Red Hat Linux CD-ROMs
•
The Red Hat Errata Page available at http://www.redhat.com/apps/support/errata/
•
A Red Hat FTP Mirror Site available at http://www.redhat.com/download/mirror.html
•
Red Hat Network — See Chapter 27 for more details on Red Hat Network
25.2.2. Installing
RPM packages typically have file names like foo-1.0-1.i386.rpm. The file name includes
the package name (foo), version (1.0), release (1), and architecture (i386). Installing a package is as simple as logging in as root and typing the following command at a shell prompt:
# rpm -ivh foo-1.0-1.i386.rpm
foo
####################################
#
Chapter 25. Package Management with RPM
219
As you can see, RPM prints out the name of the package and then prints a succession of
hash marks as the package is installed as a progress meter.
Note
Although a command like rpm -ivh foo-1.0-1.i386.rpm is commonly used to install an RPM package, you may want to consider using rpm -Uvh foo-1.0-1.i386.rpm instead. The -U option is commonly used for upgrading a package, but it will also install new packages. See Section 25.2.4 for more
information about using the -U RPM option.
Installing packages is designed to be simple, but you may sometimes see errors:
25.2.2.1. Package Already Installed
If the package of the same version is already installed, you will see:
# rpm -ivh foo-1.0-1.i386.rpm
foo
package foo-1.0-1 is already installed
#
If you want to install the package anyway and the same version you are trying to install
is already installed, you can use the --replacepkgs option, which tells RPM to ignore the
error:
# rpm -ivh --replacepkgs foo-1.0-1.i386.rpm
foo
####################################
#
This option is helpful if files installed from the RPM were deleted or if you want the original
configuration files from the RPM to be installed.
25.2.2.2. Conflicting Files
If you attempt to install a package that contains a file which has already been installed by
another package or an earlier version of the same package, you will see:
# rpm -ivh foo-1.0-1.i386.rpm
foo
/usr/bin/foo conflicts with file from bar-1.0-1
#
To make RPM ignore this error, use the --replacefiles option:
# rpm -ivh --replacefiles foo-1.0-1.i386.rpm
foo
####################################
#
25.2.2.3. Unresolved Dependency
RPM packages can "depend" on other packages, which means that they require other packages to be installed in order to run properly. If you try to install a package which has an
unresolved dependency, you will see:
# rpm -ivh foo-1.0-1.i386.rpm
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Chapter 25. Package Management with RPM
failed dependencies:
bar is needed by foo-1.0-1
#
To handle this error you should install the requested packages. If you want to force the
installation anyway (a bad idea since the package probably will not run correctly), use the
--nodeps option.
25.2.3. Uninstalling
Uninstalling a package is just as simple as installing one. Type the following command at a
shell prompt:
# rpm -e foo
#
Note
Notice that we used the package name foo, not the name of the original package file foo-1.01.i386.rpm. To uninstall a package, you will need to replace foo with the actual package name of
the original package.
You can encounter a dependency error when uninstalling a package if another installed
package depends on the one you are trying to remove. For example:
# rpm -e foo
removing these packages would break dependencies:
foo is needed by bar-1.0-1
#
To cause RPM to ignore this error and uninstall the package anyway (which is also a bad idea
since the package that depends on it will probably fail to work properly), use the --nodeps
option.
25.2.4. Upgrading
Upgrading a package is similar to installing one. Type the following command at a shell
prompt:
# rpm -Uvh foo-2.0-1.i386.rpm
foo
####################################
#
What you do not see above is that RPM automatically uninstalled any old versions of the
foo package. In fact, you may want to always use -U to install packages, since it will work
even when there are no previous versions of the package installed.
Since RPM performs intelligent upgrading of packages with configuration files, you may
see a message like the following:
saving /etc/foo.conf as /etc/foo.conf.rpmsave
Chapter 25. Package Management with RPM
221
This message means that your changes to the configuration file may not be "forward compatible" with the new configuration file in the package, so RPM saved your original file, and
installed a new one. You should investigate the differences between the two configuration
files and resolve them as soon as possible, to ensure that your system continues to function
properly.
Upgrading is really a combination of uninstalling and installing, so during an RPM upgrade
you can encounter uninstalling and installing errors, plus one more. If RPM thinks you are
trying to upgrade to a package with an older version number, you will see:
# rpm -Uvh foo-1.0-1.i386.rpm
foo
package foo-2.0-1 (which is newer) is already installed
#
To cause RPM to "upgrade" anyway, use the --oldpackage option:
# rpm -Uvh --oldpackage foo-1.0-1.i386.rpm
foo
####################################
#
25.2.5. Freshening
Freshening a package is similar to upgrading one. Type the following command at a shell
prompt:
# rpm -Fvh foo-1.2-1.i386.rpm
foo
####################################
#
RPM’s freshen option checks the versions of the packages specified on the command line
against the versions of packages that have already been installed on your system. When a
newer version of an already-installed package is processed by RPM’s freshen option, it will
be upgraded to the newer version. However, RPM’s freshen option will not install a package
if no previously-installed package of the same name exists. This differs from RPM’s upgrade
option, as an upgrade will install packages, whether or not an older version of the package
was already installed.
RPM’s freshen option works for single packages or a group of packages. If you have just
downloaded a large number of different packages, and you only want to upgrade those
packages that are already installed on your system, freshening will do the job. If you use
freshening, you will not have to deleting any unwanted packages from the group that you
downloaded before using RPM.
In this case, you can simply issue the following command:
# rpm -Fvh *.rpm
RPM will automatically upgrade only those packages that are already installed.
25.2.6. Querying
Use the rpm -q command to query the database of installed packages. The rpm -q foo command will print the package name, version, and release number of the installed package foo:
# rpm -q foo
foo-2.0-1
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Chapter 25. Package Management with RPM
#
Note
Notice that we used the package name foo. To query a package, you will need to replace foo with
the actual package name.
Instead of specifying the package name, you can use the following options with -q to specify
the package(s) you want to query. These are called Package Specification Options.
• -a
\ ]
queries all currently installed packages.
^
_
file will query the package which owns file . When specifying a file, you must
specify the full path of the file (for example, /usr/bin/ls).
• -f
• -p
\
packagefile
]
queries the package
^
_
packagefile .
There are a number of ways to specify what information to display about queried packages.
The following options are used to select the type of information for which you are searching.
These are called Information Selection Options.
displays package information including name, description, release, size, build date,
install date, vendor, and other miscellaneous information.
• -i
• -l
displays the list of files that the package contains.
• -s
displays the state of all the files in the package.
displays a list of files marked as documentation (man pages, info pages, READMEs,
etc.).
• -d
displays a list of files marked as configuration files. These are the files you change
after installation to adapt the package to your system (for example, sendmail.cf, passwd,
inittab, etc.).
• -c
For the options that display lists of files, you can add -v to the command to display the lists
in a familiar ls -l format.
25.2.7. Verifying
Verifying a package compares information about files installed from a package with the same
information from the original package. Among other things, verifying compares the size,
MD5 sum, permissions, type, owner, and group of each file.
The command rpm -V verifies a package. You can use any of the Package Selection Options
listed for querying to specify the packages you wish to verify. A simple use of verifying is
rpm -V foo, which verifies that all the files in the foo package are as they were when they
were originally installed. For example:
•
To verify a package containing a particular file:
rpm -Vf /bin/vi
•
To verify ALL installed packages:
rpm -Va
Chapter 25. Package Management with RPM
•
223
To verify an installed package against an RPM package file:
rpm -Vp foo-1.0-1.i386.rpm
This command can be useful if you suspect that your RPM databases are corrupt.
If everything verified properly, there will be no output. If there are any discrepancies they
will be displayed. The format of the output is a string of eight characters (a c denotes a
configuration file) and then the file name. Each of the eight characters denotes the result of
a comparison of one attribute of the file to the value of that attribute recorded in the RPM
database. A single . (a period) means the test passed. The following characters denote failure
of certain tests:
• 5
— MD5 checksum
• S
— file size
• L
— symbolic link
• T
— file modification time
• D
— device
• U
— user
• G
— group
• M
— mode (includes permissions and file type)
• ?
— unreadable file
If you see any output, use your best judgment to determine if you should remove or reinstall
the package, or fix the problem in another way.
25.3. Checking a Package’s Signature
If you wish to verify that a package has not been corrupted or tampered with, examine only
the md5sum by typing the following command at a shell prompt (replace coolapp with the
filename of your RPM package):
rpm --checksig --nogpg coolapp-1.1-1.rpm
You will see the message coolapp-1.1-1.rpm: md5 OK. This brief message means that the
file was not corrupted by the download.
On the other hand, how trustworthy is the developer who created the package? If the package is signed with the developer’s GnuPG key, you will know that the developer really is
who they say they are.
An RPM package can be signed using Gnu Privacy Guard (or GnuPG), to help you make
certain your downloaded package is trustworthy.
GnuPG is a tool for secure communication; it is a complete and free replacement for the
encryption technology of PGP, an electronic privacy program. With GnuPG, you can authenticate the validity of documents, and encrypt/decrypt data to and from other recipients.
GnuPG is capable of decrypting and verifying PGP 5.x files, as well.
During the installation of Red Hat Linux, GnuPG is installed by default. That way you can
immediately start using GnuPG to verify any packages that you receive from Red Hat. First,
you will need to import Red Hat’s public key.
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Chapter 25. Package Management with RPM
25.3.1. Importing Keys
When you import a public key, you add that key to your keyring (a file in which public and
secret keys are kept). Then, when you download a document or file from that entity, you can
check the validity of that document against the key you added to your keyring.
To import a key, use the --import option. To demonstrate, download and import Red Hat’s
public key. That way, any time you want to validate a package from Red Hat, you will be
able to check it against the key you retrieved.
You can find Red Hat’s key at http://www.redhat.com/about/contact.html. Using your
browser, download the key by pressing the [Shift] key while you click on the download
link, then click the OK button to save the file (for example redhat2.asc). Then, at the shell
prompt, import the key with the following command:
gpg --import redhat2.asc
The resulting message tells you that the key was processed. To check that the key was added,
type gpg --list-keys. You will see the key you just downloaded from Red Hat, as well as
your own keys.
[newuser@localhost newuser]$ gpg --list-keys
/home/newuser/.gnupg/pubring.gpg
----------------------------------------pub 1024D/DB42A60E 1999-09-23 Red Hat, Inc [email protected]
sub 2048g/961630A2 1999-09-23
`
a
Tip
Sometimes, you will not be able to download a key from a link. Keys are text files, so they can be
moved to your machine in any way a regular text file can be saved. As long as you know the name
and location of the file you saved, you can import it to your keyring.
25.3.2. Verifying Packages
To check the GnuPG signature of an RPM file after importing the builder’s GnuPG key, use
the following command (replace coolapp with the filename of your RPM package):
rpm --checksig coolapp-1.1-1.rpm
If all goes well, you will see the message: md5 gpg OK. That means that the package is not
corrupt.
25.3.3. More about GnuPG
For more information about GnuPG, see Appendix B.
Chapter 25. Package Management with RPM
225
25.4. Impressing Your Friends with RPM
RPM is a useful tool for both managing your system and diagnosing and fixing problems.
The best way to make sense of all of its options is to look at some examples.
•
Perhaps you have deleted some files by accident, but you are not sure what you deleted.
If you want to verify your entire system and see what might be missing, you could try the
following command:
rpm -Va
If some files are missing or appear to have been corrupted, you should probably either
re-install the package or uninstall, then re-install the package.
•
At some point, you might see a file that you do not recognize. To find out which package
owns it, you would enter:
rpm -qf /usr/X11R6/bin/ghostview
The output would look like the following:
gv-3.5.8-10
•
We can combine the above two examples in the following scenario. Say you are having
problems with /usr/bin/paste. You would like to verify the package that owns that program, but you do not know which package owns paste. Simply enter the following command:
rpm -Vf /usr/bin/paste
and the appropriate package will be verified.
•
Do you want to find out more information about a particular program? You can try the
following command to locate the documentation which came with the package that owns
that program:
rpm -qdf /usr/bin/md5sum
The output would be like the following:
/usr/share/doc/textutils-2.0a/NEWS
/usr/share/doc/textutils-2.0a/README
/usr/info/textutils.info.gz
/usr/man/man1/cat.1.gz
/usr/man/man1/cksum.1.gz
/usr/man/man1/comm.1.gz
/usr/man/man1/csplit.1.gz
/usr/man/man1/cut.1.gz
/usr/man/man1/expand.1.gz
/usr/man/man1/fmt.1.gz
/usr/man/man1/fold.1.gz
/usr/man/man1/head.1.gz
/usr/man/man1/join.1.gz
/usr/man/man1/md5sum.1.gz
/usr/man/man1/nl.1.gz
/usr/man/man1/od.1.gz
/usr/man/man1/paste.1.gz
/usr/man/man1/pr.1.gz
/usr/man/man1/ptx.1.gz
/usr/man/man1/sort.1.gz
/usr/man/man1/split.1.gz
/usr/man/man1/sum.1.gz
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/usr/man/man1/tac.1.gz
/usr/man/man1/tail.1.gz
/usr/man/man1/tr.1.gz
/usr/man/man1/tsort.1.gz
/usr/man/man1/unexpand.1.gz
/usr/man/man1/uniq.1.gz
/usr/man/man1/wc.1.gz
•
You may find a new RPM, but you do not know what it does. To find information about
it, use the following command:
rpm -qip sndconfig-0.48-1.i386.rpm
The output would look like the following:
Name
: sndconfig
Relocations: (not relocateable)
Version
: 0.48
Vendor: Red Hat
Release
: 1
Build Date: Mon 10 Jul 2000 02:25:40
Install date: (none)
Build Host: porky.devel.redhat.com
Group
: Applications/Multimedia
Source RPM: sndconfig-0.48-1.src.rpm
Size
: 461734
License: GPL
Packager
: Red Hat
http://bugzilla.redhat.com/bugzilla
Summary
: The Red Hat Linux sound configuration tool.
Description :
Sndconfig is a text based tool which sets up the configuration files
you’ll need to use a sound card with a Red Hat Linux system.
Sndconfig can be used to set the proper sound type for programs which
use the /dev/dsp, /dev/audio and /dev/mixer devices. The sound
settings are saved by the aumix and sysV runlevel scripts.
b
•
c
Perhaps you now want to see what files the sndconfig RPM installs. You would enter the
following:
rpm -qlp sndconfig-0.48-1.i386.rpm
The output will look like the following:
/usr/sbin/pnpprobe
/usr/sbin/sndconfig
/usr/share/locale/cs/LC_MESSAGES/sndconfig.mo
/usr/share/locale/da/LC_MESSAGES/sndconfig.mo
/usr/share/locale/de/LC_MESSAGES/sndconfig.mo
/usr/share/locale/es/LC_MESSAGES/sndconfig.mo
/usr/share/locale/fr/LC_MESSAGES/sndconfig.mo
/usr/share/locale/hu/LC_MESSAGES/sndconfig.mo
/usr/share/locale/id/LC_MESSAGES/sndconfig.mo
/usr/share/locale/is/LC_MESSAGES/sndconfig.mo
/usr/share/locale/it/LC_MESSAGES/sndconfig.mo
/usr/share/locale/ko/LC_MESSAGES/sndconfig.mo
/usr/share/locale/no/LC_MESSAGES/sndconfig.mo
/usr/share/locale/pt/LC_MESSAGES/sndconfig.mo
/usr/share/locale/pt_BR/LC_MESSAGES/sndconfig.mo
/usr/share/locale/ro/LC_MESSAGES/sndconfig.mo
/usr/share/locale/ru/LC_MESSAGES/sndconfig.mo
/usr/share/locale/sk/LC_MESSAGES/sndconfig.mo
/usr/share/locale/sl/LC_MESSAGES/sndconfig.mo
/usr/share/locale/sr/LC_MESSAGES/sndconfig.mo
/usr/share/locale/sv/LC_MESSAGES/sndconfig.mo
/usr/share/locale/tr/LC_MESSAGES/sndconfig.mo
/usr/share/locale/uk/LC_MESSAGES/sndconfig.mo
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227
/usr/share/man/man8/pnpprobe.8.gz
/usr/share/man/man8/sndconfig.8.gz
/usr/share/sndconfig/sample.au
/usr/share/sndconfig/sample.midi
These are just a few examples. As you use it, you will find many more uses for RPM.
25.5. Additional Resources
RPM is an extremely complex utility with many options and methods for querying, installing, upgrading, and removing packages. Refer to the following resources to learn more
about RPM.
25.5.1. Installed Documentation
• rpm --help
— This command displays a quick reference of RPM parameters.
— The RPM man page will give you more detail about RPM parameters than
the rpm --help command.
• man rpm
25.5.2. Useful Websites
•
http://www.rpm.org/ — The RPM website.
•
http://www.redhat.com/mailing-lists/ — The RPM mailing list is archived here. To subscribe, send mail to <[email protected]> with the word subscribe in the
subject line.
25.5.3. Related Books
•
Maximum RPM by Ed Bailey; Red Hat Press — An online version of the book is available
at http://www.rpm.org/ and http://www.redhat.com/docs/books/.
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Chapter 25. Package Management with RPM
Chapter 26.
Gnome-RPM
If you do not want to use the command-line version of RPM, you can use Gnome-RPM, a
graphical interface for Red Hat Package Manager (RPM). To learn more about RPM technology, turn to Chapter 25.
Gnome-RPM (which is also referred to as gnorpm) allows users to easily work with RPM
technology and features a friendly interface. It is "GNOME-compliant," meaning that it
seamlessly integrates into GNOME, a graphical X Window System desktop environment
provided with Red Hat Linux.
Using Gnome-RPM, you can easily accomplish the following tasks:
•
Install RPM packages
•
Uninstall RPM packages
•
Upgrade RPM packages
•
Find new RPM packages
•
Query RPM packages
•
Verify RPM packages
The Gnome-RPM interface provides a menu, a toolbar, a tree, and a window which displays
currently installed packages.
To perform a Gnome-RPM task, you usually find and select packages, then choose the type
of operation to perform using either a button on the toolbar, from the menu or by rightclicking with the mouse.
•
Installing a package places all of the components of that package on your system in the
correct locations.
•
Uninstalling a package removes all components of the package except for configuration
files you have modified.
•
Upgrading a package installs the new version and uninstalls all other versions that were
previously installed.
You can also use the Web find option to search the Internet for newly released packages. You
can direct Gnome-RPM to search for particular distributions when you want to look for new
packages. (If you have a slow connection, this option can take some time to fully execute.)
See Section 26.4 for more information about this feature.
Warning
Be careful when using Web find, since there is no way to verify the integrity of the many packages
which are available at numerous repositories. Before installing packages, you should perform a query
on that package to help you determine whether it can be trusted. Packages not produced by Red Hat
are not supported in any way by Red Hat. Refer to Section 26.5.2 to learn more about verifying
packages.
Using Gnome-RPM to perform all of these and many other operations is the same as using RPM commands from the shell prompt. However, the graphical nature of Gnome-RPM
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Chapter 26. Gnome-RPM
may make these operations easier to perform. Gnome-RPM can display packages in a variety of different ways. Refer to Section 26.3 for more information on using filters to identify
packages.
You can install, upgrade, or uninstall several packages with a few button clicks. Similarly,
you can query and verify more than one package at a time. Since Gnome-RPM is integrated
with GNOME, you can also perform installation, query and verification on packages from
within the GNOME File Manager.
If you want to maintain official Red Hat Linux packages, it is recommended
that you use Red Hat Network or the Red Hat Linux errata page available at
http://www.redhat.com/apps/support/errata/. Packages from Red Hat have been
verified for integrity and are GPG signed by Red Hat so that you can make sure they are the
official packages.
26.1. Starting Gnome-RPM
To start Gnome-RPM, use one of the following methods:
•
On the GNOME desktop, go to Main Menu Button (on the panel) => Programs => System
=> GnoRPM
•
On the KDE desktop, go to Main Menu Button (on the panel) => System => GnoRPM
•
Type gnorpm at a shell prompt.
You will see the main Gnome-RPM window (as shown in Figure 26-1).
Note
If you would like to install, upgrade, or uninstall packages, you must be root. The easiest way to
become root is to type the su command and [Enter] at a shell prompt. Then type the root password.
However, you do not have to be root to query and verify packages.
The Gnome-RPM interface consists of the following:
•
Package Display — on the left; allows you to browse and select packages on your system
•
Display window — to the right of the package panel; shows you contents from folders in
the panel
•
Toolbar — above the display and panel; a graphical display of package tools
•
Menu — above the toolbar; contains text-based commands, as well as help info, preferences and other settings
•
Status bar — beneath the panel and display windows; shows the total number of selected
packages
Chapter 26. Gnome-RPM
231
Figure 26-1. Main Gnome-RPM Window
26.2. The Package Display
Each folder icon in the tree view at left represents a group of packages. Each group can
contain subgroups. For example, the folder Applications contains the folder Editors that
contains text editors such as Emacs, ed, vim, and GXedit.
The tree view can be expanded and collapsed, so you can easily navigate through the packages. A folder which appears with a + next to it indicates that there are subfolders within
that category.
To expand a group into subgroups, click once on the + with your left mouse button. To view
the packages within the subgroup, left-click once on a folder name. The display window will
then show you the contents of that folder. By default, you will be presented with icons that
represent the packages. You can change that view to a list view by selecting Operations =>
Preferences from the pull-down menu, clicking on the Package Listing tab, and selecting
View as list. Refer to Section 26.4 for more information about customizing Gnome-RPM
settings.
26.2.1. Selecting Packages
To select a single package, click on it with the left mouse button. When a package is selected,
its title will be highlighted (as shown in Figure 26-2). To unselect a package, either click on
an empty space in the display panel with the left mouse button, or click on the Unselect
button on the toolbar. When you unselect a package, the highlighting will disappear.
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Chapter 26. Gnome-RPM
Figure 26-2. Selecting Packages in Gnome-RPM
You can select and unselect multiple packages, in more than one folder in the tree panel.
To select more than one package, hold down the [Ctrl] key and left-click on packages; each
selected package will be highlighted.
To select a group of packages within a folder, left-click on one package. Hold down the [Shift]
key and left-click on the final package you wish to select. You will see that all of the packages
between your starting and ending selections will be highlighted for selection.
The status bar at the bottom of Gnome-RPM will display the total number of packages you
have selected.
26.3. Installing New Packages
To install new packages, choose Install from the toolbar. In the Install window, your view
will depend upon what you have selected from the Filter pull-down list on the top of the
window.
Filter can be used to narrow your choices for viewing packages. Available filters include the
following:
•
All packages
•
All but installed packages
•
Only uninstalled packages
•
Only newer packages
•
Uninstalled or newer packages
Chapter 26. Gnome-RPM
233
Figure 26-3. The Install Window
Click on the Add button. By default, if your CD-ROM is mounted with a Red Hat Linux CDROM, Gnome-RPM will search in /mnt/cdrom/RedHat/RPMS for new packages. (You can
change the default path in the Install Window tab of the Operations => Preferences dialog.
See Section 26.4 for more information.)
If no packages are available in the default path, you will see an Add Packages window. You
can select the location of your new package using the standard file dialog window.
If you click on a package, you will see a brief description of the package in the Package Info
panel of the Install window. To perform an installation or a query on the package, select the
check box next to the package, then click on the Install button. You can also query a selected
package. On the Package Info window, you can also perform the installation
To choose an item, double-click on it with your left mouse button, or click on the Add button.
The selected package(s) will be added to the Install window.
In addition to installing the packages from within the Install window, you can install a package after performing a query on the selected package. Click on Query, which will open the
Package Info window. Here, you can find a variety of details about the package you have
selected to install, including the origination of the package, the date it was built, its size and
more.
If the package already exists on your system and you are querying a newer version, the
Package Info window provides an Upgrade button, which will upgrade the package to the
newer version.
You can also drag and drop packages from Nautilus. Within Nautilus, left-click on the selected package. While still holding down the mouse button, drag the file to the Install window and place it within the Name panel.
When dragging files to the Install window from Nautilus, you will notice that the file is
displayed as an icon while it is being dragged toward Gnome-RPM. Once inside the Name
panel, you will see that the package is checked for installation by default, and its information
appears in the Package Info panel to the right.
To install the package, select the Install button. You will see a progress indicator as your
package is being installed.
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26.4. Configuration
Gnome-RPM offers a wide selection of choices for installing and uninstalling packages, documentation and other features. You can customize Gnome-RPM using the Preferences dialog, which you can access from Operations => Preferences on the menu. To make selections
in the Preferences dialog, select the boxes next to the options.
Under the Behaviour tab, you will find a number of options for configuring the way GnomeRPM installs, uninstalls and upgrades packages. The Behaviour tab is divided into five sections: Install Options, Upgrade Options, Other Options, Database Options and Architecture Options. Note that by default these boxes are not selected (see Figure 26-4).
Figure 26-4. Behaviour Tab in Preferences
Under Install Options, you have the following choices:
•
No dependency checks — When selected, this will install or upgrade a package without checking for other files that the program may depend on in order to work. Unless
you know what you are doing, we strongly suggest that you not use this option as some
packages may depend on other packages in order to function correctly.
•
No reordering — This option is useful if RPM is unable to change the installation order
of some packages to satisfy dependencies.
•
Do not run scripts — Pre- and post-install scripts are sequences of commands that are
sometimes included in packages to assist with installation. Selecting this option is similar
to the --noscripts option when installing packages from the shell prompt.
Under Upgrade Options, you can select the following:
•
Allow replacement of packages — Replaces a package with a new copy of the same package. Similar to the --replacepkgs option from the shell prompt. This option can be useful
if an installed package has become damaged or requires repair to function correctly.
•
Allow replacement of files — Allows the replacement of files which are owned by another package. The shell prompt equivalent for this RPM option is --replacefiles. This
Chapter 26. Gnome-RPM
235
option can be useful when two packages include files that are named the same but contain
different contents.
•
Allow upgrade to old version — Like the shell prompt RPM command equivalent -oldpackage, this option allows you to "upgrade" to an earlier package. It can be useful if
the latest version of a package does not function correctly on your system.
•
Keep packages made obsolete — Prevents packages listed in an Obsoletes header from
being removed.
In Other Options, you can select:
•
Do not install documentation — Like --excludedocs, this option can save on disk space
by excluding documentation such as man pages or other information related to the package.
•
Install all files — Installs all files in the package.
The choices available in Database Options and Architecture Options allow you to decide,
among other things, whether you want to perform a "test" installation (which will check
for file conflicts without actually performing an install), or whether you want to exclude
packages for other operating systems or system architectures.
In the Package Listing tab, you will find a choice of displays for your packages: either View
as icons, which will be graphically-based, or View as list, which is not graphical but can
provide more information about the packages.
In Install Window,, you can specify the path where Gnome-RPM can find new RPMs on
your system. Refer to Figure 26-5 for an example of this dialog. If you are using your Red
Hat Linux CD-ROM, this path will probably be
/mnt/cdrom/RedHat/RPMS
If you download new RPMs from the Internet or want to install RPMs via a NFS-mounted
CD-ROM this path will be different for you.
Figure 26-5. Install Window
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Chapter 26. Gnome-RPM
To change this path, type the full path to the RPMs you would like to work with. Choosing
the Apply or OK buttons will save this path, making it the default path for future sessions.
You can also determine the default path by selecting the Browse. . . button, and visually
navigating through the RPMPath window.
After changing the install path and closing the dialog box, you can use the Install button to
view the packages available in the new location.
(If the path for your RPMs does not match the default path in your preferences, you will
be presented with a window for browsing through your filesystem, which will allow you to
select the correct path for your new RPMs.)
Under Package Colours, you will find color coding for packages. The default setting for
older packages is gray; for current packages, the color is green; for newer packages than
those installed, the color is blue. These color values can be customized to suit your needs.
The RPM Directories field contains a list of default locations where Gnome-RPM
will search for packages when the Install window is first opened. For example,
/mnt/cdrom/RedHat/RPMS is listed by default. If you have the Red Hat Linux CD mounted
in this location, Gnome-RPM will search it for RPM packages when you open the Install
window.
In the Network tab, you have the ability to specify proxies for use with HTTP and FTP
transfers, as well as user and password names (see Figure 26-6). Note, however, that the
password will not be stored securely.
In the Cache expire field, you can set the length of time before data from the rpmfind
database is considered to be out of date.
Figure 26-6. Network Settings
In Rpmfind and Distributions, you will find settings and options which correspond to the
Web find feature.
The Rpmfind system allows the user to search the Internet for packages by name, summary,
architecture and more (see Figure 26-7). The user is then given the option of downloading
and installing the most appropriate packages for their system. To learn more about Rpmfind,
go to http://rpmfind.net/.
Chapter 26. Gnome-RPM
237
Caution
Packages not produced by Red Hat are not supported by Red Hat because Red Hat can not verify
the integrity of these packages and how they interact with official Red Hat packages. Use caution
when installing packages downloaded using Rpmfind.
Figure 26-7. The Rpmfind Window
The Metadata server sets the server to be used for searches. The Download dir: entry allows
you to specify where you want the files to be placed.
You can also specify the vendor, distribution name and whether to find sources and/or the
latest files.
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Chapter 26. Gnome-RPM
Figure 26-8. Distribution Settings in Preferences
In Distribution Settings, you can set the options for choosing the most appropriate package out of the selections Rpmfind returns, as well as which mirror you would like to use.
The higher the rating you indicate for your selection (as shown in Figure 26-8), the higher
the priority it will receive; a lower rating (such as "-1") will specify that packages not be
recommended.
26.5. Package Manipulation
26.5.1. Querying Packages
The easiest way to query packages is to use the Query option from the menu at the top.
If you want to query more than one package, make all your selections and then press the
Query button on the menu.
You will see a window like the one shown in Figure 26-9. The more packages you have
queried, the more tabs you will find within the Query box, each tab representing a Query
window for a package.
Chapter 26. Gnome-RPM
239
Figure 26-9. Query Window
The name of the package is centered at the top of the box. Below, the box is divided into two
columns of listed information; below this information, you will see a display area showing
package files.
In the left column in the information list, you will find the size of the file, the machine on
which the file is found, the name of the package distribution and its group.
In the right column, you will find the date that the package was installed on your machine,
the date the package was built, the name of the vendor and the name of the group who
packaged the software. If the package has not been installed on your machine, that space
will simply read, "not installed."
Below the description is a list of the files contained in the package. If a D appears in its related
column to the left of the path, that file is a documentation file and would be a good thing
to read for help on using the application. If a C appears in its respective column, the file is a
configuration file. Under the S column, you can view the state of the package; here, you will
see if any files are missing from the package (this probably means that there is a problem
with the package).
If you are querying a package that is already installed, you will also find two additional
buttons at the bottom of this window: Verify and Uninstall. If you are performing a query
on a package that has not been installed yet, the buttons on the bottom will be labeled Install,
Upgrade and Check Sig.
To close the query window without performing any action, left-click on the X at the top right
of the window bar.
26.5.2. Verifying Packages
Verifying a package checks all of the files in the package to ensure they match the ones
present on your system. The checksum, file size, permissions, and owner attributes are all
checked against the database. This check can be used when you suspect that one of the
program’s files has become corrupted for some reason.
Choosing the packages to verify is like choosing the packages to query. Select the packages
in the display window and use the Verify button on the toolbar or from Packages => Verify
on the menu. A window opens like the one in Figure 26-10.
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Chapter 26. Gnome-RPM
Figure 26-10. Verify Window
As the package is being checked, you will see the progress in the Verify window. If there
are any problems discovered during the verify process, they will be described in the main
display area.
26.5.3. Uninstalling Packages
Uninstalling a package removes the application and associated files from your machine.
When a package is uninstalled, any files it uses that are not needed by other packages on
your system are also removed. Configuration files that have been modified are copied to
filename .rpmsave so you can reuse them later.
d
e
Note
You must be root to uninstall packages.
If uninstalling a package would break "dependencies" (which could interfere with the operation of applications that require one or more of the removed files in the package), a dialog
will pop up, asking you to confirm the deletion.
You can uninstall a selected package in a variety of ways: from the menu, under Packages;
from the toolbar and from the Query function. If you decide to remove more than one package at a time, you can choose more than one package in the same way as you would when
installing, querying or verifying. The total number of selections will be displayed in the status bar on the bottom of the main window.
Figure 26-11. Uninstall Window
Chapter 26. Gnome-RPM
241
Once you have begun to uninstall packages, Gnome-RPM asks for confirmation, showing
a window like the one in Figure 26-11. All of the packages that are about to be uninstalled
are listed. You should carefully check the list to make sure that you are not about to remove
something you want to keep. Clicking the Yes button will start the uninstallation process.
After it is completed, the packages and groups that have been removed will disappear from
any open windows.
26.5.3.1. Upgrading Packages
When a new version of a package is released, it is easy to install it on your system. Select
the package from the window of available packages in the same way you select packages for
installation. You can begin the upgrade process in two ways: either the Upgrade button on
the toolbar or using Operations => Upgrade on the menu. You simply Add packages in the
same manner as you would during a new package installation.
During the upgrade, you will see a progress indicator like the one shown when you are
installing packages. When it is finished, any old versions of the packages will be removed,
unless you specify otherwise (refer to Section 26.4 for more information).
In most cases, you should upgrade packages rather than uninstall the old versions of a package and then install the new ones. If you use upgrade, any changes you made to package
configuration files are preserved properly. If you uninstall an old version of a package and
then install a new package, your changes could be lost.
If you run out of disk space during an installation, the install will fail. However, the package
which was being installed when the error occurred may leave some files around. To clean
up after this error, reinstall the package after you have made more disk space available.
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Chapter 26. Gnome-RPM
Chapter 27.
Red Hat Network
Red Hat Network is an Internet solution for managing a Red Hat Linux system or a network
of Red Hat Linux systems. All Security Alerts, Bug Fix Alerts, and Enhancement Alerts (collective known as Errata Alerts) can be downloaded directly from Red Hat using the Red
Hat Update Agent standalone application or through the RHN Web interface available at
http://rhn.redhat.com/.
Red Hat Network saves Red Hat Linux users time because they receive email when updated
packages are released. Users do not have to search the Web for updated packages or security
alerts. By default, Red Hat Network installs the packages as well. Users do not have to learn
how to use RPM or worry about resolving software package dependencies. RHN does it all.
Each Red Hat Network account comes with:
•
Errata Alerts — learn when Security Alerts, Bug Fix Alerts, and Enhancement Alerts are
issued for all the systems in your network through the Basic interface
•
Automatic email notifications — receive an email notification when an Errata Alert is issued for your system
•
Scheduled Errata Updates — schedule delivery of Errata Updates with optional automatic
installation
•
Package installation — Schedule package installation on one or more systems with the
click of a button
•
Red Hat Update Agent — use the Red Hat Update Agent to download the latest software
packages for your system with optional package installation
•
Access to the Red Hat Network website to manage multiple systems, downloaded individual packages, and schedule actions such as Errata Updates.
To start using Red Hat Network, follow these three basic steps:
1. Create a System Profile by running the Red Hat Network Registration Client
(rhn_register) on the system that you want to register.
2. Log in to RHN at http://rhn.redhat.com/ and entitle the system to a service offering.
Everyone receives a free Red Hat Network account for one system. Additional accounts
can be purchased.
3. Start scheduling updates through the RHN website or download and install Errata
Updates with the Red Hat Update Agent.
For more detailed instructions, read the Red Hat Network User Reference Guide available at
http://www.redhat.com/docs/manuals/RHNetwork/.
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Chapter 27. Red Hat Network
Appendixes
Appendix A.
Building a Custom Kernel
Many people new to Linux often ask, "Why should I build my own kernel?" Given the advances that have been made in the use of kernel modules, the most accurate response to
that question is, "Unless you already know why you need to build your own kernel, you
probably do not need to."
In the past, you had to recompile the kernel if you added new hardware on your system.
In other words, the kernel was static. Improvements in the Linux 2.0.x kernels allowed for
many hardware drivers to be modularized into components that are loaded on demand. However, major problems existed when users had multiple kernels that had been compiled for
different configuration options on their system; for example, SMP versus UP kernels. Further Linux 2.4.x kernel modularization advancements allow for multiple kernels to co-exist
more easily, but they can not share modules.
For information on handling kernel modules see Chapter 24. Unless you are recompiling a
customized kernel for your system, you will not see many changes in how kernel modules
are handled.
A.1. Building a Modularized Kernel
The instructions in this section apply to building a modularized kernel. If you are interested
in building a monolithic kernel instead, see Section A.4 for an explanation of the different
aspects of building and installing a monolithic kernel.
The following steps will guide you through building a custom kernel for the x86 architecture:
Note
This example uses 2.4.18-0.12 as the kernel version. Your kernel version might differ. To determine
your kernel version, type the command uname -r. Replace 2.4.18-0.12 with your kernel version.
1. The most important step is to make sure that you have a working emergency boot disk
in case you make a mistake. If you did not make a boot disk during the installation,
use the mkbootdisk command to make one now. The standard command is similar to
mkbootdisk --device /dev/fd0 2.4.x (where 2.4.x is the full version of your kernel such as 2.4.18-0.12). Once done, test the boot disk to make sure that it will boot the
system.
2. You must have both the kernel-headers and kernel-source packages installed. Issue the commands rpm -q kernel-headers and rpm -q kernel-source to determine their versions, if they are installed. If they are not installed, install them from
the Red Hat Linux CD #1 or the Red Hat FTP site available at ftp://ftp.redhat.com (a
list of mirrors is available at http://www.redhat.com/mirrors.html). Refer to Chapter
25 for information on installing RPM packages.
3. Open a shell prompt and change to the directory /usr/src/linux-2.4. All commands
from this point forward must be executed from this directory.
4. It is important that you begin a kernel build with the source tree in a known condition.
Therefore, it is recommended that you begin with the command make mrproper. This
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Appendix A. Building a Custom Kernel
will remove any configuration files along with the remains of any previous builds that
may be scattered around the source tree. If you already have an existing configuration
file that works (/usr/src/linux-2.4/.config) that you want to use, back it up to a
different directory before running this command and copy it back afterward. If you use
an existing configuration file, skip the next step.
5. Now you must create a configuration file that will determine which components to
include in your new kernel.
If you are running the X Window System, the recommended method is to use the
command make xconfig. Components are listed in different levels of menus and are
selected using a mouse. You can select Y (yes), N (no), or M (module). After choosing your components, click the Save and Exit button to create the configuration file
/usr/src/linux-2.4/.config and exit the Linux Kernel Configuration program.
If you want to use the settings of a default Red Hat Linux kernel, copy the
the configuration file from the /usr/src/linux-2.4/configs directory to
/usr/src/linux-2.4/.config. Then, run the make xconfig command and only
make the desired changes. Be sure to save your changes to the configuration file.
Other available methods for kernel configuration are listed below:
— An interactive text program. Components are presented in a linear
format and you answer them one at a time. This method does not require the X Window System and does not allow you to change your answers to previous questions.
• make config
— A text mode, menu driven program. Components are presented in a menu of categories; you select the desired components in the same manner used in the text mode Red Hat Linux installation program. Toggle the tag corresponding to the item you want included: [*] (built-in), [ ] (exclude), M (module),
(module capable). This method does not require the X Window System.
or
• make menuconfig
fhg
f g
— This is a non-interactive script that will set up your configuration file to contain the default settings. If you are using the default Red Hat Linux
kernel, it will create a configuration file for the kernel that shipped with Red Hat
Linux for your architecture. This is useful for setting up your kernel to known working defaults and then turning off features that you do not want.
• make oldconfig
Note
To use kmod (see Chapter 24 for details) and kernel modules you must answer Yes to kmod
support and module version (CONFIG_MODVERSIONS) support during the configuration.
6. After creating a /usr/src/linux-2.4/.config file, use the command make dep to set
up all the dependencies correctly.
7. Use the command make clean to prepare the source tree for the build.
8. Edit /usr/src/linux-2.4/Makefile so that you do not overwrite your existing
kernel. The method described here is the easiest to recover from in the event of
a mishap. If you are interested in other possibilities, details can be found at
http://www.redhat.com/mirrors/LDP/HOWTO/Kernel-HOWTO.html or in the
Makefile in /usr/src/linux-2.4 on your Linux system.
Edit /usr/src/linux-2.4/Makefile and modify the line beginning with EXTRAVERSION = to match a "unique" name by appending the date to the end of the string. For
example, if you are compiling kernel version 2.4.18-0.12 you can append the flag to
Appendix A. Building a Custom Kernel
249
look similar to EXTRAVERSION = -0.1.21-jul2001). This will allow you to have the
old working kernel and the new kernel, version 2.4.18-0.12-jul2001, on your system at
the same time.
9. Build the kernel with make bzImage.
10. Build any modules you configured with make modules.
11. Use the command make modules_install to install the kernel modules (even if you
did not build any). Make sure that you type the underscore (_). This will install the kernel modules into the directory path /lib/modules/KERNELVERSION /kernel/drivers
(where KERNELVERSION is the version specified in the Makefile). In the example it
would be /lib/modules/2.4.18-0.12-jul2001/kernel/drivers/.
12. If you have a SCSI adapter and you made your SCSI driver modular, build a new
initrd image Also, if you build your kernel with ext3 support as a module (the default
in Red Hat Linux), you must create an initrd image. Refer to Section A.2 for details.
13. Use make install to copy your new kernel and its associated files to the proper directories.
14. The kernel is built and installed now. The next step is configuring the boot loader to
boot the new kernel. Refer to Section A.3 for more information.
A.2. Making an initrd Image
An initrd image is needed for loading your SCSI module at boot time or if you are compiling the kernel with ext3 support as a module. If you do not need an initrd image, do not
make one and do not edit lilo.conf or grub.conf to include this image.
Use the /sbin/mkinitrd shell script to build an initrd image for your machine. To use this
command, the loopback block device must be available.
To build the new initrd image, run /sbin/mkinitrd with parameters such as this:
/sbin/mkinitrd /boot/initrd-2.4.18-0.12-jul2001.img 2.4.18-0.12-jul2001
In the above example, /boot/initrd-2.4.18-0.12-jul2001.img is the file name of
the new initrd image. 2.4.18-0.12-jul2001 is the kernel whose modules (from
/lib/modules) should be used in the initrd image. This is not necessarily the same as the
version number of the currently running kernel.
A.3. Configuring the Boot Loader
Now that you have recompiled your kernel, you must configure the boot loader to boot
the new kernel. This is a crucial step. If you do not perform this step or if you perform it
incorrectly, you will not be able to boot your system. If this happens, boot your system with
the boot diskette you created earlier and try configuring the boot loader again. If your boot
diskette does not work, refer to Chapter 3 for more information about rescue mode.
In order to provide a redundant boot source to protect from a possible error in a new kernel, you should keep the original kernel available. During the installation of Red Hat Linux
7.3, you had the option to choose either GRUB or LILO as your boot loader. Refer to the
appropriate section that follows.
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Appendix A. Building a Custom Kernel
A.3.1. GRUB
If you selected GRUB as your boot loader, modify /boot/grub/grub.conf. The default
GRUB configuration file looks similar to the following:
# NOTICE: You have a /boot partition. This means that
#
all kernel paths are relative to /boot/
default=0
timeout=30
splashimage=(hd0,0)/grub/splash.xpm.gz
title Red Hat Linux (2.4.18-0.12)
root (hd0,0)
kernel /vmlinuz-2.4.18-0.12 ro root=/dev/hda3
initrd /initrd-2.4.18-0.12.img
If you created a separate /boot partition, the paths to the kernel and initrd image are
relative to the /boot partition.
To add your new kernel to GRUB, copy the existing title section to a new one and modify it
to boot your new kernel image (and initrd image if you have any SCSI devices and have
created an initrd image). Be sure the title of the new section is different from the title of
the section to boot the old kernel. By default, Red Hat Linux uses Red Hat Linux and the
kernel version in parentheses to differentiate between different kernels for GRUB to boot. In
our example, the new /boot/grub/grub.conf file would look like the following:
# NOTICE: You have a /boot partition. This means that
#
all kernel paths are relative to /boot/
default=0
timeout=30
splashimage=(hd0,0)/grub/splash.xpm.gz
title Red Hat Linux (2.4.18-0.12-jul2001)
root (hd0,0)
kernel /vmlinuz-2.4.18-0.12-jul2001 ro root=/dev/hda3
initrd /initrd-2.4.18-0.12-jul2001.img
title Red Hat Linux (2.4.18-0.12)
root (hd0,0)
kernel /vmlinuz-2.4.18-0.12 ro root=/dev/hda3
initrd /initrd-2.4.18-0.12.img
The default boot entry is set to number 0. To make your new kernel the default, either place
its section first or change the default entry number to the appropriate number (remember
that it starts counting with 0). For GRUB, you do not need to run any commands after modifying the configuration file.
From now on, when the system boots you will see the following GRUB boot options:
Red Hat Linux (2.4.18-0.12-jul2001)
Red Hat Linux (2.4.18-0.12)
To boot the default kernel, press [Enter] or wait for it to time out. If you want to boot the old
kernel, select it and press [Enter].
You can begin testing your new kernel by rebooting your computer and watching the messages to ensure that your hardware is detected properly.
Appendix A. Building a Custom Kernel
251
A.3.2. LILO
To configure LILO to boot the new kernel, you need to update the /etc/lilo.conf file and
run the command /sbin/lilo -v.
The default /etc/lilo.conf file looks similar to the following:
boot=/dev/hda
map=/boot/map
install=/boot/boot.b
prompt
timeout=50
message=/boot/message
linear
default=linux
image=/boot/vmlinuz-2.4.18-0.12
label=linux
initrd=initrd-2.4.18-0.12.img
read-only
root=/dev/hda5
To add your new kernel to LILO, copy the existing image section to a new one and modify
it to boot your new kernel image (and initrd image if you have any SCSI devices and have
created an initrd image). Also, rename the label of the old kernel to something such as
linux-old. Your /etc/lilo.conf should look similar to the following:
boot=/dev/hda
map=/boot/map
install=/boot/boot.b
prompt
timeout=50
message=/boot/message
linear
default=linux
image=/boot/vmlinuz-2.4.18-0.12-jul2001
label=linux
initrd=initrd-2.4.18-0.12-jul2001.img
read-only
root=/dev/hda5
image=/boot/vmlinuz-2.4.18-0.12
label=linux-old
initrd=initrd-2.4.18-0.12.img
read-only
root=/dev/hda5
To activate your changes, run the command /sbin/lilo -v. If all goes well, you will see
output similar to the following:
LILO version 21.4-4, Copyright (C) 1992-1998 Werner Almesberger
’lba32’ extensions Copyright (C) 1999,2000 John Coffman
Reading boot sector from /dev/hda
Merging with /boot/boot.b
Mapping message file /boot/message
Boot image: /boot/vmlinuz-2.4.18-0.12
Added linux *
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Appendix A. Building a Custom Kernel
Boot image: /boot/vmlinuz-2.4.18-0.12-jul2001
Added linux-old
Writing boot sector.
Be sure the messages contains Writing boot sector. The * after linux means that the section labeled linux is the default kernel that LILO will boot.
From now on, when the system boots you will see linux and linux-old as LILO boot options.
To boot the new kernel (linux) simply press [Enter], or wait for LILO to time out. If you
want to boot the old kernel (linux-old), select linux-old and press [Enter].
You can begin testing your new kernel by rebooting your computer and watching the messages to ensure your hardware is detected properly.
A.4. Building a Monolithic Kernel
To build a monolithic kernel, follow the same steps as building a modularized kernel, with
a few exceptions.
•
When configuring the kernel, do not compile anything as a module. In other words, only
answer Yes or No to the questions. Also, you should answer No to kmod support and
module version (CONFIG_MODVERSIONS) support.
•
Omit the following steps:
make modules
make modules_install
•
Edit lilo.conf to include the line append=nomodules or append the kernel line in
grub.conf with nomodules.
A.5. Additional Resources
For more information on the Linux kernel refer to these resources.
A.5.1. Installed Documentation
• /usr/src/linux-2.4/Documentation —
Advanced documentation on the Linux kernel
and its modules. These documents are written for people interested in contributing to the
kernel source code and understanding how the kernel works.
A.5.2. Useful Websites
•
http://www.redhat.com/mirrors/LDP/HOWTO/Kernel-HOWTO.html — The Linux
Kernel HOWTO from the Linux Documentation Project
•
http://www.kernel.org/pub/linux/docs/lkml/ — The linux-kernel mailing list.
Appendix B.
Getting Started with Gnu Privacy Guard
B.1. An Introduction to GnuPG
Have you ever wondered if your email can be read during its transmission from you to other
people, or from other people to you? Unfortunately, complete strangers could conceivably
intercept or even tamper with your email.
In traditional (also known as "snail") mail, letters are usually sealed within envelopes,
stamped and delivered from post office branch to branch until they reach their destination.
But sending mail through the Internet is much less secure; email is usually transmitted as
unencrypted text from server to server. No special steps are taken to protect your
correspondence from being seen or tampered with by other people.
To help you protect your privacy, Red Hat Linux 7.3 includes GnuPG, the GNU Privacy
Guard, which is installed by default during a typical Red Hat Linux installation. It is also
referred to as GPG.
GnuPG is a tool for secure communication; it is a complete and free replacement for the
encryption technology of PGP (Pretty Good Privacy, a widely popular encryption application). Using GnuPG, you can encrypt your data and correspondence, and authenticate your
correspondence by digitally signing your work. GnuPG is also capable of decrypting and
verifying PGP 5.x.
Because GnuPG is compatible with other encryption standards, your secure correspondence
will probably be compatible with email applications on other operating systems, such as
Windows and Macintosh.
GnuPG uses public key cryptography to provide users with a secure exchange of data. In a
public key cryptography scheme, you generate two keys: a public key and a private key.
You exchange your public key with correspondents or with a keyserver; you should never
reveal your private key.
Encryption depends upon the use of keys. In conventional or symmetric cryptography, both
ends of the transaction have the same key, which they use to decode each other’s transmissions. In public key cryptography, two keys co-exist: a public key and a private key. A person
or an organization keeps their private key a secret, and publishes their public key. Data encoded with the public key can only be decoded with the private key; data encoded with the
private key can only be decoded with the public key.
Important
Remember that your public key can be given to anyone with whom you want to communicate securely,
but you must never give away your private key.
For the most part, cryptography is beyond the scope of this publication; volumes have been
written about the subject. In this chapter, however, we hope you will gain enough understanding about GnuPG to begin using cryptography in your own correspondence. For more
information about GnuPG, including an online users guide, visit http://www.gnupg.org/.
If you want to learn more about GnuPG, PGP and encryption technology, see Section B.7.
254
Appendix B. Getting Started with Gnu Privacy Guard
B.2. Generating a Keypair
To begin using GnuPG, you must first generate a new keypair: a public key and a private
key.
To generate a keypair, at a shell prompt, type the following command:
gpg --gen-key
Since you work with your user account most frequently, you should perform this action
while logged in to your user account (and not as root).
You will see an introductory screen, with key options, including one recommended option
(the default), similar to the following:
gpg (GnuPG) 1.0.1; Copyright (C) 1999 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
This program comes with ABSOLUTELY NO WARRANTY.
This is free software, and you are welcome to redistribute it
under certain conditions. See the file COPYING for details.
Please select what kind of key you want:
(1) DSA and ElGamal (default)
(2) DSA (sign only)
(4) ElGamal (sign and encrypt)
Your selection?
In fact, most of the screens which require you to choose an option will list the default option,
within parentheses. You can accept the default options simply by pressing [Enter].
In the first screen, you should accept the default option: (1) DSA and ElGamal. This option
will allow you to create a digital signature and encrypt (and decrypt) with two types of
technologies. Type 1 and then press [Enter].
Next, choose the key size, or how long the key should be. Generally, the longer the key, the
more resistant against attacks your messages will be. The default size, 1024 bits, should be
sufficiently strong for most users, so press [Enter].
The next option asks you to specify how long you want your key to be valid. Usually, the
default (0 = key does not expire) is fine. If you do choose an expiration date, remember
that anyone with whom you exchanged your public key will also have to be informed of its
expiration and supplied with a new public key.
Your next task is to provide a user ID, with your name, your email address, and an optional
comment. When you are finished, you will be presented with a summary of the information
you entered.
Once you accept your choices, you will have to enter a passphrase.
Tip
Like your account passwords, a good passphrase is essential for optimal security in GnuPG. For
example, mix your passphrase with uppercase and lowercase letters, use numbers, or punctuation
marks.
Once you enter and verify your passphrase, your keys will be generated. You will see a
message similar to the following:
We need to generate a lot of random bytes. It is a good idea to perform
some other action (type on the keyboard, move the mouse, utilize the
Appendix B. Getting Started with Gnu Privacy Guard
255
disks) during the prime generation; this gives the random number
generator a better chance to gain enough entropy.
+++++.+++++.++++++++....++++++++++..+++++.+++++.+++++++.+++++++
+++.++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++..........................++++
When the activity on the screen ceases, your new keys will be made and placed in the directory .gnupg in your home directory. To list your keys, use the command:
gpg --list-keys
You will see something similar to the following:
/home/newuser/.gnupg/pubring.gpg
----------------------------------------pub 1024D/B7085C8A 2000-04-18 Your Name [email protected]
sub 1024g/E12AF9C4 2000-04-18
i
j
B.3. Generating a Revocation Certificate
Once you have created your keypair, you should create a revocation certificate for your public key. If you forget your passphrase, or if it has been compromised, you can publish this
certificate to inform users that your public key should no longer be used.
Note
When you generate a revocation certificate, you are not revoking the key you just created. Instead,
you’re giving yourself a safe way to revoke your key from public use. Let’s say you create a key, then
you forget your passphrase, switch ISPs (addresses), or suffer a hard drive crash. The revocation
certificate can then be used to disqualify your public key.
Your signature will be valid to others who read your correspondence before your key is revoked, and you will be able to decrypt messages received prior to its revocation. To generate
a revocation certificate, use the --gen-revoke option:
gpg --output revoke.asc --gen-revoke
i
j
[email protected]
Note that if you omit the --output revoke.asc option from the above, your revocation
certificate will be returned to the standard output, which is your monitor screen. While you
can copy and paste the contents of the output into a file of your choice using a text editor,
such as Pico, it is probably easier to send the output to a file in your login directory. That way,
you can keep the certificate for use later, or move it to a floppy disk and store it someplace
safe.
To create a revocation certificate, use the command:
gpg --output revoke.asc --gen-revoke
k
[email protected]
The output will look similar to the following:
sec
1024D/823D25A9 2000-04-26
Your Name
k
[email protected]
Create a revocation certificate for this key? y
k
l
l
You need a passphrase to unlock the secret key for
user: "Your Name
[email protected] "
l
256
Appendix B. Getting Started with Gnu Privacy Guard
1024-bit DSA key, ID 823D25A9, created 2000-04-26
ASCII armored output forced.
Revocation certificate created.
Once your revocation certificate has been created (revoke.asc), it will be located in your
login directory. You should copy the certificate to a floppy diskette and store it in a secure
place. (If you don’t know how to copy a file to a diskette in Red Hat Linux, see the Official
Red Hat Linux Getting Started Guide.)
B.4. Exporting your Public Key
Before you can use public key cryptography, other people must have a copy of your public
key. To send your key to correspondents or to a keyserver, you must export the key.
To export your key, so you can display it on a Web page or paste it in email, type the following command:
gpg --armor --export
m
[email protected]
non
mykey.asc
n
You will not see any output, because not only did you export your public key, you redirected
mykey.asc,
the output to a file called, for example, mykey.asc. (Without the addition of
the key would have been displayed as the standard output on the monitor screen.)
Now, the file mykey.asc can be inserted into email or exported to a keyserver. To see the key,
type less mykey.asc to open the file in a pager (type [q] to quit the pager). It should look
like the following:
-----BEGIN PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK----Version: GnuPG v1.0.1 (GNU/Linux)
Comment: For info see http://www.gnupg.org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=BMEc
-----END PGP PUBLIC KEY BLOCK-----
Appendix B. Getting Started with Gnu Privacy Guard
257
B.4.1. Exporting to a Keyserver
If you are only writing to a few correspondents, you can export your public key and send it
to them personally. If you correspond with many people, however, distribution of your key
can be time consuming. Instead, you can use a keyserver.
Figure B-1. The Home Page of Keyserver.Net
A keyserver is a repository on the Internet which can store and distribute your public key to
anyone who requests it. Many keyservers are available, and most try to remain synchronized
with each other; sending your key to one keyserver is like distributing it to them all. A
correspondent can request your public key from a from a keyserver, import that key to their
keyring, and they are ready for secure correspondence with you.
Tip
Because most keyservers are synchronized, sending your public key to one keyserver is usually as
good as sending it to them all. You can, however, locate different keyservers. One place to begin your
search for keyservers and more information is Keyserver.Net, at http://www.keyserver.net; another
location is Robert’s Crypto & PGP Links: Keyservers, at http://crypto.yashy.com/www/Keyservers/.
You can send your public key from either the shell prompt or from a browser (as in Figure
B-1); of course, you must be online to send or receive keys from a keyserver.
•
From the shell prompt, type the following:
gpg --keyserver search.keyserver.net --send-key [email protected]
258
•
Appendix B. Getting Started with Gnu Privacy Guard
From your browser, go to Keyserver.Net (http://www.keyserver.net) and select the option
to add your own PGP public key.
Your next task is to copy and paste your public key into the appropriate area on the Web
page. If you need instructions on how to do that, use the following:
•
Open your exported public key file (such as mykey.asc, which was created in Section
B.4) with a pager — for example, use the less mykey.asc command.
•
Using your mouse, copy the file by highlighting all the lines from the BEGIN PGP to END
PGP notations (see Figure B-2).
•
Paste the contents of the file mykey.asc into the appropriate area of the page on Keyserver.Net by middle-clicking with your mouse (or left- and right-clicking if you’re using a two-button mouse). Then select the Submit button on the keyserver page. (If you
make a mistake, press the Reset button on the page to clear your pasted key.)
Figure B-2. Copying Your Public Key
Note that if you are submitting your key to another Web-based keyserver, the above transaction will be essentially the same.
That is all you need to do. Regardless of whether you use the shell prompt or the Web, you
will see a message that your key was successfully submitted — either at the shell prompt
or at the keyserver’s website. From now on, users who want to communicate securely with
you can import your public key and add it to their keyring.
Appendix B. Getting Started with Gnu Privacy Guard
259
B.5. Importing a Public Key
The other end of key exchange — importing other people’s public keys to your keyring —
is just as simple as exporting keys. When you import someone’s public key, you can decrypt
their mail and check their digital signature against their public key on your keyring.
One of the easiest ways to import a key is to download the key or save it from a website. To
learn how to import Red Hat’s key, refer to Section 25.3.1.
After downloading a key, use the command gpg --import key.asc to add it to your
keyring.
Another way to save a key is to use a browser’s Save As feature. If you are using a browser
such as Navigator, and you locate a key at a keyserver, you can save the page as a text file
(go to File => Save As). In the drop-down box next to Format for saved document, choose
Text. Then, you can import the key — but remember the name of the file you saved. For
example, if you saved a key as a text file called newkey.txt, to import the file, at a shell
prompt, type the following command:
gpg --import newkey.txt
The output will look similar to the following:
gpg: key F78FFE84: public key imported
gpg: Total number processed: 1
gpg:
imported: 1
To check that the process was successful, use the gpg --list-keys command; you should
see your newly imported key listed on your keyring.
B.6. What Are Digital Signatures?
Digital signatures can be compared to your written signature. Unlike traditional correspondence, in which it might be possible to tamper with your written signature, digital signatures
can not be forged. That is because the signature is created with your unique secret key, and
can be verified by your recipient using your public key.
A digital signature timestamps a document; essentially, that means that the time you signed
the document is part of that signature. So if anyone tries to modify the document, the verification of the signature will fail. Some email applications, such as Exmh or KDE’s KMail,
include the ability to sign documents with GnuPG within the application’s interface.
Two useful types of digital signatures are clearsigned documents and detached signatures. Both
types of signatures incorporate the same security of authenticity, without requiring your
recipient to decrypt your entire message.
In a clearsigned message, your signature appears as a text block within the context of your
letter; a detached signature is sent as a separate file with your correspondence.
B.7. Additional Resources
There is more to encryption technology than can be covered in one slim introduction to
GnuPG. Here are some resources where you can learn more.
260
Appendix B. Getting Started with Gnu Privacy Guard
B.7.1. Installed Documentation
• man gpg
and info gpg — Quick Reference of GnuPG commands and options.
B.7.2. Useful Websites
•
http://www.gnupg.org — The GnuPG website with links to the latest GnuPG releases, a
comprehensive user’s guide, and other cryptography resources.
•
http://hotwired.lycos.com/webmonkey/backend/security/tutorials/tutorial1.html —
Visit the Encryption Tutorial from Webmonkey to learn more about encryption and how to
apply encryption techniques.
•
http://www.eff.org/pub/Privacy — The Electronic Frontier Foundation, "Privacy, Security, Crypto, & Surveillance" Archive.
B.7.3. Related Books
•
The Official PGP User’s Guide by Philip R. Zimmerman; MIT Press
•
PGP: Pretty Good Privacy by Simson Garfinkel; O’Reilly & Associates, Inc.
•
E-Mail Security: How to Keep Your Electronic Messages Private by Bruce Schneier; John Wiley
& Sons
Index
Automated Tasks, 197
Symbols
B
/etc/auto.master, 104
/etc/fstab, 103
/etc/hosts.lpd, ??
/etc/httpd/conf/httpd.conf, 119
/etc/printcap, 179
/etc/printcap.local, 179
/etc/sysconfig/dhcpd, 115
/etc/sysconfig/ipchains, 87, 90
/proc directory, 177
/var/spool/cron, 198
batch, 200
additional resources, 202
BIND configuration, 149
adding a forward master zone, 150
adding a reverse master zone, 152
adding a slave zone, 154
applying changes, 150
default directory, 150
bindconf, 149
boot diskette, 205
booting
emergency mode, 61
rescue mode, 59
single-user mode, 61
A
anacron
additional resources, 202
Apache, 119
(See Also Apache Configuration Tool)
additional resources, 136
related books, 136
securing, 139
Apache Configuration Tool
Directives
(See Apache directives)
error log, 123
Modules, 119
transfer log, 123
Apache directives
DirectoryIndex, 122
ErrorDocument, 122
ErrorLog, 123
Group, 133
HostnameLookups, 124
KeepAlive, 134
KeepAliveTimeout, 134
Listen, 120
LogFormat, 123
LogLevel, 123
MaxClients, 134
MaxKeepAliveRequests, 134
Options, 122
ServerAdmin, 120
ServerName, 120
TimeOut, 134
TransferLog, 123
User, 133
apacheconf, 119
APXS, 138
at, 200
additional resources, 202
autofs, 104
/etc/auto.master, 104
C
CA
(See certificate authorities)
certificate
authorities
choosing, 141
creation of request, 143
installing, 146
moving it after an upgrade, 140
pre-existing, 140
request
creation of, 143
self-signed, 145
test vs. signed vs. self-signed, 141
testing, 146
chkconfig, 95
choosing a CA, 141
CIPE connection
(See network connection)
configuration
console access, 159
Gnome-RPM, 234
NFS, 103
console
making files accessible from, 161
console access
configuring, 159
defining, 160
disabling, 160
disabling all, 160
enabling, 161
conventions
document, x
Cron, 197
additional resources, 202
262
configuration file, 197
example crontabs, 198
user-defined tasks, 198
crontab, 197
CtrlAltDel
shutdown, disabling, 159
F
feedback, xiv
filesystem
NFS
(See NFS)
filesystems, 174
firewall
(See GNOME Lokkit)
D
date configuration, 163
decryption
with GnuPG, 253
devel package, 138
df, 174
DHCP, 111
additional resources, 117
client configuration, 116
command line options, 115
connecting to, 116
dhcpd.conf, 111
dhcpd.leases, 114
dhcrelay, 115
global parameters, 112
group, 112
options, 111
reasons for using, 111
Relay Agent, 115
server configuration, 111
shared-network, 112
starting the server, 114
stopping the server, 114
subnet, 112
dhcpd.conf, 111
dhcpd.leases, 114
dhcrelay, 115
diskcheck, 175
DSA keys, 99
DSOs
loading, 138
du, 174
dual-boot
configuring GRUB, 250
configuring LILO, 251
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
(See DHCP)
E
encryption
with GnuPG, 253
Ethernet connection
(See network configuration)
exporting NFS filesystems, 105
firewall configuration
during installation, 87
floppy group, use of, 162
free, 173
ftp, 97
G
GNOME Lokkit
activating the firewall, 90
basic firewall configuration, 88
configuring common services, 89
DHCP, 89
ipchains service, 90
local hosts, 88
mail relay, 90
gnome-lokkit, 87
(See Also GNOME Lokkit)
Gnome-RPM, 229
configuration, 234
installing packages, 232
package display, 231
package manipulation, 238
querying packages, 238
removing packages with, 240
selecting packages, 231
starting, 230
uninstalling packages with, 240
upgrading packages with, 241
verifying packages, 239
Gnu Privacy Guard, 223
Red Hat key, 224
using, 253
GnuPG
(See Gnu Privacy Guard)
GPG
(See Gnu Privacy Guard)
group configuration
adding groups, 169
filtering list of groups, 167
modify groups for a user, 168
modify users in groups, 170
modifying properties, 170
viewing list of groups, 167
groups
(See group configuration)
floppy, use of, 162
263
H
hardware
viewing, 175
Hardware Browser, 175
Hardware RAID
(See RAID)
hwbrowser, 175
I
information
about your system, 171
initrd, 249
insmod, 212
installation
kickstart
(See kickstart installations)
secure server, 137
Internet connection
(See network configuration)
introduction, ix
ISDN connection
(See network configuration)
K
kernel
building, 247, 252
custom, 247, 252
downloading, 207
initrd image for, 249
large memory support, 206
modular, 247
module loader (kmod), 211
modules, 211
monolithic, 252
multiple processor support, 206
upgrading, 205
kernel modules
listing, 211
loading, 212
unload, 212
kickstart
how the file is found, 40
Kickstart Configurator, 43
kickstart file
%include, 38
auth, 19
authconfig, 19
autostep, 19
bootloader, 21
clearpart, 22
creating, 18
device, 23, 23
deviceprobe, 23
diskette-based, 39
driverdisk, 23
firewall, 23
format of, 18
include contents of another file, 38
install, 24
installation methods, 24
interactive, 26
keyboard, 26
lang, 26
langsupport, 27
lilo, 27
lilocheck, 28
mouse, 28
network, 29
network-based, 39
options, 18
package selection specification, 35
part, 30
partition, 30
post-installation configuration, 37
pre-installation configuration, 37
raid, 32
reboot, 33
rootpw, 33
skipx, 33
text, 34
timezone, 34
upgrade, 34
what it looks like, 18
xconfig, 34
zerombr, 35
kickstart installations, 17
diskette-based, 39
file format, 18
file locations, 39
network-based, 39
starting, 40
kmod, 211
ksconfig
(See Kickstart Configurator)
L
loading kernel modules, 211
lpd, 180
LPRng, 179
lsmod, 211
lspci, 176
264
M
ntsysv, 94
Mail Transport Agent
(See MTA)
Maximum RPM, 227
memory usage, 173
modem connection
(See network configuration)
modprobe, 212
modules.conf, 211
monitoring filesystems, 175
mounting
NFS filesystems, 103
MTA
Red Hat Mail Transport Agent Switcher, 155
setting default, 155
mtools and the floppy group, 162
N
named.conf, 149
neat
(See network configuration)
netcfg
(See network configuration)
network configuration
CIPE connection, 81
activating, 83
Ethernet connection, 74
activating, 75
ISDN connection, 75
activating, 76
managing /etc/hosts, 83
managing DNS Settings, 84
managing hosts, 83
modem connection, 77
activating, 78
overview, 73
token ring connection, 80
activating, 81
wireless connection, 82
xDSL connection, 78
activating, 79
Network File System
(See NFS)
NFS
/etc/fstab, 103
additional resources, 106
autofs
(See autofs)
configuration, 103
exporting, 105
mounting, 103
starting the server, 105
status of the server, 105
stopping the server, 105
O
O’Reilly & Associates, Inc., 106, 136, 260
OpenSSH, 97
/etc/ssh/sshd_config, 97
additional resources, 102
authorization key pairs, 99
client, 97
scp, 98
server, 97
starting and stopping, 97
sftp, 99
ssh, 97
ssh-keygen
DSA, 99
RSA, 100, 100
OpenSSL
additional resources, 102
P
packages
dependencies, 219
determining file ownership with, 225
finding deleted files from, 225
freshening with RPM, 221
installing, 218
with Gnome-RPM, 232
locating documentation for, 225
obtaining list of files, 226
preserving configuration files, 220
querying, 221
querying uninstalled, 226
querying with Gnome-RPM, 238
removing, 220
secure server
choosing for installation, 137
selecting
with Gnome-RPM, 231
tips, 225
uninstalling with Gnome-RPM, 240
upgrading, 220
upgrading with Gnome-RPM, 241
verifying, 222
verifying with Gnome-RPM, 238, 239
pam_smbpass, 108
PCI devices
viewing, 176
port numbers, 147
printconf
(See printer configuration)
printer configuration, 179
cancel print job, 193
265
command line options, 192
creating an alias, 191
CUPS printing system, 193
configuration interface, 195
default printer, 190
delete existing printer, 190
driver options, 192
Assume Unknown Data is Text, 192
Convert Text to Postscript, 192
Effective Filter Locale, 192
Page Size, 192
Prerender Postscript, 192
Send End-of-Transmission (EOT), 192
Send Form-Feed (FF), 192
edit driver, 191
edit existing printer, 190
exporting settings, 192
importing settings, 192
local printer, 181
LPRng, 179
managing print jobs, 193
modifying existing printers, 190
Novell NetWare (NCP) printer, 185
overriding a printer, 190
printing from the command line, 193
remote UNIX printer, 182
rename existing printer, 191
Samba (SMB) printer, 184
save configuration to file, 192
strict RFC1179 compliance, 183
test page, 190
text-based application, 179
viewing print spool, 193
printtool
(See printer configuration)
processes, 171
currently running, 171
ps, 171
R
RAID, 63
configuring software RAID, 67
explanation of, 63
Hardware RAID, 63
level 0, 64
level 1, 64
level 4, 64
level 5, 64
levels, 64
reasons to use, 63
Software RAID, 63
RAM, 173
Red Hat Network, 243
Red Hat Network Administration Tool
(See network configuration)
Red Hat Package Manager
(See RPM)
redhat-config-network
(See network configuration)
redhat-config-users
(See user configuration and group configuration)
redhat-switch-printer, 194
redhat-switchmail, 155
rescue mode, 59
definition of, 59
from CD, diskette, 59
using, 59
utilities available, 61
rmmod, 212
RPM, 217
additional resources, 227
book about, 227
checking package signatures, 223
dependencies, 219
design goals, 217
determining file ownership with, 225
documentation with, 225
file conflicts
resolving, 219
finding deleted files with, 225
freshen, 221
freshening packages, 221
GnuPG, 223
installing, 218
md5sum, 223
preserving configuration files, 220
querying, 221
querying for file list, 226
querying uninstalled packages, 226
tips, 225
uninstalling, 220
upgrading, 220
using, 218
verifying, 222
website, 227
runlevels, 91
266
S
T
Samba, 107
additional resources, 110
configuration, 107
smb.conf, 107
encrypted passwords, 108
pam_smbpass, 108
reasons for using, 107
share
connecting to, 109
connecting to with Nautilus, 109
syncing passwords with passwd, 108
with Windows 2000, 108
with Windows NT 4.0, 108
scp
TCP wrappers, 92
telinit, 92
telnet, 97
testing certificates, 146
time configuration, 163
time zone configuration, 165
timetool, 163
token ring connection
(See OpenSSH)
secure server
accessing, 147
books, 148
connecting to, 147
documentation
installed, 148
explanation of security, 139
finding help with, 148
installing, 137
key
generating, 142
problems during installation, 148
providing a certificate for, 139
URLs for, 147
websites, 148
security, 91
explanation of, 139
Serviceconf, 93
services
controlling access to, 91
sftp
(See OpenSSH)
shutdown
disablingCtrlAltDel , 159
SMB protocol, 107
smb.conf, 107
Software RAID
(See RAID)
ssh
(See network configuration)
top, 171
U
upgrading
from secure server 1.0 or 2.0, 140
packages with Gnome-RPM, 241
URLs
for your secure server, 147
user configuration
adding users, 167
adding users to groups, 169
changing full name, 169
changing home directory, 169
changing login shell, 169
changing password, 169
filtering list of users, 167
locking user accounts, 169
modify groups for a user, 168
modifying users, 168
password expiration, 169
setting user account expiration, 169
viewing list of users, 167
User Manager
(See user configuration)
users
(See user configuration)
V
VeriSign
using existing certificate, 140
(See OpenSSH)
striping
RAID fundamentals, 63
system information
filesystems, 174
monitoring, 175
gathering, 171
hardware, 175
memory usage, 173
processes, 171
W
Windows
file and print sharing, 107
Windows 2000
connecting to shares using Samba, 108
Windows NT 4.0
connecting to shares using Samba, 108
X
xDSL connection
(See network configuration)
xinetd, 92
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